Journal of Historical Research in Marketing

A history of farmers' markets in Canada

Michael Basil

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Michael Basil, (2012),"A history of farmers' markets in Canada", Journal of Historical Research in
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A history of farmers markets in

Canada

A history of
farmers markets

Michael Basil
Faculty of Management, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Canada

387

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Abstract
Purpose Farmers markets are often identified as the roots of marketing enterprise. They are
usually considered as part of a traditional economy. This study seeks to examine how the social and
political context shaped the appearance, growth, decline, and reappearance of farmers markets in
Canada. It aims to demonstrate the continuation and resilience of this industry.
Design/methodology/approach Published research and historical documents of Canadian
farmers markets were used to derive a periodization of events based on events and turning points to
allow an understanding of the factors affecting business success.
Findings This study finds three eras of farmers markets in Canada that were shaped by the social
and political environment. In the first era, between 1800 and 1915, immigrants brought their
conception of farmers markets from Europe to the early settlements of the new world. In the second
era between 1916 and 1970, as people moved west they became more self-sufficient. Life became
modernized and farming became more industrial. People shifted from their reliance on farmers
markets to more general mercantile stores and then to modern supermarkets. In the third era, starting
in the 1970s, farmers markets came into resurgence, largely as a result of a growing interest in the
environment and local foods. They are currently, however, mostly relegated to a niche role in the
modern food supply.
Originality/value This study shows how the success of a particular commercial enterprise, in this
case farmers markets, is shaped by and reacts to larger forces in the business environment.
Keywords Farmers markets, Marketing history, Marketing, Economic history, Canada
Paper type Research paper

Background
One of the foundational questions in classical economics is the extent to which the supply
of goods and services is determined by consumer demand or can be shaped by the
economic, legal, and political superstructure (e.g. Marx, 1977). This is often explained in the
field of marketing as the importance of the underlying business environment (Day, 1992;
Kohli and Jaworksi, 1990; Kotler and Levy, 1969). This study examines how a particular
marketing enterprise, farmers markets, is shaped by the social and political environment.
History of farmers markets
Farmers markets have a long history that is important enough to often be identified as
the basis of the terms markets and marketing (Blackman, 1962; Dixon, 1995; King,
1913). These markets involve farmers bringing food to a central area where it is
purchased by homemakers or servants. The form of the market is sometimes traced to
the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul, Arabic spice markets in Africa, or fruit and vegetable
markets in Europe.
This research was supported by a Seed Grant from the Faculty of Management at the University
of Lethbridge.

Journal of Historical Research in

Marketing
Vol. 4 No. 3, 2012
pp. 387-407
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1755-750X
DOI 10.1108/17557501211252952

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388

For many theorists, farmers markets are simply an outcome of a traditional culture.
They propose that these markets develop rather spontaneously as a region or country
reaches economic maturity. In support of this notion, research has identified common
periods where these types of markets occur in the development of a region or country
(Akram-Lodhi, 2001; Park, 1981; Scott, 1972). These markets have played a critical role
in the evolution of retail systems. One perspective is that farmers markets are a form
of Homespun capitalism that emerges from sufficient production (Craig, 2009). The
role of farmers markets can also be placed in the context of retailing. Shaw (1992,
pp. 4-5) proposes four stages: periodic markets and fairs, craftsmen and retailers, retail
specialization, and large-scale retail institutions. In this framework, farmers markets
would be relegated to the first stage periodic markets.
Our knowledge of farmers markets goes back at least 2,500 years. In Athens, the
ancient agora that dates back to 500 BC served as a central area that included not only
political, cultural, and administrative activity, but also commercial activity including a
food market (Dixon, 1995). In the agora, the fact that political decision making occurred
side by side with the sale of food, suggests they were both integral parts of community
activity.
The idea of the Greek agora was adopted in ancient Rome as the forum. Existing
Italian markets may provide insights into these traditional markets. The Rialto market in
Venice, for example, goes back more than 800 years. The history of the Rialto. . . began
in 1181. . . Located on the eastern bank of the canal, the. . .market was one of the main
centers for trade in the city . . . (Destination360, 2007). This market has been the major
commercial center of the city. In the mornings the place is thronged with locals who get
there to buy fresh vegetables, fish, meat and cheese [in] the numerous shops. Rialto was
the commercial center of Venice for much of its history (Travel Library, 2007).
Despite the suggestion that farmers markets are a part of an earlier era, for many
contemporary European cultures, traditional markets remain an important part of life.
In France, for example, market day remains a significant commercial enterprise. The
market is a location where farmers and small producers bring their crops to sell, often
in the center of town. Smaller towns may host a market day only once a week, but
larger towns and cities they operate more frequently, sometimes even daily. Many of
these markets demonstrate their centrality to consumers by having operated in the
same location for more than a hundred years. If farmers markets reflect an early stage
of economic development, what are they still doing in Europe?
Outside of Europe there are also traditional food markets in Asia typically known
by their local name of wet markets (Goldman et al., 1999). Not only is there a long
history of farmers markets in these countries, the markets are alive and well in at least
two locations Hong Kong (Goldman et al., 1999) and Vietnam (Maruyama and
Trung, 2006). Although people are increasingly purchasing non-perishable items such
as paper, canned, and frozen products at supermarkets, the traditional market is still
strong in these countries, especially for fish, fruits and vegetables (Goldman et al.
1999). Some have attributed the continuation of wet markets to a cultural focus on
freshness and a greater use of domestic help. Contemporary research suggests that
freshness is one of the most difficult barriers for supermarkets to counter (Goldman
et al. 1999; Maruyama and Trung, 2006). Although wet markets often involve more
frequent trips, especially for fish, meat, vegetables and fruit, these markets continue to
flourish in importance for many Asian consumers (Goldman et al. 1999).

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Overall, there is a long history and broad distribution of farmers markets. However,
we are in the midst of a historical shift in their importance. Supermarkets and
hypermarkets are growing phenomenally in most of the world, and food consumption
patterns are also changing. Supermarkets now account for 90 percent of the food market
share in North America, and a 50 percent share of the world (Traill, 2006). Are farmers
markets an artifact of an earlier era or do they adapt to shifting circumstances?
Research question. What is the history and current role of farmers markets in
Canada? This study compares the appearance, growth, decline, and reappearance of
farmers markets to the social and political milieu. It examines the nature and
prevalence of these markets to understand whether these markets have changed in this
shifting social and political environment.
Methods
Economic theories formed a broad framework for this historical analysis. Our
examination of farmers markets allowed us to explore the history, prevalence, and
success of this enterprise relative to the contemporaneous historical developments that
provided their systemic context. This study used a qualitative approach to periodize
and examine the history and role of farmers markets in Canada. The periodization is
based on the deductive approach that considers both the historical events and likely
turning points for the industry (Hollander et al., 2005). This approach required that
previous research on farmers markets was read and digested before moving on to the
data (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This periodization was then used to examine how the
enterprise of farmers markets was affected by the structure of Canadian society and
shaped by the social and political changes that occurred between 1800 and 2011.
Data sources
This examination relied on documents and web sites that addressed the history of
farmers markets in Canada. It began with a review of existing academic writing. Next,
several hundred web sites were examined through searches using the terms history,
farmers markets, and either Canada or the name of a specific province or city.
Sometimes one farmers market web site would suggest other sources and documents.
Hundreds of historical accounts, documents, and photographs were discovered that
reviewed the history of farmers markets, food sources, and trade associations. About
100 were web sites of specific farmers markets, another 100 were from provincial or
trade associations. Although it was hoped that this search would turn up historical
documents, the vast majority of information were accounts of history created for web
sites about the various farmers markets. Despite a reliance on secondary data, the
information was primarily objective, such as opening and expansion dates that were
verified elsewhere, and often included other historical materials such as citations or
photographs. This information was sufficient to derive and verify a timeline on the
opening, expansion, and possible relocation of each farmers market that could then be
placed in its historical context. After the timeline was developed the locations of
markets were mapped (Golder, 2000) both historically and geographically.
This examination of markets was geared toward emergent interpretation (Spiggle,
1994). Specifically, although we began with existing theories and beliefs about the role
of farmers markets in the economic system, we tried to understand factors that shaped
the growth, decline, and eventual resurgence of farmers markets. What factors can

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account for the resilience and adaptation of farmers markets, and what factors can
lead to their revival?
The research involved chronological organization, categorization, abstraction,
comparison and integration of the information on these markets to provide insights
into their operation relative to the historical milieu. Historical events were considered,
related to other events, and put in context to develop tentative insights into these
changes. We also considered the limited writings on the failure of farmers markets
(Stephenson et al., 2006). Overall we found the periodization to be very clear. However,
colleagues helped with refutation arguments around the periodization and forces.
Analysis and presentations were conducted with an eye toward possible falsification of
the periodization (Golder, 2000; Hollander et al., 2005; Spiggle, 1994). The arguments
were also tightened and sharpened through the review process.
Findings
The data demonstrate a substantial history of farmers markets in Canada. Further
examination suggests three distinct eras in the life of Canadian farmers markets a first
era between 1800 and 1915 of establishment and expansion, a second era between 1916
and 1970 of decline as a result of modernization and self-reliance, and finally a third era
beginning in the 1970s of a contemporary renaissance of farmers markets triggered by
peoples environmental concerns and enabled by governmental encouragement. The
events and forces occurring during each of these periods are described below.
Prehistory. The historical and conceptual basis for farmers markets in Canada can be
seen in the story of St John, New Brunswick. In 1785, King George III granted a Royal
Charter establishing St John as the first city in Canada. Reflecting the importance of
marketplaces in that era, the Charter provided for the establishment of a market.
Although some European markets were public and others owned by gentry, the
Canadian markets adopted, perhaps due to available land, the model of public markets.
We do further, for Us, our Heirs and Successors, will ordain and grant that the Mayor of
the said city, for the time being, shall forever hereafter be Clerk of the market of Us . . .
(St Johns Charter, 2011). From these European roots, the public market became the
critical basis for the city, and in this case was publicly owned. Interestingly, St Johns
market was not officially established for another 90 years, until 1876 (St Johns Public
Market, 2011), after a good number of other cities had built public markets. The charter
reveals evidence of the historical and Euro-centric basis for the markets.
Era 1: growth and expansion. The period from 1800 until 1915 was one of
establishment and growth of farmers markets in Canada (see Appendix). Europeans
immigrated to North America, and established public marketplaces similar to the ones
they knew in Europe (Craig, 2009; Mayo, 1993). As early as 1683 as North American
cities including Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, DC reached
sufficient size, they established locations for food markets, often along Market Street
(Lippincott, 1913; Mayo, 1993).
These first markets were the primary means of providing fresh produce, dairy, meat, fish, and
poultry to urban consumers. Public markets were often the only venue for food commerce
within a city because of the control that they afforded officials over conditions of trade. . .
(Sanderson et al., 2005, p. 2).

The social context was critical in the establishment of farmers markets because the
general conception of farmers markets was derived from public European markets, as

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in the case of St John. As evidence, immigration into Canada during this period was
large and primarily from Europe. Between 1901 and 1911, Canadas population
jumped by 43 percent and immigrants came to constitute more than 22 percent of the
population... (Palmer, 1976, p. 492). The period from 1900-1911 or 1915 represents the
period of largest immigration. Importantly, Tangires (2002) has argued that the
nineteenth century was a boom time for farmers markets in North America. These new
world cities adopted the European model where the farmers market was often located
in the center of town. This centrality is seen in Canadian cities where the central
location reflects the importance of farmers markets to early citizens.
Immigrants brought the tradition of farmers markets to their new towns. Most of
the foreign-born population lived in Ontario at the start of the century (Boyd and
Vickers, 2000, p. 3). As a result, the history of farmers markets began to play out in
Ontario. It is said that the cities of Kingston and Guelph were based around the public
market (guelphfarmersmarket.com, 2007). Kingston, Ontario is often identified as the
first farmers market in Ontario. After the towns settlement in 1784, the market was
established in 1801.
Guelph, Ontario was settled in 1827, and with it a market was built (Johnson, 1977).
It is generally believed to be the second farmers market established in Canada. The
importance of the market can be seen in its immediate establishment and centrality in
the original town. As the city spread out from its roots, the markets location remains
central, as can be seen in Figure 1.
Cambridge, Ontario, established in 1830, is purported to have the 3rd oldest
farmers market in Canada (Cambridge Farmers Market, 2010). It is still in operation,
and still in its original location in downtown Cambridge. The Kitchener, Ontario
farmers market, also established in 1830, is also touted as one of the oldest
continuously operating farmers markets in Canada (Kitchener Market Homepage,
2010). The market was established largely by Mennonite farmers (Kitchener Market
Homepage, 2010).
The establishment of the Hamilton, Ontarios farmers market in 1837 mirrored that
of the previous towns. The farmers market was established at the corner of York and
James Streets. By this time farmers markets were important enough that some claim
the land for the site was the subject of considerable speculation by investors and
politicians (Quigley, 1987) and others claim it was finally donated by a wealthy
resident (Robinson, 2007).
The town of Barrie was founded in 1819 but it took several years before the market
was established in 1846. In the 1860s, the establishment of St Catherines market
signaled the end of the period where Canadian towns established central farmers
markets as part of their founding. And by 1878, Horton farmers market marks the last
of the Ontario farmers markets established during this era.
After these markets were established, they often grew, and as they became more
important to the community, were often moved into permanent publicly funded
structures. By 1840 Kingstons market was so busy that a two-story building was
erected. Barries market built structures in 1849, the 1860s, and 1885 (Robinson, 2007,
p. 45). The Guelph market did so well that by 1856 a new building was necessary.
Perhaps in response to Guelphs model, Barries market built a brick building, though
perhaps more stylish than many of its time, demonstrating the new tendency to
construct permanent buildings for these markets.

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Figure 1.
Contemporary map of
Guelph Ontario farmers
market location

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The Kitchener market erected a permanent structure in 1869. But by 1872 it was so
crowded that a new market building was built. Times were also good in Guelph, and
by 1874 a large addition was necessary ( Johnson, 2007). In the 1870s the Guelph
markets expanded from produce and meat to also sell grain, hay, and firewood.
Meanwhile, the Kitchener market was doing so well that a two-storey red brick
building was constructed in 1907.
Down east, New Brunswick established two farmers markets in 1876. The first was
the official establishment of the St John market. Another was started in Fredricton.
This was followed a few years later with the establishment of Monctons farmers
market in 1884.
Out west, Vancouver established their first farmers market in 1892 (Davis, 2007)
and Kamloops in 1914. As a result of Confederation in 1867 and the establishment of
the western frontier, many people, including new immigrants, settled in the west.
Several prairie towns followed the European model of establishing a public market but
this did not always occur immediately after the towns founding. For example, from
1821 to 1870 Fort Edmonton was both a fort and supply center that preceded the town.
The town was established in 1870, a bit distant from the fort, but an Edmonton market
was not established until 1900 and did not move into a building until 1915 (Merrett,
2001). Calgary followed a similar history, in 1875 as a fort, and in 1894 as a city; the
public market was established in 1914 in a brick building downtown (Chavich, 2010).
Canadian markets in the early part of this period, as in the USA, simply consisted of
the provision of space by a city. By the 1840s, however, this often involved the
construction of covered buildings in these market locations (Lippincott, 1913; Mayo,
1993). By 1900 the ownership of public markets often changed from being
publicly-owned spaces to being owned and operated as independent commercial
spaces (Mayo, 1993). A slowdown in immigration, growth, and public ownership
marked the end of the golden age for farmers markets.
Era 2: modernization and self-reliance. In the second era (see Appendix), farmers
markets were buffeted by significant social changes. As a result of westward
expansion and the Great War, Canada found itself in the midst of a major social shift of
self-reliance and industrialization. The roots of this change lie in western expansion
and took hold around the First World War. The establishment of the dominion created
a free-standing nation and asserted the countrys independence of its European
ancestry. This coincided with a major reduction in foreign immigration.
With the outbreak of the First World War, immigration quickly came to a near standstill.
From a record high of over 400,000 in 1913, arrivals dropped sharply to less than 34,000 by
1915 . . . Great Depression and the Second World War severely curtailed arrivals during the
1930s and early 1940s (Boyd and Vickers, 2000, pp. 5-6).

During the nineteenth century, a great migration encouraged people to settle on the
frontier of the prairie provinces out west (Sharp, 1955). The migration included
Canadians from the east and new and recently-arrived immigrants. Fredrick Turner
(1962), commenting on the westward expansion in the USA, claimed this was a
defining event where the country became Americanized and self-reliant. A parallel
can be seen in the establishment of Canada (Sharp, 1955). The arrival of the Great
War also reminded Canadians of its separation from Europe, and ushered in an era of
independence and modernization.

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As people moved out of the central cities of the east to suburbs and as others settled
in the west there was a reduction in the importance of traditional European-style
farmers markets (Mayo, 1993). Many settlements were not large enough to support
these markets. As a result, Canada moved from a largely urban country that relied on
farmers markets in the 1800s, to a country largely of frontier towns and general stores
by the 1900s (Mayo, 1993). General stores tried to cover more needs, consisting of a
combination hardware and food store, often at a major crossroads in smaller towns.
General stores catered to bulk staples such as flour and sugar and non-perishable
canned goods such as flour, pork and molasses that tolerated the long order and
delivery times that were part and parcel of these rural locations (Craig, 2009, p. 118). As
general stores became more popular, the provision of fresh fruits and vegetables was
not part of their equation. Another factor is that many of these prairie immigrants were
farmers, who obviously raised their own crops (Craig, 2009, p. 37). To them a farmers
market was not as necessary as it was to city dwellers in the east.
The importance of self-reliance is reflected in calls for people to plant their own
victory gardens during the First World War and the Second World War (Tucker,
1993, p. 124). The Great Depression also continued the use of gardens to grow food. By
the Second World War, family gardens produced over 40 percent of fresh produce in
the USA (Naimarck, 1982). The University of Arkansas went so far as to recommend a
self-sufficiency farming campaign that included recommendations including keeping
at least one milk cow, at least 30 laying hens, planting a vegetable garden and canning
any excess produce. To help in this effort, the Red Cross distributed over 100,000
four-pound boxes of garden seed to relief recipients (Murray, 1970, p.301). Similar
efforts can be seen in Canada (Bye, 2005). Between the westward expansion, the World
Wars and the Great Depression, people began to grow their own, and this reduced the
demand for farmers markets and freed up Canadian farmers to concentrate on
producing more easily storable and transportable grains for the war effort.
This era was also one of growing industrialization. During the early twentieth
century agriculture shifted from smaller mom-and-pop operations to industrialized
agriculture (Friedmann, 1982). Wartime disruptions of the global wheat market
greatly stimulated production in Argentina, Australia, Canada, and the US
(Eichengreen, 2000, p. 40). Some of these changes may be attributed to
governmental assistance during the Great Depression including the USs New
Deal and the Marshall Plan. As a result of these and other factors, commodities
became the focus of commercial farming, which competed to produce large quantities
for low prices (Burch and Lawrence, 2007; Friedmann, 1982).
Another industrialization factor facing farmers markets came in the form of
governmental regulations on agriculture. As food sales were increasingly decentralized
away from downtown farmers markets, this was harder to inspect. The acts were
argued as an attempt to increase the safety of the food supply. During this period the
USA instituted an Agricultural Marketing Act and created a Federal Farm Board
(Schideler, 1956). Similar attempts occurred in Canada (Farrell, 1949). Although claimed
to help farmers insure a fair return for their product, these acts restricted the independent
sale of many farm products, such as those sold at farmers markets (Veeman, 1997).
Farmers decided to focus on farming and turn the sales over to operations such as wheat
pools. Meanwhile, because they felt that more decisions were being made at the federal
level, many provincial farmers unions were reorganized into a National Farmers Union;

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over time this organization has come to represent family farms. This reflected a growing
factionalization between family and large scale farming.
By the late 1940s, modernization included more cars, better roads, refrigeration,
women employed outside the home, and as a result, our food supply changed. In this
era, as general stores grew larger and neighborhood location became less important,
stores were often combined into discount chain operations. This evolution
culminated in the newest form of food market, the supermarket (Mayo, 1993).
Supermarkets were larger and offered lower prices through large volumes and
self-service (McAusland, 1980). So the trend that began with general stores and
self-service shopping (McAusland, 1980) became the supermarkets of the mid 20th
century (Mayo, 1993). As more women worked outside the home, food became
increasingly a prepackaged commodity created by large commercial food corporations.
Canned goods and frozen foods became a part of everyday life. Pre-processed
convenience foods such as TV dinners became common.
In the 1950s and 1960s, people began moving away from a rural way of life to a more urban
existence, and the importance of the farmers market as a focal point for commerce and
interaction diminished. Improved roads and the availability of high-speed transportation
helped pave the way for the contemporary global economy. Over the past 50 years, the
relationship between food producer and consumer has become quite distant (Sanderson et al.,
2005, p. 3).

One outcome of this industrialization is that supermarkets now accounted for the bulk of
the food market in North America (Traill, 2006). In many ways this is a change from the
traditional to the modern (Goldman et al., 1999). Some of the movement toward
supermarkets was enabled by modernization in the form of the increasing availability of
refrigeration (Traill, 2006). Concurrent with the change from traditional food markets to
supermarkets there was a shift from food shopping as a daily task to a weekly one. This
has also allowed for the increasing employment of women outside the house.
The shift away from traditional markets from 1920 through the 1960s resulted in the
decline of these farmers markets. Supermarkets grew wildly, and very few farmers
markets were established. Two minor exceptions were in Vancouver, where the city
opened a public market in 1930 on the corner of Main and Pender Streets and in 1933
Blackburns Farmers Market opened at the corner of Seymour and Robson Streets (Davis,
2007). For most farmers markets, however, trouble took the form of low attendance and
sales. Kamloops, British Columbias [BC] market claims The market continued through
the years of the First World War and closed in 1919 when interest waned. In some
instances this may have been an outcome of laws regulating the sale of fruits and
vegetables. In other cases it was a result of increasing industrialization which led to
changes in how people lived, economies of production, and lower prices at supermarkets.
Some of the movement away from farmers markets may also reflect an anti-ethnic
sentiment. As a result of the World Wars against Germany, Italy, and Japan, many
North Americans became less tolerant of non-English-speaking minorities. Antipathy
to the foreigner grew and took an ugly turn during the First World War (1914-1918)
when direct state coercion was exercised against Germans, Ukrainians, and other
ethnic groups believed to be potentially subversive or disloyal (Whitaker, 2001, p. 3).
In one case in 1934, to control Chinese farmers, the B.C. Coast Vegetable Marketing
Board began a crackdown. Although this law was struck down in 1937, many white
farmers protested unfair Chinese competition and blocked Vancouver bridges (Davis,

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2007). Although this seemed at first to be an isolated incident, a number of other laws
were passed trying to regulate agriculture sales. These laws were ostensibly to help
farmers ensure a fair return for their product, but ended up restricting independent
sales of farm products, especially those sold at famers markets (Veeman, 1997).
As a result of the factors of westward migration, industrialization, economies of
scale for supermarkets, legal restrictions on farm products, and anti-ethnic feelings,
farmers markets were on the decline. The markets suffered a considerable drop in
attendance. A fight to eliminate the Hamilton market started in 1947 and continued
over the next 18 years, with an eventual compromise reached by constructing a
parking structure with one floor reserved for the weekly farmers market (Robinson,
2007). Another example occurred in Barrie Ontarios market in 1952, when Bill 27
nullified the land grant for the market, and left the market without a permanent home.
As a result of low interest and attendance, Barrie, Ontarios and Edmonton, Albertas
farmers markets were relocated out of permanent locations in the downtown core.
Modernization made it look as if farmers markets were an idea whose era had passed.
Era 3: the renaissance of farmers markets. In the midst of the modernization of the
1960s, several small political forces helped trigger a reaction to supermarkets and their
convenient canned and frozen food. International travel led to the recognition by chefs,
restaurants and foodies of the importance of fresh locally produced products,
perhaps most obvious in the person of Alice Waters of Chez Panisse fame. Novelle
cuisine, whether the French or exported version, relies on fresh, seasonal, and tasty
products and became a rallying cry to a small but important segment of the population
(see Appendix).
A second factor in the resurgence of farmers markets was a growing concern over
chemical pesticides as told in Rachel Carsons (1962) book, Silent Spring. This book is
widely regarded as having reinvigorated the environmental movement. The result was
that concern over pesticide use and residuals became at least partly responsible for the
organic movement (Thompson and Coskuner-Balli, 2007). Many customers were
seeking out fresher foods produced with fewer pesticides.
A related environmental movement, partly based on concern over global warming,
moved us toward locally-produced and potentially more sustainable agriculture and the
desire to reduce globalization and energy use (Bentley and Barker, 2005; Norberg-Hodge,
1998). Another reason for the increasing use of local food and farmers markets was a
rejection of big business and the industrialization of the food supply (Grey, 2000; Kirwan,
2004). Evidence of this backlash against supermarkets occurred in many developed
countries and people were increasingly purchasing locally produced food. The trend has
been observed in Ireland (Moore, 2006), New Zealand (Guthrie et al., 2006), the UK
(Bentley et al., 2003; Jones et al., 2004; Kirwan, 2004) and the USA (Brown, 2001). In these
cases the alternative that was most typically touted was a return to a more traditional
market in the form of farmers markets (Tufts University Health & Nutrition Letter,
2005; Eller, 2002; Halweil, 2002; Newbury and Phelps, 2005; Tudge, 2004).
The movement to farmers markets can be seen arising from three aspects of the
environmental movement the desire for fresher foods, concern over the use of
pesticides (Aguirre, 2007) and a desire for energy savings by shortening the supply
chain (Bentley et al., 2003; Wallgren, 2006). There may have also been the potential of
some cost savings as a result of these efficiencies (Sommer et al., 1980). As a result:

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The 1970s began a renewed interest in farmers markets in North America that continues
today. In Alberta, the number of farmers markets registered with the Department of
Agriculture and Food has grown from 16 in 1974 to 115 in 1998. . . (Sanderson et al., 2005, p. 3).

Traditional farmers markets have also been aided by government regulations. In the
United States, Public Law 49-463, the Farmer-to-Consumer Direct Marketing Act of
1976 supported the expansion and development of farmers markets. Evidence
suggests that this and similar initiatives led to a four or five-fold increase in farmers
markets in the UK and a 10-fold increase in the USA (Brown, 2001). Local government
entities, such as the Birmingham (UK) city council, have also tried to foster farmers
markets (Bentley et al., 2003). Similar legislation was passed in Canadian provinces in
the early 1970s, including Alberta and Saskatchewan.
In addition to the environmental and legal changes, the 1970s also ushered in a
change to Canadian immigration policy that resulted in another influx of immigrants
(Hiebert, 2000). As in the 1800s, most of these new immigrants moved to cities,
however the majority of these later immigrants were non-European with a tendency to
create their own small scale retail centers (Wang, 1999). By some counts it is the ethnic,
small- and medium-sized, and often organic segment of the food supply chain firms
that are thriving (Bley-Palmer and Donald, 2006). That is, this most recent wave of
immigrants brought a more Asian model of small wet markets.
These factors changed the environment for farmers markets. There had been troubles
with existing farmers markets (as in the case of Barrie and Edmonton), and it had been
years since a major city established a new farmers market. But suddenly that changed. In
fact there was so much renewed interest in the Kitchener market that this led to a new
home in the Market Square building in 1973. By early 1973, only four farmers markets
existed in Alberta-Calgary, Edmonton, Lethbridge, and Medicine Hat. Later in 1973,
Alberta Agriculture announced a new grant program for the establishment of farmers
markets. Under the program, farmers markets began to flourish and by 1975 there were
35 farmers markets in the province (Edmonton Journal, 2005). In 1994, the Alberta
Farmers Market Association became incorporated and today there are between 110-120
farmers markets in Alberta (Edmonton Journal, 2005). In 2003, Calgary established the
ABC Farmers Market Society as a non-profit society to provide a farmers market for the
community, with a new building set to open in 2011 (Calgary Farmers Market, 2010).
An increasing acceptance of farmers markets can be in other provinces. In the
1970s, Saskatchewan established a farmers market cooperative, and farmers markets
quickly boomed; in 1975, the Regina and Saskatoon Farmers markets were
established. Other provinces followed suit. As a result, farmers markets began to
spring up from Nova Scotia to British Columbia. By some counts the number of
Canadian markets has continued to increase, doubling since the late 1980s to 425
(Feagan et al., 2004). The primary mission of these Farmers Markets Associations was
and is to promote trade between local producers and consumers and to advocate on
their behalf before governments and industries.
Existing farmers markets were also swept up in the rising tide. In 1980, the
Hamilton Ontario market that had mostly converted to a carpark was generating
enough interest to be moved to a new location by the Hamilton Public Library, near the
center of town (Robinson, 2007). The Kingston Ontario market was also met with
rejuvenation in the 1980s.

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A sign of their viability was not only the number of farmers markets, but also that
these markets were organizing into co-ops and non-profit organizations. Farmers
formed cooperative organizations in Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Manitoba,
Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia to encourage, organize, and research
how to increase the viability of farmers markets. These organizations support smaller
producers that make, bake, grow, or raise usually with rules supporting regional or
local producers. For example, the BC Association of Farmers Markets (2011a) explains
the purposes of the society:
.
to support British Columbia producers;
.
to promote farmers markets in the communities of BC;
.
to educate the public about the benefits of British Columbia grown agricultural
products;
.
to represent the farmers markets of BC; and
.
to advocate on behalf of farmers markets to government and industry.
Similar missions can be seen for the farmers market associations and co-ops in other
provinces. Their web sites typically include locations for these farmers markets and
reasons for buying from them. Albertas Farmers Market Association also identifies
restaurants that serve locally sourced produce and meat (Alberta Farmers Market
Association, 2011).
Acknowledgement of several important factors can be seen in many organizations
declarations of their mission. The BC Association of Farmers Markets, for example,
declares Local Flavors, Familiar Faces!...The most important thing about BC farmers
markets is the freshness, variety and the fun found at markets everywhere (BC
Association of Farmers Markets, 2011b). A press release for the city of Vancouver
declared As Vancouver strives to become the worlds greenest city, strong, viable
farmers markets are a vital part of a robust local food system and healthier
neighborhoods (Enterprising nonprofits, 2010). Similarly, the PEI Organic Producers
Co-op promotes organic products, by telling customers where they can buy organic
products, and the top four of all eight listings are farmers markets (PEI Certified
Organic Producers Co-op, 2011).
The importance of these environmental factors is reinforced by research examining
consumers motivations for buying from farmers markets. A study of Ontario
consumers (including St Catherines market), revealed an older demographic where
food freshness, support of local farming, and a sense of embededness in the enterprise
were the most important factors (Feagan et al., 2004). Similarly, Connell et al. (2008)
found that a general concern for good food, nutrition, freshness, being locally
produced, and organic were important factors for farmers market shoppers.
Evidence of the importance of farmers markets to the public can also be seen in the
closure of the Calgary Currie Barracks location in 2006. Immediately after closure,
farmers markets began operating in four other city neighborhoods. Although there was
no downtown location, several other markets started in others parts of town. Downtown
locations that were a critical part of the European model of the 1800s were no longer the
only model for these markets. For many towns, locations in outlying areas and other
suburbs increase availability. For example, in the Edmonton area, there is a downtown
market and a location in another historical part of the town called Strathcona. In addition

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St Albert, just north of the city, has an outdoor location that moves to two indoor
locations before and after the summer. There are also suburban farmers markets in five
other locations. In addition to the markets within the city limits of Calgary, there are 13
surrounding communities with their own farmers markets and a couple others in more
distant towns such as Lethbridge and Medicine Hat.
There was not only growth in the number of farmers markets, but also evidence of
a growing interest in a range of other local food market arrangements, including
community-supported agriculture, roadside farm stands, and U-pick operations
(Feenstra, 1997, p. 2). In addition, this includes organic meat producers and agritourism
(Hall and Mogyorody, 2001). Whether these alternative distribution networks threaten
or enhance the potential of traditional farmers markets is not yet clear, however.
Mirroring what has been observed in the USA, there is also evidence of a number of
cities and towns returning to the model of the public market where the land and
building are often provided by the municipality (Spitzer and Baum, 1995). Canadian
cities that have sponsored public marketplaces include Torontos historic St Lawrence
Market and the new Wychwood Barns, Montreals Jean-Talon and Atwater markets,
Ottawas Byward Market, and Vancouvers Granville Island Public Market. Most
recently, Ottawa began construction of a new complex that consists of condos and a
farmers market (Dodge, 2011). Although there have been some failures of farmers
markets, a study of US markets suggests this may be attributable to small sizes and
shaky starts (Stephenson et al., 2006).
In sum, the growth in the number of farmers markets, their distribution to a wider
variety of locations and the sponsorship of public works projects by cities demonstrate
the boom that has occurred in farmers markets since the mid 1970s. This has allowed
some to call this era the renaissance of the traditional farmers market (Sommer, 1980).
Discussion
This review tries to provide a fresh perspective on farmers markets by examining
their history in Canada, providing a periodization of that history, and comparing that
periodization to the social and political environment. The study relates the appearance,
growth, decline, and reappearance of farmers markets to the social and political milieu.
Traditional farmers markets were vital in Canada in the era between 1800 and 1915.
This can be seen in the early establishment and rapid growth of farmers markets
through the early nineteenth century and into the beginning of the twentieth. Many of
the towns of this period established farmers markets that coincided with the founding
of the town itself or occurred rather quickly. Farmers markets were driven by the
social environment of sufficient production and mimicked the European model market
that immigrants were already familiar with.
The second era of farmers markets, between 1916 and 1970, demonstrates a steep
decline. There were few new markets, stagnation among existing markets, and the
closure or relocation of others. During this period, peoples food supply shifted to general
stores and supermarkets where bulk items such as flour and long-lasting foodstuffs such
as canned and frozen goods became more central to our diet. This shift away from
farmers markets was partly a result in changes in the social structure in the form of
westward expansion, industrialization, and other political changes. These altered the
form of agricultural production and food laws, and also shifted production toward the
commodity-based international and export-oriented products seen in wheat pools.

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The 1970s ushered in a third era a resurgence of farmers markets. This was a
result of a favorable social milieu in the form of environmentalism (Thompson and
Coskuner-Balli, 2007) and embracement of fresh and organic produce. The expansion
occurred as a result of political forces which again encouraged the establishment of
farmers markets. For consumers, farmers markets are seen as providing fresher food
(the supply chain is typically shorter). These factors resulted in a renewed interest in
farmers markets, witnessed in the increasing rate that farmers markets were added to
the Canadian retail front and in the increasing vitality of both existing and new
farmers markets.
This study demonstrates how farmers markets and their success was shaped by
and eventually reacted to the larger economic forces in the business environment.
Specifically, the history of farmers markets in Canada demonstrates a birth, decline
and reappearance of farmers markets that coincided with historical changes. In the
period between 1800 and 1915, markets were established based on peoples need for
food and awareness of these types of markets, with farmers supplying them. During
the second era, between 1916 and 1970, competition, first in the form of general stores
and later in the form of supermarkets, provided a more convenient and cheaper source
of food products that supplanted many farmers markets. Finally, in the third era after
1970, a few food customers realized the value and quality of real or authentic, and
found these in traditional farmers markets, which grew in response.
The importance of historical factors in the success and form of farmers markets can be
explained by the social and political context. In the first period, immigrants in a
pre-industrial age established traditional markets like those they were familiar with back
home. These markets were established early by cities for the public good but many later
shifted to separate profit-making institutions. These institutional factors transformed
informal face-to-face marketing arrangements into more formal farmers markets on
purposely-built premises. During the second period, social upheaval in the form of two
world wars and an economic depression ushered in social changes to the agricultural
system that moved Canada away from small farms to industrialized commodity
production. The move toward modernity also embraced cars and convenience that
favored supermarkets and processed pre-packaged foods such as TV dinners. The decline
in farmers markets in era 2 can be seen as a market efficient response to socio-economic
changes. Finally, the third period saw some consumers reacting to the industrialization of
the food supply by recognizing the value of fresh foods. Instead of economic factors
affecting consumer preference, consumers created political changes that encouraged small
farmers and small enterprise operations to reinvigorate farmers markets.
The notion that farmers markets are relegated to traditional economies is not
supported. They have ebbed and flowed in Europe and Asia and have re-emerged in a
post-industrial Canada. Farmers markets have continued through three of Shaws
(1992) periods of retailing. Although initially part of periodic markets and fairs,
farmers markets continued to exist through the stages of craftsmen and continued into
the period of retailers and retail specialization. The re-emergence of farmers markets
after 1970 suggests that the institution of farmers markets is dynamic and able to
adapt to those various models of retailing. Therefore farmers markets seem adaptable
across several of Shaws retail stages. This dynamism may explain why farmers
markets are not relegated to traditional economies but have continued to exist and are
now flourishing in Europe, Asia, and North America.

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It is important to observe, however, that the role of these farmers markets has changed
significantly. The markets are no longer the primary supplier of food seen in the
eighteenth century (Mayo, 1993). Their resurgence and vitality primarily filled a niche of
locally-produced and organic foods (Aguirre, 2007; Bentley et al., 2003; Guthrie et al.,
2006; Hall and Mogyorody, 2001; Kirwan, 2004; Thompson and Coskuner-Balli, 2007;
Wallgren, 2006). In the contemporary era of large-scale retail institutions, however, the
role of these farmers markets is still in flux. Specifically, supermarkets are taking another
swat at farmers markets by attempting to fulfill demands for locally-produced products
in ways not envisioned by those advocating locally grown products (e.g. Halweil, 2002).
Many supermarkets are co-opting aspects of farmers markets by bringing in local
produce and calling attention to it, often in physical layouts that are reminiscent of
farmers markets (e.g. Campos, 2007; Jones et al., 2004, p. 136). To the extent that grocery
stores effectively answer the call for fresh locally-produced products, this could be another
blow to traditional farmers markets (Thompson and Coskuner-Balli, 2007). A question for
the future of farmers markets is how they react to this changing environment. Will the
values of localism, sustainability and environmentalism be adopted by supermarkets or
will customers see these efforts as bogus and continue to shop at farmers markets, public
markets and roadside farm stands?
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Appendix A: Farmers Market History
Era 1
.
1801: Kingston ON market established
.
1827: Guelph ON settled, market built
.
1830: Kitchener ON Farmers market established
.
1830: Cambridge ON Farmers market established
.
1837: Hamilton ON Farmers market established at corner of York & James Streets
.
1842: Kingston ON two-story building erected
.
1846: Barrie ON Farmers Market established
.
1856: Guelph ON new building
.
1860s: St Catherine ON farmers market established
.
1869: Kingston ON permanent structure erected
.
1872: Kitchener ON expansion
.
1874: Guelph ON expansion
.
1876: St John NB and Fredricton NB public markets established
.
1878: Horton ON farmers market established
.
1884: Moncton NB farmers market established
.
1892: Vancouver BCs New Westminster Farmers Market opened
.
1903: Edmonton AB farmers market established
.
1907: Kitchener ON expansion (two-story building)
.
1914: Kamloops BC farmers market established
.
1914: Calgary AB public market was established in a brick building downtown
.
1915: Edmonton AB expansion (brick building)
Era 2
.
.

1917: Calls for planting of victory gardens

1919: Kamloops BC market closes when interest waned

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

1929: Calgary AB Eau Claire Market torn down

1930: Vancouver BC City Market opens
1933: Vancouver BC Blackburn farmers market established
1941: New calls for planting of victory gardens
1947: Debate on future of Hamilton ON market begins
1952: Bill 27 in Barrie nullified market land grant, made the market floating
1960: Hamilton ON market reconstructed primarily as Market Square Carpark
Mid-1960s: Edmonton AB market moved to make way for the library
1969: Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and BC Farmers Union organized into National
Farmers Union

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Era 3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

1973: Alberta establishes program for the establishment of farmers markets

early 1970s: Saskatchewan Farmers Market Co-operative (SFMC) established
1973: Kitchener ON new building (Market Square)
1975: Regina SK Farmers Market established
1975: Saskatoon SK Farmers Market established
1976: Calgary AB Blackfoot Farmers Market established
1978: Kamloops BC farmers market re-established
1980: Hamilton ON market moved to new location by the Public Library
1980s: Kingston ON rejuvenation
1988: Winnipeg MB farmers market at Winnipeg (St. Norbert) and Minnedosa
1990: Carp ON Farmers market established
1992: Regina SK gets permanent building in Market Square
1992: The Wolfville NS Farmers Market established.
1994: Alberta Farmers Market Association was incorporated
1995: Hornby Island BC farmers market established
1995: East Vancouver BC Farmers Market Society established
2000: BC Association of Farmers markets established
2004: Edmonton AB farmers market moves back downtown
2007: St John NB Farmers Market Association established as a co-op
2007: Farmers Market Association of Manitoba established as a co-op
2011: Ottawa ON breaks ground on new condo and farmers market complex

About the author

Michael Basil (PhD, Stanford University, 1992) is a Professor of Marketing at the University of
Lethbridge. His research has been published in the fields of communication, marketing,
psychology, and public health. His research is currently focused on the how and why of food
selection. Michael Basil can be contacted at: michael.basil@uleth.ca
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

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farmers markets

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