Tourism and Hospitality Research 2011 Lin 30 48

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Hospitality Research
Food as a form of Destination Identity: A Tourism Destination Brand Perspective

Yi-Chin Lin, Thomas E. Pearson and Liping A. Cai
Tourism and Hospitality Research 2011 11: 30
DOI: 10.1057/thr.2010.22
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Research Paper
Food as a form of destination identity:

A tourism destination brand perspective
Received (in revised form): 1st December 2009
Yi-Chin Lin
is an Assistant Professor of Graduate Institute of Hospitality Management at National Kaohsiung University of
Hospitality and Tourism, Taiwan. Dr Lins research focuses on hospitality and tourism marketing.
Thomas E. Pearson
is a Professor of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Purdue University, specializing in the areas of business
analysis and corporate development. He has experience in lodge operations and across the foods industries.
Liping A. Cai
is a Professor of Hospitality and Tourism Management, and the Director of Tourism and Hospitality Research Center
at Purdue University. He specializes in branding, consumer behavior in travel and tourism, as well as communitybased tourism development and marketing.
ABSTRACT The study investigated the identity of food in relation to Taiwan as a

tourism destination. Tourism brochures and destination websites were assessed. Thereafter, a comparison on the identity of food was drawn between the materials used in
destination marketing and the perspectives of destination stakeholders. The findings
illustrated that the structure of food identity in relation to a destination includes a
core and extended identity. The core and extended identity of food in Taiwan is
inconsistent to some extent, in terms of the type of food that best attracts international tourists. It is suggested that seven identified dimensions of food can be used
to specify the aspects of food that can adequately reflect the characteristics of a destination; and, therefore, properly convey this to its intended markets. On the whole,
food can be used as a form of destination brand identity and become a powerful
means in building a destination brand.
Tourism and Hospitality Research (2011) 11, 3048. doi:10.1057/thr.2010.22; published online 18 October 2010
Keywords: food; identity; destination marketing and branding
INTRODUCTION
Over the past decade, the ever-increasing
competition between tourism destinations has
Correspondence: Yi-Chin Lin
Graduate Institute of Hospitality Management,
National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism,
Taiwan.
E-mail: yclin@mail.nkuht.edu.tw
2011 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1467-3584
led to the development of more appealing

attractions to catch the attention of prospective
tourists. Many destinations have used food as
a source of attraction in strengthening their
tourism marketing. For instance, the Taste of
Wales initiative has successfully promoted
local food and food products, thereby giving a
boost to the hospitality industry throughout
Tourism and Hospitality Research
www.palgrave-journals.com/thr/
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
Food as a form of destination identity
Wales ( Jones and Jenkins, 2002). Australia has

tried to integrate food tourism with travel
destinations across the continent (Cambourne
and Macionis, 2003). The Niagara Region,
Canada, has developed Niagara cuisine as a
new tourism product (Telfer and Hashimoto,
2003). Henderson (2004) indicates that the
characteristics of Singapores geography, history
and modernity are evident in its food and that
those same characteristics have become a selling
point for the Singapore Tourism Board. All of
these examples demonstrate that food is directly
or indirectly connected with specific destinations; it encourages tourists to taste and experience a regions cuisine. More importantly,
researchers indicate that food can be used as a
means of marketing and branding a tourism
destination (Frochot, 2003; Boyne and Hall,
2004; du Rand and Heath, 2006; Hashimoto
and Telfer, 2006; Fox, 2007).
The extant literature on brand management
and tourism-destination branding states that a
clear and consistent identity is the basis of
building a strong brand (Aaker, 1996). Explicitly, the strength of a brand is determined by
the consistency of various brand-identity
components (Keller, 2003; Burmann and
Zeplin, 2005). The notion of identity in the
corporate context concerns the attempts of a
firm or an organization to identify itself and
convey its uniqueness and symbolic meanings
to all consumers, stakeholders and the general
public (Nandan, 2005). Brand identity usually
serves to distinguish a product, service or
organization from its competitors and to make
consumers more loyal. In accordance with the
brand-identity concept, Morgan et al (2002)
indicate that the core values of a tourism destination brand should be established and that the
representative elements of a destination need
to be clearly identified in building a successful
destination brand. Cai (2002) further asserts
that the elements of a tourism destination brand
should be unified in forming a consistent,
unique and strong destination brand identity.
Recently, it has been argued that a unique
and memorable food identity can contribute
to the sustainable competitiveness of a destination

(du Rand and Heath, 2006; Fox, 2007).
Hashimoto and Telfer (2006) point out that the
food of a specific place is essential to its success
as a tourism destination; and they examine the
relationship between Canadian identity and
Canadian cuisine to identify potential branding
strategies for the nations culinary tourism.
According to the Annual Survey Report on
Visitors Expenditure and Trends in Taiwan
(Taiwan Tourism Bureau, 2008), food is the
main reason why international tourists visit
Taiwan. More than half of the inbound tourists
came to Taiwan because of its food (cuisine and
fruit), and about 60 per cent of them sample
local delicacies in the night markets, for example,
oyster omelets, stinky tofu and pearl milk tea.
Official information also indicates a range of
food-related establishments serving all kinds of
food to tourists in Taiwan, not only traditional
Chinese and Taiwanese cuisines but also foods
from all over the world (Taiwan Service Industry
Development Newsletter Bimonthly, 2008). It
is evident that food in Taiwan is diverse and
abundant, which makes Taiwan a good destination for gourmands.
Although there is statistical evidence that food
is a key tourist attraction in Taiwan, one of the
challenges that they face is the development of
a clear and consistent food identity that can be
used to market and brand Taiwan as a culinary
tourism destination. This study has two purposes:
(1) to develop a framework with respect to a
food identity in relation to a destination and
assess the case of Taiwan as a tourism destination
and (2) to investigate, on the basis of this proposed framework, the distinctiveness and consistency of the food identity from the supply side
of tourism. To conclude, this study provides
suggestions for the development and implementation of food tourism as a destination marketing
and branding strategy.
FOOD AND DESTINATION

MARKETING AND BRANDING
With the growing role that food plays in
tourism, many researchers have devoted time
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
31
Lin et al
to the study of the relationship between food

and a specific tourism destination, such as food
tourism, culinary tourism and gastronomic
tourism. Hall and Mitchell (2001) define food
tourism as visitation to primary and secondary
food producers, food festivals, restaurants and
specific locations for which food tasting and/or
experiencing the attributes of specialist food
production region are the motivating factor for
travel (p. 308). Long (2004) defines culinary
tourism as the intentional, exploratory participation in the foodways of another participation including the consumption, preparation,
and presentation of a food item, cuisine, meal
system, or eating style considered to belong to
a culinary system not ones own (pp. 2021).
Regarding gastronomic tourism, Santich (2004)
posits that it is tourism or travel motivated, at
least in part, by an interest in food and drink,
eating and drinking (p. 20). Santich further
states that gastronomic tourism is about participating in another culture, associated with a
particular place and people. According to these
explanations of the use of food in tourism, it
is apparent that food has the ability to enhance
the sustainability and the authenticity of a destination, strengthen the economy of a place and
establish the hospitality of a region (du Rand
et al, 2003; Everett and Aitchison, 2008). Food
can also be used in branding a destination
(Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006).
It is known that branding is an efficient way
for a destination to raise awareness and create
a positive image in tourists minds, specifically
through brand associations (Cai, 2002; Konecnik
and Go, 2008). Brand associations, also known
as brand image, refer to any brand-related information that is linked to a node in consumers
memories (Keller, 2003). A set of brand
associations can create a rich and clear brand
identity (Nandan, 2005). In forming brand associations with respect to a specific destination,
it is widely suggested that brand name, logo,
symbol, slogan and packaging are key elements,
and that each of these elements should reflect
the characteristics of the destination (Cai,
2002; Tasci and Kozak, 2006). In light of this
32
perspective, food can be considered an essential

element in building a destination brand
(Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006), because food is
often intertwined with the social, cultural and
natural characteristics of a specific region, and
therefore carries a large number of symbolic
meanings (Lockie, 2001). As a result, food has
a strong connection to a place. French wines
(Henchion and McIntrye, 2000), Italian pasta
(Alexander, 2000) and Cajun cuisine (Ten Eyck,
2001) are good examples. In light of this fact,
the distinctiveness of food in relation to a place
plays a significant role in a destination identity
(Everett and Aitchison, 2008).
To build a strong brand, a clear and desirable
identity is necessary. Therefore, it is important
to provide tourists with meaningful connections among food, experiences and destinations
(Kivela and Johns, 2003). Multiple empirical
studies have found that many tourists are
attracted to regional and ethnic foods because
of their desire to have a unique experience
(Reynolds, 1993; Hall et al, 2003; Cohen and
Avieli, 2004). More important, tourists foodrelated experiences can contribute to their
enjoyment of and satisfaction with a tourism
destination (Nield et al, 2000; Yuksel and
Yuksel, 2002) and influence their intention to
revisit that place (Sparks et al, 2003). Kivela
and Johns (2003) state that Our sensory
perceptions play a major psychological and
physiological role in our appraisal and appreciation of food as they do for other experiences
at a destination (p. 3). Specifically, the appearance, aroma and flavor of food not only appeal
to human senses, but also contribute to a
perception of a local distinctiveness (Haukeland
and Jacobsen, 2001).
With respect to the use of food-related
subjects in destination awareness, Sparks et al
(2001) and Sparks et al (2003) emphasize the
significant contributions a restaurant can make
to a tourism destination. They highlight restaurants as an important component of tourist
attraction, which may influence tourists behavior and overall satisfaction with a destination.
More specifically, local restaurants can become
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
a part of destination image held by tourists.

In addition to restaurants, local food shops,
food and beverage outlets, wineries and farms
have also been considered tourist attractions
(Hall et al, 2003; Long, 2004). Jacobsen and
Haukeland (2002) then conclude that three
major factors may influence tourists selection
of eating-places while traveling. These are the
physical standards and ambience of the eating
places, the quality of food along with the
accessibility of the food service locations and
the human factor, such as service quality and
friendliness. In addition to food-related establishments, food-related activities (for example,
food-related festivals and exhibitions of agricultural products) allow food to be treated as
both a commodity and symbol, which can
provide a meaningful experience for tourists
(Long, 2004). The benefits are mutual: although
tourists explore food new to them and discover
the new culture associated with food, their
hosts may use local food to sell their cultures
and histories (Long, 2004). Local communities
and residents make their food marketable and
become a part of destination identity. Meanings for food will then be created or reformed
in tourists minds (Lewis, 1997; Rusher, 2003).
Evidently, food can serve as a powerful
vehicle for conveying deep-rooted meanings
and abstract concepts that express and reflect
the uniqueness of a specific place. Taken
together, food can be seen as a symbol, a sign
of communion, a class marker and an emblem
of a specific place (Bessire, 1998). Therefore,
it is argued that place-specific food can assist
the development of a tourism destination
brand.
THE DESTINATION IDENTITYDESTINATION IMAGE LINKAGE

Tourism literature shows two main trends
regarding interest in destination image. First, it
centers on individuals perceptions of beliefs,
about, and attitudes toward a given place
(Crompton, 1979; Gallarza et al, 2002; Pike,
2002). This is referred to as perceived image
(Gartner, 1993; Baloglu and McCleary, 1999).
In general, the perceived image consists of

cognitive, affective and conative elements that
are hierarchically interrelated (Gartner, 1993).
Cai (2002) indicates that Gartners threecomponent typology parallels Kellers model
of brand image, attributes, benefits and attitudes. Moreover, Echtner and Ritchie (1993)
illustrate that there are three continuums of
destination image: attributeholistic, functionalpsychological and commonunique.
This multidimensional model has been cited as
the most elaborate model of destination image
(MacKay and Fesenmaier, 1997; Jenkins, 1999;
MacKay and Couldwell, 2004). With respect
to the assessment of perceived destination
image, individuals are typically asked to indicate their evaluations of a places perceived
attributes, their feelings toward the place and
the likelihood of them visiting the place. Taken
together, perceived image is generally considered to be an attitudinal construct (Baloglu
and McCleary, 1999), and it fits within the
tripartite model of attitudes.
On the other hand, destination image can
also be regarded as a projected image, which
is created by different types of media and
information sources (Gunn, 1997). Bramwell
and Rawding (1996) explain projected image
as the ideas and impressions of a place that are
available for peoples consideration (p. 202).
Gunn then further conceptualizes projected
images as either organic or induced. Organic
images come from such sources as news, films,
novels and textbooks. Induced images are
derived from commercial strategies and promotional efforts to attract tourists to a particular
place. Examples include advertising, tourism
brochures and travel shows launched by destination stakeholders. All of these information
sources are named as image formation agents
(Gartner, 1993). Projected image is typically
examined via content analysis techniques to
interpret the messages generated by different
types of information sources, such as mass
media (Mercille, 2005), publications (Molina
and Esteban, 2006) and websites (Govers
and Go, 2005). Jenkins (1999) indicates that a
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
33
Lin et al
vast amount of written and visual material

in destination-marketing communications provides important information about the
preferred images of destination suppliers. These
preferred images not only reflect the resources
and attributes of destinations (MacKay and
Fesenmaier, 1997), but also deliver the destination stakeholders promises to prospective
tourists (Kaplanidou and Vogt, 2003). In other
words, it is about how a specific destination
wishes to be perceived and recognized. Thus,
theoretically, perceived and projected images
are different.
Similarly, from a marketing perspective,
although brand identity and brand image
are related, they are different concepts. The
key difference between these two concepts
is that identity originates from the firm,
whereas image is an individuals perception
of a particular brand (Nandan, 2005). A brand
has to prioritize its focus on the brand identity
that enables its target customer to evaluate a
particular brand accurately and properly
(Ghodeswar, 2008). Aaker (1996) delineates
that brand identity includes a core and extended
identity. The core identity, the central of the
brand, makes the brand unique and valuable.
Specifically, the elements of the core identity
should reflect the meaning and essence of the
brand. To become a strong and successful
brand, not only is a clear and competitive core
identity needed, but well-organized and cohesive elements of extended identity are also
essential (Aaker, 1996). In this sense, brand
identity needs to fairly reflect the firms business strategies in terms of its promises to
customers (Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 2000).
That is, brand message has to be conveyed
clearly (Nandan, 2005). As a result, researchers
suggest that brand identity is a theoretical
concept that would be best understood from
the supply-side perspective (Kapferer, 2004;
Nandan, 2005). In line with this perspective,
Cai (2002) argues that image building comes
one step closer to branding, but it lacks a critical link a brand identity. Kapferer (2004)
further asserts that before knowing how we
34
are perceived, we must know who we are

(p. 82). As such, it is helpful to examine a
wide variety of destination stakeholder-created
messages when attempting to understand a
destination brand identity. In this regard, by
assessing food-related information projected by
destination suppliers, this study aims to provide
a better picture of the identity of food in
relation to a destination.
Due to the fact that various stakeholders,
(such as the tourism and hospitality industries,
the government, destination marketing/
management organizations and locals), often
manage a tourism destination, it is likely to
garner an ambiguous identity and, in turn,
influence how tourists perceive a destination
( Jenkins, 1999). Therefore, it is said that the
destination image projected by different types
of destination marketing media should be
well-recognized and consistent to achieve
success in building a destination brand (Cai,
2002; Blain et al, 2005). Cai (2002) further
confirms the importance of selecting a consistent mix of brand elements to identify and
distinguish a destination (p. 734) in destination
branding. Accordingly, the components or
dimensions of a destination brand identity not
only have to adequately illustrate a destination
brand, but also have to differentiate that destination from its competitors (Konecnik and
Go, 2008).
As food generally contains numerous characteristics related to a specific place or region,
it can logically be perceived as a form of destination brand identity. Several potential benefits
created by a distinctive and consistent local
food identity. First, a clear and positive identity
can assist a particular destination in gaining a
long-term and significant advantage in highly
competitive tourism markets by differentiating
the destination from competing places (Fox,
2007; Everett and Aitchison, 2008). In other
words, destination stakeholders need to establish an understandable and consistent identity
that can be easily understood by tourists and
can be properly delivered to the intended
markets (Cai, 2002; Konecnik and Go, 2008).
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
A focused and consistent message that meets

tourists needs is also required. Next, a strong
and desirable identity, established by linking
food attributes to a given place, can not
only signify a destinations uniqueness but also
promote the regionality of food to tourists
(Hall et al, 2003). Specifically, the food of a
given place could serve as a cognitive cue in
activating destination brand-relevant information retrieval. These positive associations could
influence tourists attitudes and feelings toward
a destination and thereby largely affect their
behavior (Cai, 2002).
The tension and conflicts between what
projected images that contradict the destination
stakeholders perspectives poses a problem
for some destinations while promoting food
in destination marketing and branding. For
example, a study on the associations between
food-related tourism initiatives and the use of
the United Kingdom World Wide Web was
examined and inadequacies were found in the
web-based promotion of local and regional
food, owing to the fragmented communications in regional tourism development and
promotion (Boyne et al, 2003). Another study
on New Zealand food tourism indicated that
contemporary New Zealand cuisine is the
most common cuisine style in local restaurants
(Smith and Hall, 2003). However, only a few
restaurants described the origin of the food on
their menus in terms of being local or New
Zealand produce, and they would be in being
part of a branded and marketed food and
wine trial within their destinations. In the case
of the Australian capital region (Cambourne
and Macionis, 2003), it shows that the wine
industry can provide an opportunity to develop
or strengthen a regional culinary identity.
Nevertheless, Canberra District wines were not
highly promoted by local restaurants because
of certain misconceptions. It is suggested that
setting clear aims and engaging stakeholders
will merge together tourism organizations and
food production sectors.
Accordingly, it is argued that the effective
positioning of the identity of food can become
a powerful tool in marketing and branding a

destination. For example, as Hashimoto and
Telfer (2006) indicate, although Canadas
natural scenery has enjoyed an established
image for years, the Canadian Tourism
Commission (CTC) recently has attempted
to make culinary tourism products a new way
of branding Canada. This is because most
successful destinations have distinct attributes
related to their cultures. Food is considered a
good representative of a given regions culture
(Bessire, 1998). Fox (2007) illustrates that
a new identity of food helps Croatian destinations to rejuvenate their fatigued image and
therefore increase market share by attracting
more and more tourists. In sum, a destination
with a distinct and clear identity of food can
make a contribution to branding a destination.
To achieve the purposes of this study, the
following research questions are examined
through the case study of Taiwan as a tourism
destination: (a) Is there a clear and consistent
identity of food across different destination
media (accomplished by assessing tourism
brochures and destination websites)? (b) Is the
identity of food presented in destination
marketing materials consistent with destination
stakeholders perspectives?
METHOD
Study 1
In order to understand if there is a clear and
consistent identity of food across different
destination media, the content analysis method
was used to analyze food-related information
presented in tourism brochures and destination
websites. Content analysis has proved to be an
efficient method for categorizing the content
of verbal and visual data in marketing communications (Wheeler, 1988). It generally involves
six major steps (Mayring, 2000; Neuendorf,
2004): (a) formulating the research questions
and identifying the constructs involved;
(b) selecting the content to be examined and
defining the unit of analysis; (c) specifying the
categories and developing the coding scheme;
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
35
Lin et al
(d) determining the sample; (e) assessing reliability

and validity; and (f ) analyzing data and interpreting the findings.
Following the suggested procedures, an
open-coding process (Strauss and Corbin,
1990) was first adopted to clarify the concept
of the identity of food in relation to a destination. Open coding is an analytic process that
identifies, names, categorizes and interprets
phenomenon found in the data (Strauss and
Corbin, 1990). The content of Discover Taipei,
issued bimonthly by the Taiwan local government, was selected for a pilot test. In total, 76
articles published in 2003 were examined. All
of the content was coded line-by line. Concepts
on the subject of food-related information
were grouped together with labels and listed
into categories. All categories were examined
and compared to distinguish their characteristics and properties. Thereafter, the preliminary
coding scheme in terms of the identity of food
in relation to a destination was developed.
For the formal test, tourism brochures and
destination websites were selected for the study,
because both have been used to investigate the
use of food in a destination (for example,
Lockie, 2001; Frochot, 2003; Boyne and Hall,
2004; du Rand and Heath, 2006). Moreover,
these two types of media are usually managed
by the supply side of tourism (Gartner, 1993).
It is believed that the investigation can gain a
better understanding of how food and foodrelated subjects are presented and utilized in
a destination. Thus, 24 hard-copy tourism
brochures and 35 destination websites issued
by the Taiwan Tourism Bureau, 25 local
governments and 12 national scenic areas were
examined. The criteria for the sample selection
were as follows. They should be (a) in English
and (b) the introductory brochure and website
of a specific destination. Tourism brochures
were collected from the tourist information
centers and two international airports in Taiwan
between May and June of 2004. Destination
websites were collected in February of 2005.
Based on the developed coding scheme of
the identity of food in relation to a destination,
36
a checklist of all the categories was used to

determine whether the categories were present
or absent. Two coders were trained to fully
understand the meanings of categories and
to correctly perceive those characteristics of
interest in the data. Both of them were female
graduate students, majoring in hospitality and
tourism management. They independently
coded the data in February of 2005. The percentage of agreement was computed to measure
the intercoder reliability, which is only appropriate to use with nominal level variables. The
intercoder reliability of this study was 0.81, an
acceptable level.
Study 2
In Study 2, the main purpose was to investigate
the destination stakeholders perspectives on
the use of food in relation to Taiwan as a
tourism destination. As the selected sample
needed to possess an overall understanding of
Taiwan tourism and offer their expert opinions, the chosen 216 tourism destination stakeholders included 38 tourism officers and 178
chairmen or managers from the hospitality and
tourism industries. All of these chosen institutions, businesses and organizations (such as
international tourist hotels, Chinese restaurants,
inbound travel agencies and international
airlines) were listed on the English version
of either tourism brochures or destination
websites, issued by the Taiwan Tourism
Bureau. Each of them provided one expert as
the sample.
The questionnaire used in this study was
confidential and anonymous. It was written in
Chinese and consisted of two main sections.
Destination stakeholders were asked to indicate
which aspects of food and food-related subjects
are best to attract international tourists. All the
items were measured using a five-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 extremely unimportant
to 5 extremely important. All the measured
items were based on the framework of food
identity in relation to a destination. Next, it
contained questions relating to destination
stakeholders background information, such as
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
gender, age, job title, current job title, length

of time in current job and current institution,
as well as highest level of education.
A survey was conducted between 10 June
and 30 August 2005. The self-administered
questionnaires were mailed to 216 selected
destination stakeholders throughout Taiwan
between the survey period. Destination stakeholders were given 3 weeks to return the questionnaires by mail. Because of the low response
rate by the first deadline, non-responding
destination stakeholders were then contacted
by telephone. Two reminders were mailed to
those non-respondents at 3-week intervals.
Finally, excluding three invalid questionnaires,
83 samples were included in the analysis,
yielding a response rate of 38.43 per cent.
Table 1 presents a descriptive profile of the
survey respondents. Of the 83 respondents,
38 (45.8 per cent) were male and 42 (50.6 per

cent) were female. Most of the respondents
(36.1 per cent) were below the age of 34 years
and were managers of hospitality and tourism
businesses (42.2 per cent). Of the 83 respondents, 40 (48.2 per cent) reported that they
had worked at their current job for more than
5 years and 55 (66.3 per cent) had completed
either a bachelors degree or associates degree.
Further, the triangulation method was used
to examine the consistency of findings generated by the different data collection methods
(Patton, 2002, p. 556). Data analyses were
performed using SPSS 12.0 for Windows. First,
descriptive statistics were used to characterize
the sample. To examine the consistency of the
identity of food in relation to a destination, the
percentage of the presence of food-related
information was calculated, and then 2 tests
Table 1: Descriptive profile of destination stakeholders (N=83)

Variable
Category
Gender
Male
Female
Missing value
Below 34
3544
4554
5564
Missing value
Officer
President/Owner
Manager
Consultant/Specialist
Other
Less than 1
13
35
Over 5
Missing value
High-school diploma
Associates degree
Bachelors degree
Masters degree
Doctorate
Missing value
Age group (years)
Job title
Length of time in current job (years)
Educational level
Sample size (n)
Percentage (%)
38
42
3
30
22
19
9
3
22
8
35
14
4
8
21
13
40
1
6
21
34
18
1
3
45.8
50.6
3.6
36.1
26.5
22.9
10.8
3.6
26.5
9.6
42.2
16.9
4.8
9.6
25.3
15.7
48.2
1.2
7.2
25.3
41.0
21.7
1.2
3.6
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
37
Lin et al
were performed to determine the statistical

differences (P < 0.05) between tourism brochures
and destination websites. Next, a one-way analysis of variance, followed by a Tukeys honestly
significant difference test, were carried out to
examine the significant differences (P < 0.05)
among items within each category of foodrelated information. Finally, the findings of the
first study compared with the results of the
second study to gain a better understanding of
the identity of food in relation to Taiwans status
as a tourism destination.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

After analyzing food-related information
presented in tourism brochures and destination
websites, a framework for the identity of food
in relation to a destination is proposed. This
framework consists of 7 dimensions and 14
categories with numbers of items. Seven
dimensions, along with the specific categories,
are described as follows (Table 2). The first
dimension, class of food, includes the type and
style of food. The second role of food, consists
of food-related establishments and activities.

The third character of food, comprise of the
symbol of a culture, indicator of a society and
reflection of a natural environment. The fourth
value of food, includes dining experience,
social and cultural experiences, sensory quality
and promised quality. The fifth feature of food
and food-related subjects, includes the origin
of the food, preparation method, farming
method and producers. The sixth attribute of
foodservice, comprises the attributes of the
service type, dining setting, design and dcor
and special offers. The final dimension,
availability of food and food-related subjects,
relates to information in the form of maps,
addresses, phone numbers, email or transportation information.
Findings from the comparison between
destination marketing materials and destination
stakeholders perspectives indicated that the
identity of food in relation to Taiwan as a
tourism destination is comparatively consistent
in the following dimensions with categories:
(a) class of food: style of food; (b) role of food:
Table 2: A framework of an identity of food in relation to a destination

Dimension
Category
Example item
Class of food
A type of food
A style of food
A food-related establishment
A food-related activity
Raw, cooked, packaged, drink and snack

Traditional, regional, international and fusion
Restaurant, caf, shop, market and farm
Festival, tour, holiday celebration and
exhibition
Custom, history, religion and pop culture
Lifestyle and socio-economic status
Mountain, land, sea, river and weather
Authentic, ethnic, trendy, exotic and religious
With families, friends and a specific group
people
Taste, appearance, smell, freshness and texture
Food safety, health claim and labeling
Origin, ingredient, recipe, and preparing and
farming methods
Service type, amenity, dcor, dining setting and
special offer
Role of food
Character of food
Value of food
Feature of food and

food-related subjects
Attribute of foodservice
Availability of food and
food-related subjects
38
As a symbol of a culture
As an indicator of a society
As a reflection of a natural environment
Dining experience
Social and cultural experiences
Sensory quality
Promised quality
A feature of food or food-related subjects
An attribute of foodservice
An availability of food and food-related
subjects
Days open, price, phone, address,

transportation and map
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
food-related activity; (c) value of food: dining

experience and sensory quality; (d) feature of
food and food-related subjects; (e) attribute
of foodservice; and (f ) availability of food and
food-related subjects.
Among different styles of food, a regional
style of food was the primary preference
(M = 4.59) indicated by destination stakeholders
and frequently featured in both brochures and
websites. As for food-related activities, destination stakeholders indicated that festivals
(M = 4.42), gourmet tours (M = 4.39) and holidays (M = 4.18) were the most important
activities in attracting international tourists.
However, only gourmet tours frequently
appeared in both brochures and on websites.
Festivals (P < 0.05) and holidays (P < 0.05) were
shown more frequently on destination websites
than in tourism brochures. With regard to
dining experiences, an authentic dining experience (M = 4.67) was the most important item
across brochures, websites and destination
stakeholders. Information regarding ethnic
dining experience (P < 0.05) appeared only in
the content of destination websites, and not in
tourism brochures. Regarding sensory quality,
freshness (M = 4.71), combination of senses
(M = 4.58), taste (M = 4.55) and appearance
(M = 4.45) were considerably important and
constantly appeared in brochures and on websites. According to the findings, it appears that
Taiwan as a tourism destination attempted to
incorporate local Taiwanese food with authentic
dining experiences to represent the distinctiveness of Taiwan. The most attractive option for
international tourists to taste and experience
specific Taiwanese food is to participate in
local festivals, gourmet tours and holidays. As
mentioned by Long (2004) and Hall et al
(2003), a wide variety of food-related activities
and a range of dining places allow the hosts to
use local dishes to promote their culinary
cultures to attract tourists and provide meaningful experiences to tourists.
Within features of foodservice, name (M =
4.19), origin (M = 4.12), ingredient (M = 3.99)
and producer of food and food-related subjects
(M = 3.89) were indicated as the relatively

important items. Only origin consistently
appeared in both brochures and websites.
Name (P < 0.05), ingredient (P < 0.05) and
producer (P < 0.05) were more likely to appear
on websites than in brochures. With regard to
the availability of food or food-related subjects,
transportation (M = 4.39), maps (M = 4.30),
addresses (M = 4.02) and menus (M = 4.01)
were indicated as relatively important. The
percentage of presence of addresses and maps
in both brochures and websites were more
than 50 per cent. Findings of this study reveal
that destination stakeholders and destinationmarketing materials largely focused on the
origin of food. Destination suppliers consider
that the origin of food is the most important
information in aiding international tourists to
recognize the authenticity of Taiwanese food.
Perhaps it is because tourists might desire to
familiarize themselves with the local culture,
which is usually associated with local foods
(Sims, 2010).
The relatively inconsistent aspects of the
identity of food are the following dimensions
with categories: (a) class of food: type of food;
(b) role of food: food-related establishment;
and (c) value of food: social and cultural experiences and promised quality.
Regarding the inconsistent part of the type
of food, results revealed that destination stakeholders preferred to use snacks (M = 4.72) to
attract international tourists (Table 3). Although
snacks (P < 0.05) frequently appeared on destination websites, they were not consistently
shown in tourism brochures. In contrast,
cooked food frequently appeared in both destination media, but it (M = 4.23) was not selected
as a highest recommended type of food by
destination stakeholders. Table 4 shows that
night markets and restaurants were more
commonly found in brochures and on websites.
However, the importance of night markets
(M = 4.53) was significantly higher than restaurants (M = 3.87). It seems that there is less agreement on whether restaurant dishes or night
market snacks should be emphasized in
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
39
Lin et al
Table 3: Results of 2 tests and one-way ANOVA on types of food

Type
Brochure (N=24)
Raw
Cooked
Processed
Packaged
Drink
Snack
Website (N=35)
Stakeholder (N=83)
2a
Frequency
Frequency
16
17
6
1
10
66.7
70.8
25.0
4.2
41.7
25
26
24
17
25
71.4
74.3
68.6
48.6
71.4
29.2
25
71.4
Importance
Sig.b
0.700
0.770
0.001
0.000
0.022
4.01
4.23
2.85
3.07
3.63
2
2
4
4
3
0.001
4.72
tests the likelihood that the comparison between the frequency of appearance in brochures and websites are the same.
a 2
b
The mean values of importance with the same number are not significantly different at P < 0.05.
Table 4: Results of 2 tests and one-way ANOVA on food-related establishments

Brochure (N=24)
Restaurant
Caf
Bar
Shop
Market (night)
Recreational
farm
Hotel
Leisure resort
Historical
location
Scenic area
ANOVA
Between
groups
Within groups
Total
Website (N=35)
Stakeholder (N=83)
Frequency
Frequency
2 a
Importance
Sig.b
13
0
0
3
8
4
54.2
0.0
0.0
12.5
33.3
16.7
23
22
10
22
19
15
65.7
62.9
28.6
62.9
54.3
42.9
0.372
0.000
0.004
0.000
0.113
0.034
3.87
3.59
3.47
3.64
4.53
3.86
3,4,5
5
5
4,5
1
3,4,5
0
1
5
0.0
4.2
20.8
7
21
11
20.0
60.0
31.4
0.020
0.000
0.369
4.20
4.06
4.28
1,2,3
2,3,4
1,2,3
25.0
14
40.0
0.232
4.42
1,2
Sum of squares
99.471
df
9
Mean square
11.052
F
13.479
Sig.
0.000
671.470
820
0.819
770.941
829
a 2
b
attracting international tourists. As such, it may

blur the identity of food in relation to Taiwan
as a tourism destination.
In terms of the value of food, Table 5 illustrates that destination stakeholders considered
all of the three types of social and cultural experiences as important issues. However, three
40
types of social and cultural experiences, with

families (P < 0.05), friends (P < 0.05) and local
people (P < 0.05), were more likely to appear
on destination websites than in tourism
brochures. It can be explained by the little
space constraint for the use of destination
websites. Thus, online information about social
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
Table 5: Results of 2 tests and one-way ANOVA on social and cultural experiences
Brochure (N=24)
Website (N=35)
Importance
Sig.b
4.12
4.19
4.00
Mean square
0.787
F
0.979
Sig.
0.377
246
0.804
248
Frequency
Frequency
With family
With friend
With local
people
0
4
0
0.0
16.7
0.0
12
23
14
34.3
65.7
40.0
ANOVA
Between
groups
Within groups
Sum of squares
1.547
df
2
197.711
199.285
Total
Stakeholder (N=83)
2a
0.001
0.000
0.000
a 2
Table 6: Results of 2 tests and one-way ANOVA on promised quality

Brochure (N=24)
Website (N=35)
Stakeholder (N=83)
Frequency
Frequency
2 a
Importance
Sig.b
Food safety
Food labeling
Health claim
Nutritional
content
0
0
0
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1
0
14
10
2.9
0.0
40.0
28.6
0.404
0.000
0.004
4.59
4.42
4.22
4.02
1
1,2
2,3
3
ANOVA
Between
groups
Within groups
Sum of squares
15.060
df
3
Mean square
5.020
F
8.835
Sig.
0.000
186.361
328
0.568
201.422
331
Total
Note: Dashes in cells indicate unavailable data.

a 2
b
and cultural experiences in relation to food

can provide plentiful resources to the intended
target markets, and the content can be quickly
and easily changed and updated.
With respect to the promised quality
(Table 6), although destination stakeholders
pointed out that food safety (M = 4.59) and
labeling (M = 4.42) were significantly important to health claims (M = 4.22) and nutritional
content (M = 4.02), there was a lack of
food safety information in destination media.

Accordingly, among various food-related information aspects, destination suppliers did not
consider the promised quality as best to attract
international tourists.
Furthermore, findings suggest that the identity of food in relation to Taiwan presented in
destination websites was more consistent with
destination stakeholders perspectives. One of
the possible reasons is that the collected
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
41
Lin et al
brochures were predominantly issued between

2002 and 2004. Content of these brochures
was usually renewed annually. However, the
latest updates of destination websites took place
from 2004 to 2005. Website content can be
changed more quickly and easily than brochure
content because of their structural differences.
In other words, if destination marketers launch
a new campaign related to food, the newest
information can be simply accessed from the
Internet, but cannot with any certainty be
gained from the brochures.
On the other hand, the inconsistent identity
of food in relation to a destination between
destination marketing materials and destination
stakeholders perspectives may have resulted
owing to several issues. One of the likely
reasons is a lack of agreement among destination stakeholders on which aspects of food are
important in attracting international tourists.
Although more than 50 per cent of the destination stakeholders indicated that it was important to use food in destination marketing,
approximately 10 per cent of them considered
it unimportant. According to Aaker and
Joachimsthaler (2000), brand identity can fairly
reflect the firms business strategies in terms of
its promises to customers. Thus, if food is not
the primary focus of a specific destination, it
is likely that only limited food-related information will be used in destination media, especially
within the space constraints of tourism brochures.
This fact explains the reasons why some destination media only presented a little food-related
information. Moreover, it also implies that an
ambiguous identity of food across different destination media may be caused by a lack of a
consensus regarding the relative position of food
in Taiwan as a tourism destination. Consistently,
researchers suggest that brand identity is a theoretical concept that would be best understood
from the supply-side perspective (Kapferer, 2004;
Nandan, 2005). Kapferer (2004) further asserts
that before knowing how we are perceived, we
must know who we are (p. 82).
Furthermore, an argument can be made that
the target audiences of the tourism brochures
42
and websites are different regarding the characteristics of potential viewers (Duke and Persia,
1993; Choi et al, 2007). Tourism brochures
were collected from visitor centers and international airports in Taiwan. It is apparent that the
target audience for those English-language
tourism brochures is foreigners traveling in
Taiwan and passengers transferring flights. In
order to deliver impressive messages to potential
tourists within the limited pages of brochures,
Molina and Esteban (2006) suggest that potential tourists attention must first be captured.
Therefore, destination stakeholders may only
select considerably important food-related information to highlight the uniqueness of destinations. On the contrary, anyone can access
destination websites via the Internet without
much difficulty. Destination stakeholders may
provide a great deal of food-related information
on the Internet to attract as many tourists as
possible. Thus, it is not surprising that a wide
range of food-related information was identified
in the content of destination websites, but only
some of it appeared in the content of tourism
brochures. As such, it is highly likely that diverse
messages are presented in destination media, and
that problems of identity may arise. This may
lead to a weak and inconsistent identity perceived
by tourists, which might have a negative effect
on tourists perceptions of a destination (Cai,
2002; Konecnik and Go, 2008). As such, it may
affect the competitive advantages of a tourism
destination and weaken the core values of a
tourism destination brand, if there is a lack of a
distinctive and consistent identity (Morgan et al,
2002; Hall et al, 2003; Fox, 2007; Everett and
Aitchison, 2008).
The deployment of information and
communications technology makes plenty of
food-related information more readily available
to a great number of tourists; however, the
findings imply that a specific focus on a representative food item or food-related subject can
be weak and, in turn, the identity of food in
relation to a destination can become vague.
Owing to the lack of a strong and desirable
identity linked to the food attributes of a
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
specific destination, the uniqueness of a destination could not be clearly identified, and
therefore, it would be difficult to promote the
regionality of food to tourists (Hall et al,
2003). Especially, food can be a good representative of a specific regions culture (Bessire,
1998). Moreover, it may result in confusing
connotations in the minds of tourists. In view
of this, the supply side of a destination, such
as travel agencies, special interest groups, official and nonofficial organizations, national and
regional governments, hospitality and tourism
businesses, should act in coordination to
provide a clear promise, such as authentic local
cuisine or local experience, to the intended
markets (Anholt, 2007).
In an attempt to develop a clear and consistent
identity, it is suggested that destination stakeholders thoroughly consider in advance the
potential problems concerning the pros and cons
of using different types of media. Boyne et al
(2003) and Hashimoto and Telfer (2006) also
strongly recommend that destination policy
makers coordinate all levels of government,
locals, and hospitality and tourism industries to
work together to engender successful promotion
of using food in destination marketing or
branding. In an effort to deliver a clear and
consistent identity, integrated communications
and coordination across different marketing
functions and services is needed.
Over the last few years, the Taiwanese
government has made continuous efforts to
strengthen the use of food in destination
marketing and has launched several campaigns
to introduce a range of local Taiwanese dishes
and diverse culinary flavors to international
tourists. For instance, in order to give international tourists the opportunities to experience
a taste of Taiwanese cuisine, the Taiwan
Gourmet Passport was published in June of 2009
as a means to offer delicious and scrumptious
foods in Taiwan to leisure tourists and business
travelers from all over the world. Moreover,
in 2009, the Taiwanese government approved
the Best of Taiwan Tourism Development
Plan, and the whole of Taiwan will be
promoted as a Multifaceted Taiwan, with

development focused on meetings, incentives,
conferences, exhibitions, cuisine, hot springs
and health tourism. Evidently, food plays an
important role in marketing Taiwan as a
tourism destination.
CONCLUSIONS
Contributions and implications
This study advances the literature on the use
of food in destination marketing and branding
and presents the implications of using food as
a means in destination marketing and branding.
With regard to the concept of food identity
in relation to a specific destination, although
several studies have discussed this subject (for
example, Frochot, 2003; Hashimoto and
Telfer, 2006; Fox, 2007), its components have
yet to be fully identified. This study classified
seven specific primary dimensions and 14 categories of food identity in relation to Taiwan
as a tourism destination. Further, on adopting
the concept of brand identity developed by
Aakers (1996), it reveals that the structure of
food identity in relation to a destination can be
classified into a core and extended identity.
From among seven dimensions of food identity in relation to a destination, the class of
food is the core identity. The type and style
of food are critical elements of the core food
identity. This can be further supported on the
basis of the following facts. There are several
types and styles of food served by restaurants,
street vendors and night markets in Taiwan,
such as Chinese cuisine, Taiwanese local dishes
and snacks or Japanese and western food. The
results of this study reveal that the destination
stakeholders preferred night market snacks as
the main source of attraction; however, a
number of regular meals at restaurants were
also one of the major focuses in promoting
food in Taiwan. If destination stakeholders and
suppliers cannot clarify which type and style of
food can best represent Taiwan in attracting
international tourists, it is likely that a variety
of types and styles of foods would be presented
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
43
Lin et al
in tourism marketing materials. As such, it may

result in a confused food identity in relation to
a destination. On the other hand, the other six
dimensions of food identity in relation to a
destination are its extended identity. For
instance, information about where to sample
local food and snacks will provide a better idea
about food in Taiwan and communicate a
specific experience of the markets. In other
words, the extended food identity in relation
to a destination has to assist the ambivalent core
identity into a consistent direction.
In view of this fact, food itself involves
numerous substantial features and symbolic
characteristics that can be developed beyond a
simple attribute used in destination branding.
Based on identified dimensions and categories,
destination stakeholders and industrial practitioners can specify which aspects of food and
food-related subjects are important in attracting
their target markets and in differentiating its
offerings from those of its competitors. It will
be helpful to ensure that destination stakeholders perspectives can be properly and effectively delivered to the target audiences through
appropriate channels.
Second, the importance of a clear and strong
brand identity has been broadly examined in
the marketing literature. However, only few
studies have analyzed an identity of food in
relation to a destination in the tourism context. Most of these focused on brochures (for
example, Frochot, 2003), on websites (for
example, Boyne and Hall, 2004) or on destination stakeholders (for example, Lockie, 2001),
although there are many channels of communications to position a destination in tourists
minds. This study empirically examined the
gap within the supply side of tourism, by
assessing food-related information presented in
different types of destination media and destination stakeholders perspectives. It is apparent
that destination stakeholders need to establish
a vision before designing and delivering
messages to their intended tourists. More
specifically, the identity of food in relation to
Taiwan as a tourism destination should be
44
thoroughly considered in order to compete

with other destinations. In other words, there
is a need to identify which type of food,
whether restaurant dishes or night market
snacks, can best capture the authenticity of
Taiwanese food. Food-related information can
then be provided in a consistent manner.
As Aaker and Joachimsthaler (2000) note, a
strong brand should be easily noticed and
remembered; also, it should be able to create
positive perceptions and deep customer relationships. The identified dimensions of food in
relation to a destination can be used to determine which representative food items can be
well recognized and memorized and can also
adequately reflect the characteristics of a given
place. Uniqueness of food items then could be
effectively integrated into food-related activities or establishments to make a strong and
favorable impression on tourists by providing
valuable information that can make a meaningful link between tourists, food and a tourism
destination. Especially, it would be useful for
a destination with unclear food identity. Thus,
it would be able to successfully use food as a
form of destination brand identity and further
building a destination brand.
Limitation and future research

The application of this study is limited by
several factors. With respect to content analyses, although intercoder reliability was above
0.8 and therefore, at an acceptable level, a level
above 0.9 would have increased reliability. The
other issue was that selected destination websites
renew and redesign their content more
frequently than the chosen tourism brochures.
Although the content analyses of brochures and
websites were all conducted at the same time,
the chosen brochures, which were issued
annually from 2002 to 2004, were collected in
June 2004, and the destination websites were
collected in February 2005. It is implied that
corresponding tourism strategies could be
different because the messages presented in
these two types of media were designed at
different times. Moreover, this study cannot
Vol. 11, 1, 3048
claim to have captured the food-related

information that appears in all messages of
destination media.
As almost all the respondents had participated in planning and executing different types
of food-related activities and had interacted
with different groups of international tourists,
their responses strongly contributed to the
study. However, some of their experiences
may be limited to primary target markets;
nevertheless, the assumption is that study
participants freely recalled important aspects of
past experiences based on their interaction with
international tourists. In addition, because the
survey period, June to August 2005, was the
peak season for tourism in Taiwan, researchers
found that many destination stakeholders could
not return the questionnaires within the
suggested period of time, which resulted in a
low response rate to the survey. Further, the
possibility of sample bias may exist.
Future research can apply the framework of
an identity of food in relation to a destination
as an instrument to assess tourists perceptions
about place-specific food in terms of what
aspects of food and food-related subjects are
important in tourist decision-making. By
understanding the particular responses elicited
by food and food-related subjects, destination
stakeholders problems can be reduced and the
competitiveness of destinations improved. On
the other hand, little attention has been paid
to understanding how messages have been
crafted and the discrepancy between organic
and induced images. Induced images, a specific
identity, are mainly controlled by destination
stakeholders; nevertheless, organic images are
usually freely reported by anonymous viewers.
It is suggested that in-depth interviews should
be incorporated with future studies to probe
the gap between organic and induced images.
In addition, the comparison between the effects
of organic and induced images on tourists
perceptions and behavior needs to be examined. Further investigation may provide valuable insights into the design of the marketing
materials and the development of integrated
marketing communications in effectively targeting intended markets. It will contribute to the

development of a strong and desirable identity
for destination marketing and branding.
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Food as a form of Destination Identity: A Tourism Destination Brand Perspective

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Food as a form of destination identity:

ABSTRACT The study investigated the identity of food in relation to Taiwan as a

Keywords: food; identity; destination marketing and branding

2011 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1467-3584

led to the development of more appealing