Soap

And
Detergent

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Soaps and detergent

2.1:What is soap?

Soap is salt that is formed from reaction between an alkali and fatty
acid,RCOOH
*Soap is sodium soap if the alkali used is sodium hydroxide
*Soap is potassium soap if the alkali used is potassium hydroxide

General formula of soap is RCOONa or RCOOK

It can be saturated or unsaturated

2.2:Preparation of soap

Soap can be prepared through Saponification, Saponification process

is a hydrolysis process of oil or fats by alkali.
Preparation of soap can be divided into 2 stages:
Stage 1 :

The two parts of oil or fat molecule are seperated by heating the oil
with alkaline soulution through hydrolysis process.
In this process, the ester molecule is broken up into fatty acid and
glycerol by water in the presence of alkali which act as catalysts.
Hydrolysis
Ester + Water ---------------------------------- Fatty Acid + glycerol
Alkali act as catalysts

Stage 2 :

Fatty acid that is realeased in stage 1 reacts with alkali to form

sodium salt of fatty acid which is soap.
Fatty Acid + Sodium Hydroxide( alkali)-----------------------Sodium
salt of fatty acid
(soap) + Water

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2.3 What is detergent?

Detergent is a salt that is produced from the reaction between an

alkali and a sulphonic acid.
Detergent is sodium salt of sulphonic acid.

2.4 Preparation of detergent

Natural detergent is made from animal or vegetable oil while

synthetic detergent is normally made from petroleum

2.5 The cleasing action of soap and detergent

Cleansing action of soap
1. The soap molecule dissoles in water and reduces the surface tension
of water.
2. The hydrophilic region dissolves in water.
3. The hydrophobic region dissolves in dirt.
4. The dirt is lifted off the surface of material upon shaken and
suspended in water.
5. The tail regeion emulsifies and breaks up the grease into small
drops.
6. When shaken, the water molecules will attract the soap ions and
cause the dirt to detact from the surface of the material.
7. The soap bubbles help to float the dirt emulsion in the water. When
rinsed, the dirt will be removed together with water.

Cleansing action of detergent

1. Detergent molecule dissociate to form sodium or potassium ions
and detergent ions.
2. Hydrophilic region dissolve in water. Hydrophobic dissolve in grease
and emulsifies the grease.
3. When the water is shaken, the detergent ion will remove the dirt.

2.6 Compare and contrast the effectiveness of cleansing action of soap

and detergent
Properties

Soap

Detergent

Cleaning power

Less Powerful

More Powerful

Ease of rinsing

It is difficult to wash
Rinse out well from
away all soap on
clothes
clothes .The soap
remains leave odor and
spoils the fabrics
Slightly alkaline
Can be controlled to
suit the cleaning task

PH
Molecular structure

Determined by fatty
acids found in the oil or
fats used to produce
soap

Formation of scum

Form scum with hard

water

Can be modified to suit

the cleaning task.For
example,a detergent
can be made speacially
for toilet bowl cleaning
Does not form scum
with hard water

2.7 Additives in detergent and their function

Addictives
Biological enzyme
Whitening agent
Optical whitener
Builder

Functions
To Remove proten stain such as
blood
To convert stain into colorless
substances
To add whiteness and brightness to
white fabrics
To enhance the cleaning efficiency
of detergent by softening the water

Suspension agent

To prevent dirt particles removed

from redepositing onto clean fabrics

Filler

To add to the bulk of detergent and

enable it to be poured easily

Foam control agent

To control foaming in detergent

Fragrance

To add fragrance into both

detergent and fabrics

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Food additives
3.1
Types of food additives,examples and function
Food preservative have been used since ancient times. Ancient
civilization used salt to preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to
improve flavor of food.

Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small

quantities for specific purposes such as protection against bacterial
attack or restoring the colour of food destryoed during food
processing.

Type of food additives

Examples of food additives

Preservatives

Sodium nitrate,benzoic acid,sulphur

dioxide, sodium sulfite, sorbic
acid ,sodium sorbate
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C), BHA
(butylated hydroxyanisole) ,BHT
(butylated hydrixitoluene) ,citric
acid
Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
,aspartame
Gelatin ,acacia gum (agar)

Antioxidants

Flavoring agents
Stabilisers and thickening agents
Dye(Coloring agents)

Azo compounds ,triphenyl

compounds

Functions of food additives

1. Preservatives
Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or
to prevent the growth of microorganism such as bacteria,
mould or fungus, so that the food can be stored for a longer
time.
2. Antioxidants
Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to food to prevent
the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.
3. Flavoring agents

Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They are

chemicals that are added to food to bring out the flavours or
to enhance the taste of food.
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4. Stabilisers and thickening agents
stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and the
blending of foods.Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to
enable oil and water in the food to mix together properly in
order to form an emulsion of oil and water.
5. Dye(Coloring agents)
Dye is chemical that are added to food to give them or restore
colour so as to improve their appearance.

3.2 Effect of food additives

Excessive intake of food additives for a prolonged period of
time will ruin our health. The side effects arising from taking
food additives are allergy, cancer ,brain damage and
hyperactivity.

1) Allergy
*Food additives such as sodium sulphite (perservative), BHA and
BHT (antioxidants), MSG(Flavouring) and some food colorings
can cause allergic reactions.
2) Cancer
*Chemicals the cause cancer are called carcinogens .Sodium
nitrite (perservative) is a potent carcinogen.
3) Brain damage
*Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged period of time can
cause brain damage. In this condition, the supply of oxygen to
the brain is disrupted and this cause brain damage.
4) Hyperactivity
*Children who are hyperactivity become very active, find it
difficult to relax or sleep and are very restless.

Medicines
4.1 Traditional medicines,source and uses

Medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases to

reduce pain and suffering due to illness.
Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural
sources such as plants and animals without being processed
chemically.
Since ancients, mankind had used carious types of plants and
roots,animals and animal part to cure diseases.
Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal
medicines. The sources and uses of some herbal medicines
are shown in the table below:

Plant

Part of the plant

used

Garlic

Corm

Ginger

Rhizome
(horizontal
underground
stem) and leaves

Aloe vera

Leaves

Lemon (lime)

Fruits

Quinine

Bark of
Chinchona tree

Ginseng

Roots

Uses
For preventing flu attack
For reducing high blood
pressure
For treating stomach pain
due to wind in the
stomach
For supplying heat energy
to keep the body warm
For preventing flu attack
For preventing itchy skin
For treating burns
(scalding) on the skin
For treating boils or
abscesses on the skin
For preventing flu attack
For treating skin diseases
For treating malaria
For preventing muscle
cramps
As a tonic to improve the
overall health of human
beings
For increasing energy,
endurance and reducing

Lemon grass

Stem/leaves

Tongkat Ali

Roots

fatigue
Has antibacterial and
antifungal properties
For treating cough
As a tonic for after a birth
and general health

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Modern Medicines
1. Before 20th century, most medicines were extracted from
plants ( herbals).Since 1900, thousand of modern drugs have
been synthesized from organic compound.
2. Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their
effects on the human body.
3. Modern medicines are analgesics, antibiotics,
psychotherapeutic drugs and etc.
4. Modern drugs have a trade name and a generic name. For
example, the analgesic aspirin is sold uner different brand
names such as Caprin and disprin.Similarly,paracetamol is
sold under the trade name of Panadol.
5. Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of active
ingredients prepared in different forms,such as capsules, pills,
solution or suspensions.For example, AlkaSeltzer contains
sodium bicarbonate, citric acid and aspirin. It is the sodium
bicarbonate then neutralizes the excess stomach acid.

Function of each type of modern drugs

Analgesics
1. Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain.Examples of
analgesics are aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesics
are sometimes called painkillers.
2. Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine
is powerful painkillers.
3. Analgesics relieve pain but do not cure the disease.
4. Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory action
a) The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec ackid.
Aspirin contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid

group and the ester group. Thus,aspirin is acidic in

nature.
b) Uses of aspirin:
Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as
relieves pain. Aspirin is used to:
I.
Reduce fever
II.
Relieve headaches, Muscle and joint aches
III.
Treat arthritis, a disease cause by inflammation of
the joints
IV.
Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of
blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack and
strokes.

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5) Paracetamol
a) Paracetamol have the following structural formula.
Thus,unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.
b) Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects(reduces
fever and relieves pain)but it does not reduce
inflammation.
c) Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu sumptoms such
as fever, bone aches and runny nose.
6) Codeine
a) Codeine is an organic compound that contains the
elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
b) Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relieve mirror to
moderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than
morphine. Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugs.
c) Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing
coughs.

Antibiotics : Antibacterial medicines

1. Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth
of infectious microorganism.
2. Examples of antibiotics are pinicillin and streptomycin.
3. Antibiotics are used to treat diseases cause by bacteria.
4. Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral
infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.
5. Penicillin
a) Penicillin is derived from the mould Pinicillium
notatum.

b) Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by

bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.
c) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For
example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.
6. Streptomycin is the antibiotic that is effective in treating
tuberculosis.

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Psychotherapuetic medicines
1) Psyschotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for
treating mental or emotional illnesses.
2) Psychotherapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups as
shown in table below:
Types of psychotherapeuric drugs
A)Stimulants
B) Antidepressant
C) Antipsychotic agents

Example
Caffeine, amphetamine
Prozac
Chloropromazin

3) Stimulants
a) Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic drugs
that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and
central nervous system.
b) Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when
it needs to prepare for demanding or energetic
activities.
c) Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,
less tired and more cheerful.
d) Examples of stimulants are caffeine and
amphetamines.Caffeine is a week,naturally occurring
stimulant and is found on coffee,tea and Cola drinks.
e) Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,
as well as the blood pressure.As a result,it causes the
body to postpone the need of sleep and can
reverse,partially and temporarily, the symptoms of
fatigue.

4) Antidepressents
a) Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of
depression are caused by a chemical imbalance in the
brain.
b) People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They
experience a loss of interest in everyday activities such
as work or hobbies.
c) There is a strong correlation between the amounts of
special chemicals(called neurotransmitters)in the brain
and a person's mood.If these chemicals get too low, the
person may feel depressed.
d) Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain's
level of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.
e) Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.

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5) Antipsychotic medicines
a) Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which people
lose touch with reality.
People with psychosis may,
Hear voice and see things that are not really there
(hallucinations).
Have belief that are not based on reality(delusions).
b) In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that are
classied under 'psychosis',such as
schizophrenias(madness),psychotic depression,mania
and so on.
c) Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings.Their
mood changes rapidly from high spirit to deep
depression.
d) Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to help
the person live a more normal life.

Side effects of traditional medicines.

1. it is generally believed that traditional medicines have little
side effects compared to modern medicines.In fact,
traditional medicines are sometimes used to couteract the
side effects of some modern medicines.
2. However,taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged period
may cause hearing loss. German health officials recently

reported 40 cases of liver damage which were linked to the

herbal medicine containing kava-kava.
3. While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally, health
experts have insufficient data about how it affects patients.
4. The World Health Organisation (WHO) hopes to set up a
global monitoring system to monitor the adverse side effects
of traditional medicines.

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Side effects of modern medicines

Type of
modern drug
Aspirin

Amphetamin
es

Side effects
Can cause bleeding in the stomach because
aspirin is vey acidic.
Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and
asthmatic attacks
People who abuse amphetamines are excitable
and talkative.
Psychologically additive and can cause heart
attack.
Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive
behavior and decrease appetite.
Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and
trembling hands.

Codeine

Can cause addiction.

Penicillin

Can cause allergic reactions.

Can cause death for people who are allergic to it.
Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and
fever.

Streptomycin

 Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use.

Stimulants
Antidepressa
nts
Antipsychotic
drugs

Can cause addiction.

Can cause addiction.
Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of
appetite.
Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary
retention, constipation.
Can cause tremor and restlessness.
Sedation (make people calmer, or to make people
sleepy)

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Correct ways of using medicines
In taking any medicine we should know why the medicine is prescribed,
how the medicine should be used, what special precautions precautions
should be followed, what special diet should be followed, what are the side
effects, and what storage conditions are needed. In addition, we should
note the following points :
1. Self medication
Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for other
people. Discuss with your doctor and listen to him concerning the
medicine to be taken.
2. Follow the instructions given
Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist
concerning the dosage and method of taking the medicine.

3. Medicines for adult and children

Medicines for adult should not be given to children and vice versa.
4. Side effects
Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of allergy or
other effects of the drugs.
5. Expiry date
Like foods, medicines also have expiry date.Do not take medicines
after their expiry dates.

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