The Basics of Variable-Frequency Drives

When Tesla first introduced the 3-phase alternating current (AC) induction motor in 1888,
he knew that his invention was more efficient and reliable than Edison's direct current (DC)
motor. However, AC motor speed control requires either varying the magnetic flux or
changing the number of poles on the motor. Even decades after the induction motor gained
widespread use, changing the frequency for speed control remained an extremely difficult
task and the physical construction of the motor prevented manufacturers from creating
motors with more than two speeds.
As a result, DC motors were necessary where accurate speed control and significant power
output were required. In contrast to AC motor speed control requirements, DC motor speed
control was achieved by inserting a rheostat into the low-power DC field circuit, which was
feasible with available technology. These simple motor controls varied the speed and
torque, and were the most economical way to do so for a number of decades.

<b>Fig. 1.</b> An ideal sinuosoid and PWM waveform figure.

By the 1980s, AC motor drive technology became reliable and inexpensive enough to
compete with traditional DC motor control. These variable-frequency drives (VFDs)
accurately control the speed of standard AC induction or synchronous motors. With VFDs,
speed control with full torque is achieved from 0 rpm through the maximum rated speed
and, if required, above the rated speed at reduced torque. VFDs manipulate the frequency
of their output by rectifying an incoming AC current into DC, and then using voltage pulsewidth modulation to recreate an AC current and voltage output waveform. However, this
frequency conversion process causes 2% to 3% loss as heat in the VFD caloric energy
that must be dissipated. The process also yields overvoltage spikes and harmonic current
distortions.
Variable-frequency types
There are three common types of VFDs. Current source inversion (CSI) has been
successfully used in signal processing and industrial power applications. CSI VFDs are the
only type that has regenerative power capability. In other words, they can absorb power
flow back from the motor into the power supply. CSI VFDs give a very clean current
waveform but require large, expensive inductors in their construction and cause cogging
(pulsating movement during rotation) below 6 Hz.

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Voltage source inversion (VSI) drives have poor power factor, can cause motor cogging
below 6 Hz, and are non-regenerative. Consequently, CSI and VSI drives have not been
widely used.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) VFDs are most commonly used in industry because of
excellent input power factor due to fixed DC bus voltage, no motor cogging, higher
efficiencies, and lower cost. A PWM VFD uses a series of voltage pulses of different lengths
to simulate a sinusoidal wave (Fig. 1 on page 8). Ideally, the pulses are timed so that the
time average integral of the drive yields a perfect sinusoid. The current method of choice to
produce this waveform runs a triangle wave and sine wave through a comparator, and
outputs a voltage pulse whenever the sine wave's value is greater than the triangle wave.
The current electric component of choice to generate the voltage pulse is the insulated
gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), although silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) can work as well.
In the near future, injection-enhanced gate transistors (IEGTs) will be used to perform this
task. Much more long term, memristors will probably become the component of choice for
this task.
Memristors are the fourth passive circuit element, linking electric charge and magnetic flux.
Memristors have been hypothesized to exist for more than 30 years, but were not
fabricated until April 2008 by Hewlett Packard Labs. Hewlett Packard hopes to use these
devices as a passive transistor, reducing their heat generation compared to other types of
memory. Regardless of the component used to form the sine wave, the switching action
causes problems.
Heat, power losses, and harmonics
The first problem a VFD manufacturer needs to address is heat. Although VFDs are highly
efficient devices, manufacturers are unable to produce an ideal set of components. The
heat lost in the drive is governed by the following equation:
Hloss = Pt (1-)
Where Hloss is the power lost (W), Pt is the power through the drive (W), and is the
efficiency of the drive. Usually, VFDs have an efficiency rating between 95% and 98%. This
means the amount of air that must be moved through the drive is governed by the
equation:
m = Hloss(CpT) = Pt(1-)(CpT)
Where m is the mass flow rate (kg/s), Cp is the specific heat of air [kJ(kgK)], and T is
the difference in temperature between the incoming air and the outgoing air (K). This heat
can cause significant cooling costs to be added into the design, especially if the drive is
unable to be placed in an unclassified location (area free of flammable gases or particles).
If the drive must be placed in a classified location, then the airflow going to the drive will
need to be purged and pressurized.

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<b>Fig. 2.</b> A real sinusoid and PWM waveform. Note how the harmonics affect the
shape of the sinusoid.
Heating is only one of the problems with VFDs. The other major problem lies with system
harmonics. A picture of the PWM and the harmonics they cause is shown in Fig. 2. The
irregularities in the sine wave are called harmonics. In an ideal power circuit world, these
harmonics should not exist. They do nothing but cause problems. Fortunately, there are a
number of ways to mitigate harmonics.
One of the simplest methods of dealing with harmonics is to place a sine wave filter on
either side of the VFD. On the line side, these are typically called line reactors and have
reactance values anywhere between 1.5% and 5.0% impedance. Higher impedance not
only stops more harmonics, but it also limits the power going to the VFD.
Another tactic that can be used on the line side of the VFD is to place capacitors at a
common bus. Because the impedance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the
frequency of a signal, the harmonics see a short through the capacitor and travel through
the capacitor to ground, hopefully ignoring the other loads on the bus. VFDs may also use
an active front end to limit the harmonics that the line side sees. An active front end has
another IGBT switching at an inverse voltage as the main IGBT, but it is placed through a
high pass filter so that the fundamental power signal goes to ground. The summation of the
two harmonic signals ideally should be zero. If an active front-end drive is not suitable for
some reason, a passive front-end VFD might be procured. Passive front-end VFDs use
multiple phase-shifting transformers and diode bridges to mitigate harmonics.
The more pulses a passive front-end VFD has, the fewer problems with harmonics exist.
The trade-off is that the line voltages must be well balanced, and with each additional
phase shifting transformer there is increased cost and a loss in efficiency. In extreme cases,
an isolation transformer might be procured. Although this is one of the most effective ways
to prevent harmonics from spreading, it's also one of the most costly.
If harmonics are not sufficiently mitigated on the line side of the VFD, crosstalk and
overheating could become issues. Overheating could either cause bus sizes to be derated
or increase cooling costs. Crosstalk is defined as the signal from one circuit interfering with
another circuit. Generally speaking, it is a larger issue than overheating. An example of this
is a radio just slightly out of tune. Although it is possible to hear the music through the
static, the static is annoying. Crosstalk is an annoying thing in telecommunication circuits.
In power circuitry, crosstalk will cause overheating and frequency relay trips.
Just as harmonics left unchecked on the line side can cause problems, they can create
issues on the load side as well. This is because of the nature of waves. For example, a small
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force exerted on a Slinky at either end will cause a high amplitude sine wave.
Electromagnetic waves act in the same fashion, meaning a small amount of reactance can
cause large voltage spikes. Because this reactance is inductive in nature, most output
filters are capacitors connected in a delta configuration. Ideally, this should make the
reactance portion of the impedance go to zero. If the impedance is matched properly, then
this does not occur.
A note of caution: Capacitors connected on the load side of the VFD can create a large
number of problems, up to and including destroying a drive. Therefore, it's wise to check
with the drive manufacturer before installing a sine wave filter on the load side of the VFD.
On rare occasions, an active filter may be used. Although these tend to work well, they are
rather expensive and usually have to be custom designed.
VFD benefits
Despite the fact that VFDs generate a large amount of harmonics and heat, they would not
be as widely used and popular as they are today if they did not have significant economic
benefits.
Electrically, VFDs run at a high power factor. Any class of induction motors usually has a
low power factor at half and three-quarters load (0.75 to 0.85). This actually decreases the
life of the motor, because the unnecessary increase in current overheating the winding
insulation. VFDs bypass this problem by running the load at a frequency below the
fundamental.
The most obvious reason to procure a VFD is speed control. This is usually done for process,
operation, and economic benefits. One economic benefit comes from the reduction of
maintenance when using a VFD, especially not having to deal with the DC motor carbon
brushes or mechanical speed-control gearboxes (transmissions). The most obvious
economic benefits of VFDs occur with fans and pumps. The power that a pump or fan
consumes is directly proportional to the cube of the velocity. This means if an operator can
run a fan at 80% of full speed, it theoretically uses 51% of full load power.
VFDs also optimize motor starting characteristics. VFDs bring motors up to full speed
quickly and by drawing only 100% to 150% of full load amps (FLAs). This ability to start at
normal FLA is very important if the power supply cannot withstand the normally six times
FLA across-the-line starting draw, or even the 350% FLA soft-start device current. VFDs do
this by managing the magnetic flux of an induction motor. Magnetic flux is directly
proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the frequency. By keeping the flux
constant, the inrush current does not exceed the FLA rating of the motor, and full torque is
maintained. This is a significant improvement on a soft-start, which has significant voltage
drop problems and cannot start under full load.
Another potentially useful aspect of VFDs is demonstrated in Fig. 3, (click here to see Fig. 3)
which shows the output of a constant torque VFD. Notice the two regions, constant torque,
and constant horsepower. The constant torque region is fairly self explanatory; the VFD is
regulating the flux so that the current is constant. Once the VFD surpasses the rated
system frequency, the voltage cannot increase due to the physical constraints of the
system. Because the voltage is static and the frequency is increasing the flux is forced
to decrease. When this occurs, the current and torque are forced to decrease as well. This
is called field weakening. Although not necessarily a good thing, it can be useful if there is
a need to power a partial torque load above the rated speed. In addition to this capability,
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VFDs can also take any form of input power whether it's single-phase AC, 3-phase AC, or
DC. VFDs fed from a DC source still power an AC load without an internal rectifier.
VFDs also have some applications on the power grid. One classic example of this is a
doubly fed induction generator, in which the VFD can force a fixed frequency and voltage
signal out of a variable-speed (frequency) input. This is commonly seen in wind turbines
and other small hydroelectric generation projects that will be connected to the power grid.
Other renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaic cells, can use VFDs to act as an
inverter before connecting to the power grid, although inverters with buck-boost
technology are more common. While there are many potential uses for VFDs on the
commercial power grid, they are beyond the scope of this article.
In summary, whenever a load has either a variable torque or a variable speed, a VFD
should be considered. A VFD might be considered if a large motor has a problem with
voltage drop, torque, or inrush current during start-up. Even though VFDs undoubtedly
solve their fair amount of problems and provide substantial energy savings, the heat they
generate must be dissipated and the harmonics they produce must be mitigated.

Understanding Variable Speed Drives (Part 1)

Three basic types of variable frequency drives offer certain advantages as well as
disadvantages depending on your motor application. The new flux vector drive is also
discussed.While all variable frequency drives (VFDs) control the speed of an AC induction
motor by varying the motor's supplied voltage and frequency of power, they all do not use
the same designs in doing so. There are three major
Three basic types of variable frequency drives offer certain advantages as well as
disadvantages depending on your motor application. The new flux vector drive is also
discussed.
While all variable frequency drives (VFDs) control the speed of an AC induction motor by
varying the motor's supplied voltage and frequency of power, they all do not use the same
designs in doing so. There are three major VFD designs commonly used today: pulse width
modulation (PWM), current source inverter (CSI), and voltage source inverter (VSI).
Recently, the flux vector drive also has become popular.
Let's compare these technologies.
PWM design
The PWM drive has become the most commonly used drive controller because it works well
with motors ranging in size from about 1/2 hp to 500 hp. A significant reason for its
popularity is that it's highly reliable, affordable and reflects the least amount of harmonics
back into its power source. Most units are rated either 230V or 460V, 3-phase, and provide
output frequencies from about 2 Hz to 400 Hz. Nearly 100 manufacturers market the PWM
controller. A typical controller is shown in the photo.
As shown in Fig. 1, an AC line supply voltage is brought into the input section. From here,
the AC voltage passes into a converter section that uses a diode bridge converter and large
DC capacitors to create and maintain a stable, fixed DC bus voltage. The DC voltage passes
into the inverter section usually furnished with insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs),

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which regulate both voltage and frequency to the motor to produce a near sine wave like
output.
The term "pulse width modulation" explains how each transition of the alternating voltage
output is actually a series of short pulses of varying widths. By varying the width of the
pulses in each half cycle, the average power produced has a sine-like output. The number
of transitions from positive to negative per second determines the actual frequency to the
motor.
Switching speeds of the IGBTs in a PWM drive can range from 2 KHz to 15 KHz. Today's
newer PWM designs use power IGBTs, which operate at these higher frequencies. By having
more pulses in every half cycle, the motor whine associated with VFD applications is
reduced because the motor windings are now oscillating at a frequency beyond the
spectrum of human hearing. Also, the current wave shape to the motor is smoothed out as
current spikes are removed. Fig. 2 (on page 56) shows the voltage and current waveform
outputs from a PWM drive.
PWMs have the following advantages.
* Excellent input power factor due to fixed DC bus voltage.
* No motor cogging normally found with six-step inverters.
* Highest efficiencies: 92% to 96%.
* Compatibility with multimotor applications.
* Ability to ride through a 3 to 5 Hz power loss.
* Lower initial cost.
The following are disadvantages, however, that you should also consider.
* Motor heating and insulation breakdown in some applications due to high frequency
switching of transistors.
* Non-regenerative operation.
* Line-side power harmonics (depending on the application and size of the drive).
CSI design
As shown in Fig. 3, the incoming power source to the CSI design is converted to DC voltage
in an SCR converter section, which regulates the incoming power and produces a variable
DC bus voltage. This voltage is regulated by the firing of the SCRs as needed to maintain
the proper volt/hertz ratio. SCRs are also used in the inverter section to produce the
variable frequency output to the motor. CSI drives are inherently current regulating and
require a large internal inductor to operate, as well as a motor load.
CSIs have the following advantages.
* Reliability due to inherent current limiting operation.
* Regenerative power capability.
* Simple circuitry.
The following are disadvantages, however, in the use of CSI technology.
* Large power harmonic generation back into power source.
* Cogging below 6 Hz due to square wave output.
* Use of large and costly inductor.
* HV spikes to motor windings.
* Load dependent; poor for multimotor applications.
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* Poor input power factor due to SCR converter section.

VSI design
As shown in Fig. 4, the VSI drive is very similar to a CSI drive in that it also uses an SCR
converter section to regulate DC bus voltage. Its inverter section produces a six-step
output, but is not a current regulator like the CSI drive. This drive is considered a voltage
regulator and uses transistors, SCRs or gate turn off thyristors (GTOs) to generate an
adjustable frequency output to the motor.
VSIs have the following advantages.
TERMS TO KNOW
Cogging: Pulsating symptom of a motor while operating at a very low frequency, usually 2
to 6 Hz. Shaft of motor jerks in a rotational manner. The term "cogging" comes from gear
cogs.
Non-regenerative: The inability of a drive to regenerate, or reverse, the power flow back
from the motor through the drive.
* Basic simplicity in design.
* Applicable to multimotor operations.
* Operation not load dependent.
As with the other types of drives, there are disadvantages.
* Large power harmonic generation back into the power source.
* Poor input power factor due to SCR converter section.
* Cogging below 6 Hz due to square wave output.
* Non-regenerative operation.
Flux vector PWM drives
PWM drive technology is still considered new and is continuously being refined with new
power switching devices and smart 32-bit microprocessors. AC drives have always been
limited to "normal torque" applications while high torque, low rpm applications have been
the domain of DC drives. This has changed recently with the introduction of a new breed of
PWM drive, the flux vector drive.
Flux vector drives use a method of controlling torque similar to that of DC drive systems,
including wide speed control range with quick response. Flux vector drives have the same
power section as all PWM drives, but use a sophisticated closed loop control from the motor
to the drive's microprocessor. The motor's rotor position and speed is monitored in real
time via a resolver or digital encoder to determine and control the motor's actual speed,
torque, and power produced.
By controlling the inverter section in response to actual load conditions at the motor in a
real time mode, superior torque control can be obtained. The personality of the motor must
be programmed into or learned by the drive in order for it to run the vector control
algorithms. In most cases, special motors are required due to the torque demands
expected of the motor.
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The following are advantages of this new drive technology.

* Excellent control of motor speed, torque, and power.
* Quick response to changes in load, speed, and torque commands.
* Ability to provide 100% rated torque at 0 speed.
* Lower maintenance cost as compared to DC motors and drives.
As usual, there are disadvantages.
* Higher initial cost as compared to standard PWM drives.
* Requires special motor in most cases.
* Drive setup parameters are complex.
While flux vector technology offers superior performance for certain special applications, it
would be considered "over-kill" for most applications well served by standard PWM drives.

Understanding Variable Speed Drives (Part 2)

A thorough understanding of how to match the VFD to the driven load is the key to a
successful application.When applied properly, the variable frequency drive (VFD) is the
most effective motor controller in the industry today. Modern VFDs are affordable and
reliable, have flexibility of control, and offer significant electrical energy savings through
greatly reduced electric bills.
A thorough understanding of how to match the VFD to the driven load is the key to a
successful application.
When applied properly, the variable frequency drive (VFD) is the most effective motor
controller in the industry today. Modern VFDs are affordable and reliable, have flexibility of
control, and offer significant electrical energy savings through greatly reduced electric bills.
They are used in a wide variety of applications for various reasons. For example, they are
the most effective energy savers in pump and fan applications; they enhance process
operations, particularly where flow control is involved. VFDs provide soft-start capabilities,
which decrease electrical stresses and line voltage sags associated with full voltage motor
start-ups, especially when driving high-inertia loads.
To obtain a clear understanding of the proper and most effective application of VFDs, you
first should gain a working knowledge of VFD basic theory as well as a strong familiarity
with practical know-how.
Basic VFD Theory
Applying a VFD to a specific application is no mystery when you understand the
requirements of the load. Simply put, the VFD must have ample current capability for the
motor so that the motor can produce the required torque for the load. You must remember
that machine torque is independent of motor speed and that load horsepower increases
linearly with rpm.
VFD applications can be divided into the following individual load types.

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Constant torque loads. These loads represent 90% of all general industrial machines (other
than pumps and fans). Examples of these load types include general machinery, hoists,
conveyors, printing presses, positive displacement pumps, some mixers and extruders,
reciprocating compressors, as well as rotary compressors.
Constant horsepower loads. These loads are most often found in the machine-tool industry
and center driven winder applications. Examples of constant horsepower loads include
winders, core-driven reels, wheel grinders, large driller machines, lathes, planers, boring
machines, and core extruders.
Traditionally, these loads were considered DC drive applications only. With highperformance flux vector VFD's now available, many DC drive applications of this type can
be now handled by VFDs.
Variable torque loads. Variable torque loads are most often found in variable flow
applications, such as fans and pumps. Examples of applications include fans, centrifugal
blowers, centrifugal pumps, propeller pumps, turbine pumps, agitators, and axial
compressors. VFDs offer the greatest opportunity for energy savings when driving these
loads because horsepower varies as the cube of speed and torque varies as square of
speed for these loads. For example, if the motor speed is reduced 20%, motor horsepower
is reduced by a cubic relationship (.8 X .8 X .8), or 51%. As such, utilities often offer
subsidies to customers investing in VFD technology for their applications. Many VFD
manufactures have free software programs available for customers to calculate and
document potential energy savings by using VFDs.
Sizing VFDs for the Load
How do you size a VFD drive for an application and feel confident it's going to work? First,
you must understand the requirements of the load. It helps also if you understand the
difference between horsepower and torque. As electrical people, we tend to think of loads
in horsepower ratings instead of torque ratings. When was the last time you sized
something based on torque? Thus, both torque and horsepower must be carefully
examined.
Torque. Torque is an applied force that tends to produce rotation and is measured in lb-ft or
lb-in. All loads have a torque requirement that must be met by the motor. The purpose of
the motor is to develop enough torque to meet the requirements of the load.
Actually, torque can be thought of as "OOUMPH". The motor has to develop enough
"OOUMPH" to get the load moving and keep it moving under all the conditions that may
apply.
Horsepower. Horsepower (hp) is the time rate at which work is being done. One hp is the
force required to lift 33,000 lbs 1 ft in 1 min. If you want to get the work done in less time,
get yourself more horses!
Here are some basic equations that will help you understand the relationship between hp,
torque, and speed.
hp = (Torque x Speed)/5250 (eq. 1)
Torque = (hp x 5250)/Speed (eq. 2)
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As an example, a 1-hp motor operating at 1800 rpm will develop 2.92 lb-ft of torque.
Know your load torque requirements Every load has distinct torque requirements that vary
with the load's operation; these torques must be supplied by the motor via the VFD. You
should have a clear understanding of these torques.

Break-away torque: torque required to start a load in motion (typically greater than
the torque required to maintain motion).
Accelerating torque: torque required to bring the load to operating speed within a
given time.
Running torque: torque required to keep the load moving at all speeds.
Peak torque: occasional peak torque required by the load, such as a load being
dropped on a conveyor.
Holding torque: torque required by the motor when operating as a brake, such as
down hill loads and high inertia machines.

Practical Knowhow Guidelines

The following guidelines will help ensure a correct match of VFD and motor.
Define the operating profile of the load to which the VFD is to be applied. Include any or all
of the "torques" discussed above. Using a recording true rms ammeter to record the
motor's current draw under all operating conditions will help in doing this. Obtain the
highest "peak" current readings under the worst conditions. Also, see if the motor has been
working in an overloaded condition by checking the motor full-load amps (FLA). An
overloaded motor operating at reduced speeds may not survive the increased
temperatures as a result of the reduced cooling effects of the motor at these lower speeds.
Determine why the load operation needs to be changed. Very often VFDs have been
applied to applications where all that was required was a "soft start" reduced voltage
controller. The need for the VFD should be based on the ability to change the load's speed
as required. In those applications where only one speed change is required, a VFD may not
be necessary or practical.
Size the VFD to the motor based on the maximum current requirements under peak torque
demands. Do not size the VFD based on horsepower ratings. Many applications have failed
because of this. Remember, the maximum demands placed on the motor by the load must
also be met by the VFD.
Evaluate the possibility of required oversizing of the VFD. Be aware that motor performance
(break-away torque, for example) is based upon the capability of the VFD used and the
amount of current it can produce. Depending on the type of load and duty cycle expected,
oversizing of the VFD may be required.
Key VFD Specifications
While there are many specifications associated with drives, the following are the most
important.

Continuous run current rating. This is the maximum rms current the VFD can safely
handle under all operating conditions at a fixed ambient temperature (usually 40

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[degrees] C). Motor ball load sine wave currents must be equal to or less than this
rating.
Overload current rating. This is an inverse time/current rating that is the maximum
current the VFD can produce for a given time frame. Typical ratings are 110% to
150% overcurrent for 1 min, depending on the manufacturer. Higher current ratings
can be obtained by oversizing the VFD. This rating is very important when sizing the
VFD for the currents needed by the motor for break-away torque.
Line voltage. As with any motor controller, an operating voltage must be specified.
VFDs are designed to operate at some nominal voltage such as 240VAC or 480VAC,
with an allowable voltage variation of plus or minus 10%. Most motor starters will
operate beyond this 10% variation, but VFDs will not and will go into a protective
trip. A recorded voltage reading of line power deviations is highly recommended for
each application.

Applications to Watch Out For

If you answer any of the following questions with YES, be extra careful in your VFD
selection and setup parameters of the VFD.

Will the VFD operate more than one motor? The total peak currents of all motor loads
under worst operating conditions must be calculated. The VFD must be sized based
on this maximum current requirement. Additionally, individual motor protection must
be provided here for each motor.
Will the load be spinning or coasting when the VFD is started? This is very often the
case with fan applications. When a VFD is first started, it begins to operate at a low
frequency and voltage and gradually ramps up to a preset speed. If the load is
already in motion, it will be out of sync with the VFD. The VFD will attempt to pull the
motor down to the lower frequency, which may require high current levels, usually
causing an overcurrent trip. Because of this, VFD manufacturers offer drives with an
option for synchronization with a spinning load; this VFD ramps at a different
frequency.
Will the power supply source be switched while the VFD is running? This occurs in
many buildings, such as hospitals, where loads are switched to standby generators in
the event of a power outage. Some drives will ride through a brief power outage
while others may not. If your application is of this type, it must be reviewed with the
drive manufacturer for a final determination of drive capability.
Is the load considered hard to start? These are the motors that dim the lights in the
building when you hit the start button. Remember, the VFD is limited in the amount
of overcurrent it can produce for a given period of time. These applications may
require oversizing of the VFD for higher current demands.
Are starting or stopping times critical? Some applications may require quick starting
or emergency stopping of the load. In either case, high currents will be required of
the drive. Again, oversizing of the VFD maybe required.
Are external motor disconnects required between the motor and the VFD? Service
disconnects at motor loads are very often used for maintenance purposes. Normally,
removing a load from a VFD while operating does not pose a problem for the VFD. On
the other hand, introducing a load to a VFD by closing a motor disconnect while the
VFD is operational can be fatal to the VFD. When a motor is Started at full voltage, as
would happen in this case, high currents are generated, usually about six times the
full load amps of the motor current. The VFD would see these high currents as being

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well beyond its capabilities and would go into a protective trip or fail altogether. A
simple solution for this condition is to interlock the VFD run permissive circuit with
the service disconnects via an auxiliary contact at the service disconnect. When the
disconnect is closed, a permissive run signal restarts the VFD at low voltage and
frequency.
Are there power factor correction capacitors being switched or existing on the
intended motor loads? Switching of power factor capacitors usually generates power
disturbances in the distribution system. Many VFDs can and will be affected by this.
Isolation transformers or line reactors may be required for these applications.

Power factor correction at VFD-powered motor loads is not necessary as the VFD itself does
this by using DC internally and then inverting it into an AC output to the motor. All VFD
manufacturers warn against installing capacitors at the VFD output.

Understanding Variable Speed Drives (Part 3)

Correct installation of variable frequency drives demands attention to vital factors such as
location and environment, electrical connections grounding, supply voltage, and protective
devices.Over 50% of drive failures are a result of improper installation and start-up. As
such, you can avoid many problems by carefully planning your VFD installation prior to the
actual work beginning. There are several
Correct installation of variable frequency drives demands attention to vital factors such as
location and environment, electrical connections grounding, supply voltage, and protective
devices.
Over 50% of drive failures are a result of improper installation and start-up. As such, you
can avoid many problems by carefully planning your VFD installation prior to the actual
work beginning. There are several key factors that must be considered to ensure a proper
VFD installation.
The drive installation procedure begins with a thorough reading of the drive's manual.
(That's the book we always put aside until we have problems and need answers). This
manual will give you important information about receiving, storage, and planning for the
installation before the equipment arrives. It's a good practice to make several copies of the
manual; it seems they always end up in that great void with all the other lost manuals.
Better yet, specify additional spare manuals for the drive with your order.
Cooling and line power quality considerations
There are many important considerations for all industrial electronic equipment; however,
the two most important are cooling and line power quality.
Cooling. VFD control units should be installed in locations where the maximum ambient
temperature does not exceed 40 [degrees] C (104 [degrees] F). This is a common
temperature rating for most units. If higher ambients are expected, derating of the VFD
may be required.

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You should avoid installing units in mezzanines, direct sunlight, or near external heat
sources because these locations usually have unpredictable temperature rises. If you must
install VFDs in such areas, take steps to provide necessary cooling.
Proper cooling of the VFD's heat sink is essential for successful operation. Wall-mounted
units employ a "chimney effect" for cooling of the heat sink and must be mounted against a
smooth, flat, vertical surface. If a wall-mounted unit is to be installed in a free-standing
position, then plywood or a sheet of metal should be fastened to the back of the unit to
ensure that chimney-effect cooling will be achieved. Larger free-standing VFDs require
minimum clearances around them for sufficient air flow to circulate through them, assuring
adequate cooling.
Altitude affects the heat dissipation capability of the heat sink and units in locations at
3300 ft (1000 m) above sea level must be derated. A common rule of thumb is a 2%
derating for every 1000 ft above the 3300 ft altitude level.
Supply line power quality. The line voltage (supply) to the drive input should not vary plus
or minus 10% because most drives will trip via a protective fault. This voltage stability
should be considered when running conductors to the drive and voltage drops should be
calculated for long runs.
Very often external control signals are used to start/stop and control the speed of a VFD.
Control signal types can vary depending on the application. It's not unusual to have a 115V
or 24V control circuit for start commands and a 4-20mA or 0-5VDC signal for speed control.
These control signals must be run independently of each other as well as separate from
any power wiring. Induced noises can produce erratic drive behavior that is very difficult to
troubleshoot.
Other VFD installation considerations
There are other installation considerations for VFDs. These include electrical connections,
grounding, fault protection, motor protection, and environmental parameters such as
humidity and moisture.
Electrical connections. The sizing and installation of VFD line and load conductors should
conform with the NEC and other appropriate local codes.
Grounding. For safe and dependable operation, all VFDs must be properly grounded. This
normally calls for a grounding conductor to be brought back to a single-point grounding
location, usually selected to be at the service. In addition, a grounding conductor must be
brought back from the motor to the VFD's internal grounding terminal. This direct motor
ground to the VFD is required to minimize interference and for the ground-fault protection
function of the drive to operate properly.
Fault protection. Many VFDs have short-circuit protection (usually in the form of fuses)
already installed by the manufacturer. This is usually the case on larger hp units. Smaller
units (1/3 to 5 hp) normally require external fuse protection. In either case, the selection
and sizing of these fuses is critical for semiconductor protection in the event of a fault. The
manufacturer's recommendations must be followed when installing or replacing fuses for
the VFD. Be sure to torque-bolt fuses in place according to the manufacturer's
specifications to assure fast operation of fuses in case of a fault.

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Motor protection. All motors require overload protection. The most common practice is the
use of a motor overcurrent relay system that will protect all three phases and protect
against single-phasing. This type of protection will respond to motor overcurrent conditions
of an overloaded motor, but will not detect over-temperature conditions.
A motor operating at reduced speeds will have reduced cooling; as a result, it may fail due
to thermal breakdown of the motor windings insulation. Thus, the optimum protection for a
motor is thermal sensing of the motor windings. This sensing is then interlocked with the
VFD's control circuit. This is highly recommended for any motor that is to be operated for
extended periods of time at low speeds.
Humidity and moisture. As is the case with all electrical and electronic equipment, high
humidity and corrosive atmosphere's are a concern. Drive units should be installed in a
noncorrosive location whenever possible, with ambient humidity ranging between 0 to 95%
noncondensing.
Completing the installation
Installation of a VFD is no different than any other type of motor control. Common sense,
along with the manufacturer's guide lines and adherence to the appropriate code
requirements, are all that is needed.
At this point in time you'll probably want to power-up the VFD and give it a test.
STOP...DON'T DO IT! Most fatal VFD failures occur about now.
A start-up procedure must be followed for the safe and correct start-up of the VFD. If the
installation is performed by outside contractors, a notice should be placed on the VFD
reading: Start-up by Facility Personnel Only.

Understanding Variable Speed Drives (Part 4)

A carefully organized start-up procedure assures better equipment operation and system
reliability while greatly simplifying future troubleshooting.Proper start-up procedures for
variable frequency drives (VFDs) are of paramount importance to the ultimate success and
effective operation of the VFD installation. In fact, successful installation of nearly any
electrical equipment or system benefits
A carefully organized start-up procedure assures better equipment operation and system
reliability while greatly simplifying future troubleshooting.
Proper start-up procedures for variable frequency drives (VFDs) are of paramount
importance to the ultimate success and effective operation of the VFD installation. In fact,
successful installation of nearly any electrical equipment or system benefits from an
orderly, well-planned start-up process similar to the procedure presented here.
In addition to a fast and smooth start-up, other major benefits of an organized start-up
procedure are as follows.
* A better understanding of all component and system functions.
* Documentation of data for warranty purposes.

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* Accumulation of baseline information and values to speed future troubleshooting and

proper maintenance.
Of course, during initial design stages and long before start-up, you'll have developed a
good understanding of the application and its variations to assure the best possible
performance of the load. Also by this time, you'll have a good knowledge of the VFD's
features and adjustments for fine tuning it to the application.
Prior to start-up
First, read and follow all caution notes and warnings provided by the VFD manufacturer.
These will be found in the equipment manual as well as labeled on the VFD equipment
itself.
Next, read the entire VFD manual and highlight the features and adjustments you expect to
use. Pay particular attention to connection terminals for power and control and locate these
within the VFD control enclosure.
Important note. Before energizing the VFD make a physical inspection of it and look for the
following.
* Any moisture or debris (metal shavings for example) inside the equipment.
* Damage or dents to the enclosure, damaged or loose components and wires, and
disconnected terminal connectors.
* Possible restrictions to air flow at the cooling fans or heat sink.
* Unremoved shipping blocks or tapes at power contactors, relays, etc.
In addition to the VFD itself, you should also make a visual inspection of the entire system,
including motors, disconnect switches, circuit breakers, controls, load components, control
devices (limit, float, pressure switches), etc.
Finally, you should make an intense and thorough check of the following items.
* Connections (line, load, and ground).
* Motor (horsepower, full-load amps, voltage, and rotation).
* VFD (input/output voltages, maximum output current).
* Protective devices (circuit breaker, fuses, overloads, thermal devices).
* Disconnects (are they in place and sized correctly).
* Incoming line power voltage measurements to the VFD (A-B phase, B-C phase, C-A
phase).
Start-up guide sheet/report
You should use a VFD start-up guide sheet/report in your start-up procedure. A sample of a
report is on page 62. This document verifies all parameters prior to power up; documents
the installation for warranty claims; and aids in troubleshooting for future problems. Even if
you are not doing start-up, you should require this report from whomever performs the
start-up.
Start-up instruments
To help you have a start-up that is effective and efficient, we recommended that you have
available the following instruments.
* True rms multimeter capable of reading AC/DC voltages up to 750V.
* True rms clamp-on ammeter capable of reading the VFD's maximum current output.
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* Photo tachometer to verify shaft output speed at load.

* Current/voltage signal generator to generate a reference analog signal to VFD (4-20mA or
0-5V). (This is extremely useful on HVAC applications where the building automation
system designed to control the VFD is not ready at time of start-up.)
* Oscilloscope to check wave shapes of VFD output to motor. These wave shapes can be
compared to those provided in the start-up manual, or recorded (via Polaroid camera) for
future comparison during troubleshooting or maintenance. The scope also can be used
to check volts/hertz ratio.
Make up a complete final check, via a check-off list, of all electrical and mechanical
components to be sure that they are set correctly. This includes valves, dampers, limit
switches, steady-state voltage and current values, etc.
Station people at key locations (motor, controller panel, load(s), etc).
A proper start-up can be considered complete only when the VFD is operated at full load.
This is important because you then can make meaningful drive adjustments. You can verify
this by actually checking the FLA and comparing the value to that on the motor nameplate.
When the start-up command is given, watch, listen, and smell for anything unusual. Once
start-up has been accomplished, allow the system to run a few hours before taking test
readings for future comparison.

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