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And c are positive sequence inductance and capacitance of the line per unit
length, f is the operating frequency.
) is maximum at the
midpoint.
SVC current is considered positive when SVC susceptance is inductive. Thus
A positive slope ( in the range of 1-5%) is given in the control range to
(a) Enable parallel operation of more than one SVC connected at the same
or neighboring buses and
(b) Prevent SVC hitting the limits frequently.
Page 52
The steady state value of the SVC bus voltage is determined from the
intersection of the system characteristic and the control characteristic. The
system characteristic is a straight line with negative slope and is defined by
VTh and XTh are the Thevenin voltage and reactance viewed from the SVC bus.,
we have
Where Zn is the surge impedance defined by
Control Range: The SVC control range is described by
Page 53
..
Where Xs is the slope of the control characteristic. V ref is the SVC voltage when
ISVC=0.
Page 54
..
Remarks
1. P0 is the power flow in the line without SVC and P 1 is the power flow in
the line when SVC maintains a constant voltage V at the midpoint (X s =
0)
3. For small values of
cos
1 .
2
, sin
2 2 ,
In this case,
Where XL =(wl)d is the total reactance of the line (d is the length line)
(c) At SVC limits. When the SVC hits the limit it can be represented as a
fixed susceptance (BSVC) where BSVC= BC at capacitive limit. Inductive
limit, BSVC = -BL.
The power angle curve for SVC is made up of 3 segments corresponding to
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
BSVC = -BL,
Control range
BSVC= BC
di
dt
is related to
by
The TCR current contains odd harmonics. The rms value of the nth harmonic is
given by
Where k is an integer, 1,2,3,. . ..
The peak values of the individual harmonic currents are shown in. It is to be
noted that In = 0 ay both
= 90o and
where
Are shown, functions of
are
shown
By connecting the TCR in delta, the triplen harmonics are eliminated on the line
sde. The harmonics present in the line current are of the order
Where k is an integer.
It is assumed that the TCR currents are identical in waveform and magnitude in
the three phases and only phases shifted from each other by 120 o. This is
possible only if
entering the system, some of the fixed capacitors are connected as series
tuned filters. To reduce the harmonics further, it is possible to have twelve
pulse configuration of TCR, in which there are two branches of TCR supplied by
the two sets of secondaries of the step down transformer. One set of secondary
windings is connected in delta while the other connected in star. The line
currents on the primary side will have harmonics of the order
(phase
( didt )
( didt )
, it is
to
2V
( )
n
1
n2
The above implies that the capacitor is turned on at the instant when the
supply voltage is equal to VCO.
Transient current component (Itr) where
Note that Itr = IAC when VCO = 0. The variation of
different values of
values of
V CO
2V
I tr
I AC
as a function of n for
are shown in. It is to be noted that Itr < IAC for all
sin 0 .
Page 65
.
The capacitor is switched on when the supply voltage is at peak. At this instant
| |
I tr
I AC
The variation of
V CO = 2V
n2
, I tr =0
n21
for
Although the precharging of capacitors can eliminate the transients,
Page 66
.
This method is not used in the application of TSC for power transmission lines.
When the thyristor is switched off, the capacitor has peak value of the supply
voltage across it as the capacitor current becomes zero at that instant. The
voltage across the thyristor switch reaches a value of twice the peak voltage
when the supply voltage reserves its sing and reaches a maximum. The
capacitor voltage decays slowly depending the losses in the circuit. Thus, the
thyristors in the TSC have to be rated for twice the peak voltages
whereas the thyristors in a TCR are rated for the peak voltage
( 2 2 V )
( 2V ) .
Since the TSC continues to conduct when the capacitor is on, there is no
blocking voltage (across the thyristor) available to energize the thyristor
electronics of an optoelectronic gating system (where the gating from the
ground potential is sent through the optical fibres to the thyristor level). The
second source of energy.
Page 67
.
3.3 SVC Controller
Basic SVC Controller incorporating voltage regulator. This shows that both
voltage
( V SVC )
and current
( V SVC )
current transformers and then rectified. The AC filter is basically a notch filter
to eliminate the signal component of frequency corresponding to the parallel
resonance the system viewed from the SVC bus. The line capacitance can
result in parallel resonance with the line inductance.
[ 23 ] .
The rectified signal is filtered. The DC side filters include both a low pass filter
(to remove the ripple content) and notch filter tuned to the fundamental and
second harmonic components. The notch filters are provided to avoid the
adverse interactions of SVC caused by second harmonic positive sequence and
fundamental frequency the SVC bus. For example, second harmonic positive
sequence voltages at the SVC bus cause a fundamental frequency component
in the rectified signal that results in the modulation of SVC susceptance at the
same frequency.
This in turn (due to amplitude modulation) results in two components at side
band frequencies (0,2f) in the SVC current. The dc component can result in
unsymmetric saturation of the SVC transformer and consequent increase in
Page 68
.
The magnetization current containing even harminics. This adverse harmonic
interactions between the SVC and the network can result in large distortion of
the SVC bus voltage and impaired operation of SVC.
The auxiliary signals mentioned are outputs from Susceptance (or reactive
power) Regulator (SR) and Supplementary Modulation Controller (SMC). The
Susceptance Regulator is aimed at regulating the output of SVC in steady state
such that the full dynamic range is available during transient disturbances. The
output of Susceptance Regulator modifies the voltage reference
( V ref )
in
steady state. However its operation is deliberately mode slow such that it does
not affect the voltage regulator function during transients.
In contrast to the Susceptance Regulator, the Supplementary Modulation
Controller (SMC) is designed to improve the performance of SVC during
transient conditions and affect the steady state. SMC has control input using
appropriate signal obtained from local measurements and provide a limited
output at either the summing junction before the voltage.
The gate pulse unit for SVC produces firing pulses for TCR and TSC. The logic
determines whether a TSC is to be switched in or out.
B ref
TCR
is calculated form
B ref
SVC
AND IF
B ref
TCR 0 , then a TSC is switched in. If
B ref
TCR
from
B ref
SVC
B ref
TCR B L , then a TSC
the effect of leakage
B SVC
is given
by
Where
BC
BL
is the reciprocal of
XL
B BC
or
B TCR
B=
then,
B SVC
1
X , is the
B TCR
with
BL
TSC and there is hysteresis in the operation of the TSC. This is desirable as the
switching of a TSC is not well defined if
equal to
B L . If
BC 1
is greater than
degraded.
Page 69
For stability studies, it is not essential to model GPU, can be simplified greatly
by also assuming that SVC does not generate harmonics. The voltage regulator
is typically a PI controller as shown in. The proportional gain
( K P)
may be set
T m is typically 2 to 3 ms and
=0.7 .
Hm (s )
Td
is typically
Tb
Td
B SVC
B TCR
Tb
( BL )
I SVC
to zero.
characteristic of SVC. However the current signal contains harmonics and there
are measurement problems particularly When
I SVC
normal operating point). A solution to this problem is to take the signal from
B ref
SVC
instead of
I SVC .
K P =0 ,
TR
varies between 20 to
150ms.
Page 71
[ 21 ]
V SVC
V SVC
BSVC
and the
X Th .
The speed of the response depends on the loop gain and increases as
X Th
is
X Th
and the SVC controller can be unstable. It is necessary to reduce the gain of
SVC
( K1)
supervisor. The gain is restored to the normal value when the instability is not
present. It is to be noted that although instability can be avoided by designing
the voltage regulator corresponding, is not an optimal choice as the response
of SVC will be slower under normal conditions.
V SVC
B SVC
frequency
(electromagnetic)
if
network
are
considered.
fr
The
defined by
Page 72
..
Where
f Np
network and
fr
is
within the controller bandwidth. Hence the practical solution to this problem is
to provide a notch filter in the controller.
Susceptance Regulator (SR)
A typical SR is shown.
B ref
SVC
B set
SVC
V SVC
or
B SVC
[ 11,19,20,25 ]
from local measurements. The objective is to damp critical low frequency inter
area or local modes that can affect stability during disturbances. The control
signals are selected on the basis of following criteria
1. The signal should predominantly contain the mode that needs to be
damped
2. The controller design based on a particular control signal should be
simple and reject noise.
3. The controller should not destabilize modes that are otherwise stable.
Page 73
..
4. The controller should be effective and robust under widely varying
operating conditions
The control signals that have been used or suggested include: (1) line current
(2) active and reactive power (3) bus frequency (4) Computer Rotor Frequency
(CRF) and (5) Computed Thevenin voltage. The last two signals are synthesized
from current and voltage measurements at the SVC location.
Protective Function of SVC control
The SVC control also has functions to provide protection under faulted or
overload conditions that may affect the equipment or system response. These
1. Undervoltage Strategy
The SVC is ineffective under low voltage conditions due to faults in the system,
the clearing of the fault can result in temporary overvoltages due to load
rejection, particularly under weak system conditions. The response of the SVC
required immediately after the fault clearing is opposite of the normal voltage
regulator function during a fault. To avoid delay in the required response of the
SVC, the normal voltage regulator action is deactivated when voltage falls
below a threshold (say 60% of the normal voltage). TSC is blocked and
B ref
SVC
is frozen at the previous value (prior to the voltage dip). The normal SVC
regulator action is resumed after the voltage climbs above a certain threshold
(say 70%) and remains (above the), reducing the transient by preventing the
capacitor discharge.
Page 74
2. TCR Overcurrent Limiter
Under high voltage conditions, the SVC will be at its inductive limit and the TCR
current may exceed its rated value. To protect the thyristor valves used in TCR,
it is necessary to limit the current through it by phase control. Regulator
function, a time delay is introduced (of the order of 100 ms). The overcurrent
limiter takes into account the short-time overload capability of the TCR.
3. SVC Control Interactions at Subsynchronous Frequencies
[ 11,19,20,25 ]
The SVC voltage regulator can adversely affect the damping of the
subsynchronous frequency torsional modes due to turbine-generator rotors and
elastic shafts (constituting a lightly damped mass-spring-damper system).
Unlike in the case of fixed series capacitors, the Torsional Interaction (TI)
problem with SVC is not very significant. It has been suggested that low pass
filter or Transient Gain reduction (TGR) in conjunction the voltage regulator
(K N)
V SVC ( s )
BSVC ( s )
KN
( V SVC )
is assumed to be
X Th
( BSVCO )
is considered
is obtained from
V SVC
as
Where
Page 75
..
The Effective Short Circuit Ratio (ESCR) defined as the ratio of the short circuit
level to the rating of the SVC. In defining ESCR it is assumed that the operating
value of
B SVC
By selecting
T C =T b
K C=
and
1
2 ( K I + K Nmax )
( GR )
is assumed as
where
K N max
corresponds to
the operating point with lowest value of ESCR, get a regulator with fast
response with good margin of stability. The closed loop transfer function
[ Gc ( s ) ]
is obtained as
K N increases to
K N max
Tw
reduces to a value of
V SVC
2T b=
T
2
(10 ms for
is given by
3 T w . The fasted
response time for the minimum value of ESCR is 30 ms (for the 50 Hz system)
Remarks
1. The response of the SVC slows down as the ESCR increases. This is
fortunately not a major problem as the speed of SVC is not critical for
strong systems.
( KC)
Z Th ( s )
(V s)
and current
( I R)
are
..
We have
I Ro=0
Page 80
..
When
R 0, then
Since
V s (s)
I r (s)
N (s)
positive real axis). The control of plants with non-minimum phase type is
always problematic and requires compensation to enable the use of P-I control
with high gains.
Remarks
1. The four poles of the transfer function
Where
2. For
jw
Z Th ( s ) .
V s (s )
IR (s )
w0 .
I Ro=0
V SVCo =V Th .
The lower value of ESCR and the SVC operation at capacitive region worsen
the control stability problem.
The controller gain needs to be reduced to overcome the problem. This may
not be practical as the response of SVC needs to be fast at lower values of
ESCR. To provide a compensator
Page 81
.
In cascade with the voltage regulator, that rejects the complement of the
network resonance frequency. The transfer function of the compensator is
assumed to be
Where
w r=wnw0
wr
wn
circuit.
Solution
To observe that without the compensator, the system becomes unstable
when
.
3.5Harmonics and Filtering
3.5.1 General
The harmonics in a SVC are generated by the TCR. Neither TSC or TSR
(Thyristor Switched Reactor) generate harmonics. The current harmonics
Page 83
non-characteristic
harmonics
are
L=5 ,
usually
o
=1
less
( L
than
1
10
of
the
control).
However, these non-characteristic harmonics cannot be neglected. A small dc
component present in the SVC current (due to firing angle) drive the
connecting transformer into saturation resulting large harmonics voltages at
the SVC bus.
3.5.2 Harmonics Interactions
A major concern is the possibility of harmonics interactions with the AC
network. The harmonics interactions with the network can arise from the
following factors.
(a) Direct: Effects due to the harmonics present in the bus voltage. These
harmonics influence the harmonics influence the harmonics in the TCR
current which in the harmonics distortion in the bus voltage. Normally
such effects are secondary unless the impedance seen by the TCR
current is
(b) Through voltage regulation loop: The modulation of the TCR admittance
at frequency
f 0 f c
Z
Xr
( )
( ) are given by
In FC-TCR type SVC, the fixed capacitor branches can also be designed
operate as tuned filters by inserting a reactor with appropriate. Double
tuned and damped high pass filters are also used as filters.
Page 85
..
Vn
( Dn )
nth
at
f =nf o .
Page 86
k =5 n f 0 , p =weighing factor
The ratio
I Nh
Ih
( )
Page 87
X tr
effective impedance seen by the TCR (the parallel filter and the network)
The network impedance may not be know exactly at different frequencies,
the region in which the system impedances (at different) are located is
assumed to lie in a circle in the R-X plane with centre on the R-axis. The
upper limit on the impedance angle is also specified.
3.5.4 A Mathematical Model for the Investigation of harmonics stability
This is illustrated by considering a single phase SVC as
The state vector
x (t)
is defined by
v (t )
( it 0 )
Page 88
When the thyristors are off, the system equations are
Where
Note that
x 0 at t 0
[ PB ] =[ B ]
x 1 at t=t 0 +T .
to the state
1= 2T 1=T 2=
T
2
2
T .
t h=t 0+T 1
t 0+T
Page 89
..
The Poincare map f forma complete cycle is obtained by applying twice the
map g for the half cycle operation from
and
conditions
When the SVC is in steady state with a periodic trajectory of period T, the
Poincare map f has a fixed point defined by
Df
Df
1 2
[G(t )]
is given by
The data system inductance
Lt
( Ls )
( C ) . The connection of
f 0 where f 0
is the
fundamental system frequency. This indicates that there are values of the
conduction for which the circuit will be unstable.
3.6 Protection Aspects
All electrical equipment have to be designed to handle current and voltage
stresses when subjected to overloads and faults or any abnormal incidents of
transient nature. When the stresses exceed the rating, it is essential to protect
the equipment or the system against damage by providing adequate
protection. SVC is no exception and one has to analyze the performance under
faulted condition to evaluate the stresses. In this section, is placed on the
thyristor valves that are used to switch a capacitor (TSC) or control the current
in a reactor (TCR).
The faults that are related to thyristor valves (made up of a string of
bidirectional pair of thyristors)
System faults if the stress encountered is lower than for a worst case
fault
Single misfiring
Loss of some thyristors
Partial loss of auxiliaries
RJC , RCH
and
R HW
A TCR implies the necessary to block the system overvoltages. A trade off is
possible with the thyristors valve designed to withstand higher current stresses
rather than higher voltage stresses. The cost and losses in a valve decrease if
the voltage ratings are lower. On the other hand, the need for continuous
conduction at higher voltages implies loss of controllability.
The TSC valve, in contrast to a TCR valve must be designed to block
overvoltages as the TSC conduction will aggravate overvoltages. However the
overvoltages protection above the designal voltage rating is provided by the
Metal Oxides Varistor (MOV) which is very effective in clipping the voltage
above a certain limit. The energy loss in the surge arrester is an important
factor is selecting the ratings.
The protection against overvoltages can be provided by (a) BOD firing which
convert a voltage stress into current stress or (b) MOV arrester absorbing
energy.
Page 95
3.7 Modelling of SVC
For a detailed study of SVC control interactions, it is necessary to perform
transient simulation for which SVC is modelled in detail including the switching
of the thyristor valves in TCR and TSC. The transient network is modelled by
differential equations rather than algebraic equations.
However for stability study it is not necessary to consider the switching of
valves and assume that SVC generates only fundamental current. In addition,
the network transients are neglected and represented by algebraic equations
of the type:
With these simplifications, SVC can be modelled as a variable susceptance
which is the output of the control system as shown. If SMC is a part of the SVC
controller, it should be included in the model. Susceptance regulator, gain
supervisor and the protective functions can be
[ 32 ]
X SVC
X SVC . The
the SVC operating in (i) the control range, capacitive limit and (iii) inductive
limit
(i)
Where
Control Range
SVC
is the angle of the SVC bus voltage. The control range applies
B min B max
B min
is, in negative
At Capacitive Limit:
At inductive Limit:
The equivalent circuit of SVC for the control range is nonlinear (since the angle
of
^
ESVC
depends on the bus voltage) and is time varying when the limits are
Z eq
remains.
Z eq
is calculated as the impedance of the network seen at the SVC all the
source in the network are removed. Is found as the SVC voltage with the SVC
^ eq
V
current zero.
disturbance.
SVC current can be computed as
Page 97
..
^
ESVC =0.0+ j 0.0
If
angle
Tan
SVC
SVC
Z eq
Z eq + j X SVC
Network Solution
The network solution is carried out in two. In the first step, the voltage solution
is obtained by putting
^I SVC =0
. The voltage calculated at the SVC, at the end
^ eq
V
. The knowledge of
^ eq
V
and
Z eq
(which
^I SVC
from.
The network is solved again with the injection of
^I SVC
Remarks
1. It is assumed, in the calculation of
SVC
a quartic equation.
Z eq
2.
3. If
Z eq
^ eq
V
SVC
in the of
which is know
^ eq
V
d
3
located
Page 99
.................
A distance,
d
3
from the receiving end (d is the length of the line). When SVCs
are applied to improve the power transfer in a transmission, the location can be
determined by the sensitivity of voltage at the critical with respect to the
reactive power injection
(a) Faster response under transient conditions
(b) There are no moving parts, hence requires less maintenance
( V ref )
slope (varying from 2% to 10%). The slopes can be different in the capacitive
and inductive modes of operation. The range of short circuit levels at the is also
an important parameter in the choice of the voltage
In the past, saturable reactors have been applied in situations when temporary
overvoltages can be critical factor. However, in recent, Thyristor Controlled
Transformer (TCT) where the leakage reactance of the step down transformer
can be used to replace the reactor has been suggested to provide controllable
shunt reactors in long EHV transmission lines. The cost considerations will
determine whether such innovations will be applied in practice.