Welding is defined as a process where two or more pieces of metal or thermoplastics are

fastened together by use of heat and pressure. The process of applying heat softens the material
and enables it to affix together as one in a joint area when an adequate amount of pressure is
applied. The concept of welding first developed in the middle ages, though it did not form into the
process of welding as it is today until the latest years of the 19th century. Before this, a process
known as "forge welding" was the only means of joining two metal objects together. Forge
welding consisted of using a flame to heat metal to extremely high temperatures and then
hammering each piece together until they became one. This method was replaced around the
time of the industrial revolution. Electric and gas flame heating methods proved to be much safer
and faster for welders. Practically every material object that has made society what it is today,
was created by welded construction tools or has been welded itself. Because of this, welders
have a wide range of areas for employment, many welders specialize in pipe welding or
automobile welding while others specialize in machinery. The possibilities are endless for
welders seeing as welding can be performed in a diverse range of locations, including
underwater, though not all forms of welding are the same. Some forms of welding use gas, while
others use electric and the newest forms involve use of a laser. The process of welding that is
used depends on a variety of factors but the form and thickness of the material is usually the
deciding factor for which method is most effective. Arc, Electroslag, Flux-Cored, Gas Metal-Arc,
Gas Tungsten-Arc, Metal Inert Gas, Plasma Arc, Shielded-Metal Arc, Submerged Arc and
Tungsten Inert Gas are the most widely used welding methods.
Arc Welding
Arc welding is a popular form of welding due the low cost of the process. The process begins
with a device that gives off an electric current. This device can differ greatly from process to
process yet it always enables electric current to move through materials that without the device,
would be considered non-conductive. It is called arc welding because an electrical current is
created between the welding device and the materials to be welded which at times gives an arch
like appearance. The first basic form of arc welding was invented in the year 1802. Today, many
other subcategories of arc welding exist.
Welding is a process which is in used to join any two metals. In ARC welding two metals are joined together
using electrical current. The electric current produces the heat needed for welding. The electric current passes
through the MMA welding machine through the torch and electrode to the work piece. An arc is created around
6000 degrees F or more. This melts the filler rod and the metal that is being welded and a weld pool is
developed. A flux is formed around the weld and this provides stability to the arc and gives protection from weld
contamination. This flux is then removed by using a wire brush or a chipping hammer. The electric power source
used for this is AC/DC current.
ARC welding is used in mining, oil extraction, gas extraction, industries, drilling, sand and gravel digging etc. So,
the welder finds employment in the metal industry, steel industry, smelting and refining industry and etc. It is also
useful in places where repairs are conducted and where bridges, agricultural equipments and utilities have to be
maintained. It is also useful in scrap yards.
There are four types of ARC welding:
1. Shielded metal welding (SMAW) or Manual Metal ARC welding (MMW), which is used in repair and
construction work. It requires simple and minimum equipment and operator training.
2. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) which has high speed but is less versatile welding process.
3. Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) which is more expensive than the others. It has a higher welding speed and
also metal penetration.
4. Submerged arc welding (SAW) which is the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. In this, the
contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. So, the arc quality is increased when this process is
adapted.

The pros of ARC welding are:

The equipment that is used for welding purposes is not very expensive and can be afforded by all. It is also easy
to use. This makes it very convenient for people who want to weld using ARC welding.
You will generally think of welding equipment as being unwieldy and heavy. The equipment used in ARC welding
is portable making it very easy for use in all places. It can be taken to any place and can also be inside a
confined place.
It is not necessary to have auxiliary gas shielding.
The reason that it is most used is that it is suitable for welding most metals and alloys. So, you need not go in for
different types of welding and can do with ARC welding.
The cons of Arc welding are:
There is need to replace the weld electrode in ARC welding frequently. So, care should be taken to do it
whenever necessary.
The rate of deposition is lower then continuous electrode process.
It is necessary to remove the slag from the weld.
When welding, very bright is produced. The welding operator should be very careful and wear protective glasses.
The welder should also wear protective gear, so that he is protected from electric shock, burns and other
problems that might arise while welding due to the high intensity of heat.
Welding is an essential process for joining two metals and arc welding is most commonly used because of the
minimum equipment used and a person with minimum training. So, you should consider the pros and cons before
starting to arc weld. Since the cons can all be taken care of and arc welding is a very useful and simple process
for welding, people should use it for welding purposes.

Electroslag Welding
Electroslag welding came into practice in the mid-1950s. Electroslag is a generally fast welding
process used to join large materials such as thick steel plates. These plates or materials are
usually arranged in a vertical position, as the Electroslag weld is designed to weld at this angle
without causing distortion to the welder. The name Electroslag was derived from the use of
water filled copper areas within the device, which were included and designed solely to prevent
melted slag from pouring into other areas as it liquefied.

Gas Metal Arc Welding

The process of Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), created in the 1940s, is another automatic
welding process. This method consists of the use of a welding gun which automatically feeds the
weld metal through the gun for use. The weld gun also automatically distributes a protective gas
as a shield from the natural elements. This process saves a lot of time and is best for a large
quantity of welding work. It was originally developed for use with aluminum metals. Today, this
method is mostly used by those welders in the automobile repair and manufacturing industries.
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding

Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding is considered to be one of the most difficult and time consuming of
welding processes used today (along with Plasma Arc Welding). This is because it requires a
great amount of focus and skill due to the small area of space between the arc of the flame and
the material being welded. Usually, small strips of metal that do not contain much iron are welded
with this process. Though it is difficult, it produces extremely strong high quality welds when done
correctly. Welders manufacturing bicycles and aircraft, both commercial and military, use Gas
Tungsten-Arc Welding often while many other welders will never come across this process. Very
little change has been made to this process since its release in 1941.

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

TIG WELDING
INTRODUCTION
The American Welding Societys preferred name for this arc welding process is Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding As the name implies the process uses an external Gas supply
and a Tungsten electrode to produce an arc that melts and fuses the metal to be welded
with or without the use of a filler wire.
The term TIG WELDING is a common shop term that is derived from the
name TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING. This name describes the same
process and highlights the fact that a Tungsten electrode and an external inert gas are
used to produce a weld.
In this text the term GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) will be used to discuss this
process.
The Gas Tungsten Arc Welding process may be used to weld most metals and alloys in
any position with or without the use of filler wire. Because of the smaller heat zone and
weld puddle with the excellent shielding effect of the gases used, the welds produced are
often stronger than welds made with other processes.
Although GTAW is slower and produces smaller weld beads than SMAW or GMAW it is
often the process of choice for welding thinner sections, Aluminum, specialty metals and
Stainless steels.
GTAW EQUIPMENT SET UP
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is done by setting up a Torch to a Constant Current Welding
Machine and an external Gas Supply to shield the weld area. An optional Foot
Pedal may be used to remotely control the amperage during welding. Filler Wire may be
added as necessary or welding may be done by fusing the parts with the molten weld
puddle.
THE WELDING CIRCUIT

The major component parts of the welding circuit described below are:
1. THE GTAW OR TIG TORCH
2. CONSTANT CURRENT MACHINE
3. A GAS SUPPLY
4. A FOOT PEDAL
5. FILLER WIRE
1. THE GTAW TORCH
The GTAW torch is an assembly of parts that provides the heat or electric arc for
welding and delivers the shielding gas to protect the weld. The picture below shows a
Typical GTAW torch used to make the weld.

TORCH USED TO MAKE A WELD

The GTAW Torch used to establish and maintain an arc as well as direct the gas flow to
the weld zone, is made up of the Torch Body, Gas Diffuser, Collet, Tungsten Electrode
and Back Cap. The pictures below show the typical Torch Assembly.

TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
The Tungsten Electrode used in GTAW and shown above is different to electrodes used
in SMAW (STICK WELDING) in that it is used as the heat source to melt the base
metal, but does not melt and become a part of the weld. When additional weld metal is
required it is fed into the arc in the form of a filler wire.
There are a variety of types of tungsten electrodes used for GTAW the most common
ones being 2% Thoriated for Steel and Stainless and Pure for Aluminum.
Check with your weld supply company to select the appropriate Tungsten Electrode for
the given application.
The electrodes used for steel should have a sharpened point and the pure for aluminum
a balled end. There are tools designed to form the point for welding, but a less expensive
method is to use a bench grinder and prepare the point like sharpening a pencil.
KEY POINTS
The sharper and longer the point the smaller and finer the arc puddle. A shorter point
results in a wider weld puddle and bead.
For AC Welding Aluminum prepare a small point and the heat of the arc will ball the
end for proper welding puddle.
Since the Tungsten Electrode does not melt and become filler metal it is referred to as a
Non-Consumable Electrode. The tungsten may get contaminated by touching to the
weld puddle or hot filler wire and will need to be re-sharpened.
When shaping the tungsten point, be sure the point is even or a deflection of the arc may
occur.

TUNGSTEN PREPARATION

TORCH BODY
There are a variety of styles of Torch used for GTAW. The one illustrated earlier is an
Air Cooled style that has a gas valve incorporated. The gas valve is used to start or stop
gas flow when the optional foot pedal is not used. When a foot pedal is used the flow of
gas is automatically controlled by starting or stopping the arc with the foot pedal.
Another popular style of torch is a Water Cooled torch used for welding with higher
amperage. The water circulates internally around the torch to keep it cool. When using
this torch a water cooling unit is added to the GTAW circuit.

WATER COOLED TORCHES

2 CONSTANT CURRENT WELDING MACHINE
The power source used for GTAW is a Constant Current Welding Machine. These
machines provide constant amperage as set by the welder, while the voltage rises or
lowers with changes in the arc length. If the arc length or distance from the tungsten to
the work increases slightly, the voltage increases to maintain the amperage level.
Conversely if the arc length decreases the voltage decreases to maintain the same

amperage. The Constant Current classification of Welding machines is also used for
STICK welding (SMAW).
Any Stick or Multiple Process Welding Machine may be used for GTAW as well as some
machines developed especially for GTAW applications.
Machines developed with GTAW applications in mind have added features such as a
built in high frequency capability. A built in high frequency capability provides easier
arc starting by allowing the arc to be initiated by a high frequency current without
striking an arc or touching the tungsten to the work. This is especially useful when
welding Aluminum that can easily contaminate the Tungsten Electrode.
Some of these GTAW machines such as a Square wave or Synchrowave have a method
of changing the characteristics of the current to benefit from altered electrical flow.

KEY POINTS
When the application or job requires an extensive use of the GTAW process it may pay
to research Welding Machines designed especially for GTAW.
The type of Welding current used for welding Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel is Direct
Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) also known as Direct Current Straight Polarity
(DCSP).
The type of Welding Current most often used for welding Aluminum is Alternating
Current (AC).
A GTAW torch may be attached to any STICK machine using the remote receptacle on
the machine or by attaching the Electrode Holder (Stinger) to the torch by the use of a
special connector as shown below:

In this set up there is no foot pedal and the weld is initiated by touch start (similar to
striking the arc in Stick). The gas is controlled by the valve on the torch. This setup may
be readily assembled for welding on job sites.
MILLER ECONOTIG AND CONTROLS
USED AT DELTA

3 GAS SUPPLY
The two most commonly used types of gases used in the GTAW process are ARGON and
HELIUM. A mixture of Argon and Helium may be used for some GTAW applications.
Both Argon and Helium gases are considered INERT gases, meaning they are
chemically inactive and do not react with the metal being welded.
Argon gas is the most widely used gas for manual welding with the GTAW process while
Helium or a mixture may be used for heavier sections and automated welding.
HANDLEING GAS CYLINDERS
Because of the shape, contents and weight of gas cylinders used in the welding field it is
important they be handled with extreme caution and in a safe manner. The following
safety guidelines are suggested for safely handling and using gas cylinders.
Gas cylinders should never be moved by carrying, dragging or rolling them. They
should only be moved by securing them in an approved cart. The cylinders must have
the metal caps in place to protect the valve stem assembly of the cylinder before moving
them.

If cylinders must be lifted they should be properly secured in an approved lifting cart or
on a platform. Chains, slings, magnets, and other devices where there may be a
possibility of the cylinder slipping and falling should never be used.
Cylinders that are transported over the road should be secured in the upright position
with their protective steel caps in place.
Oil and grease should never come into contact with the oxygen cylinders, regulators or
equipment, since a chemical reaction between the oil and the oxygen may cause a fire or
explosion.
Hammers pry bars and similar tools must not be used to open a stuck cylinder valve or
remove valve caps. If the cylinder valve is damaged the force of the escaping gas may
cause high pressure cylinders to fly around uncontrolled and cause damage or serious
injury.
If a cylinder is leaking gas it should be moved outdoors and the gas supplier should be
notified immediately.

Cylinders must be chained or secured in the upright position secured on a cart or

fastened into a welding machine cart. When not in use they should have the regulators
removed and the caps in place.

Never weld on the cylinders, or allow the electrode to come into contact with them and
establish an arc.
Use only the approved cylinder wrench to attach regulators and hoses to the cylinder.
The use of loose fitting wrenches on the soft brass connections may cause excessive wear
by slipping on the connections. Excessive wear may cause the edges of the connectors to
become rounded and make it difficult to fit any wrench on them.

Use only the approved regulator and hoses for the type of gas being used and never use
the same regulator and hoses for different gas contents.

The cylinder the cylinder valve must be cleaned before attaching the regulators.
Standing behind the cylinder quickly open then close the cylinder valve to allowing the
high pressure gas to blow out trapped dirt. This action is known as cracking the
cylinder. Make sure no one is in front of the cylinder when you crack the cylinder.
Before attaching the regulator make sure the adjusting screw is backed out and loose.
Since regulators are designed to blow out the front and back if they fail, stand to the
side of the regulator when opening or pressurizing the regulator.
Fuel gas cylinders should only be opened about turn or until the gas registers on the
regulator, so they can be shut down quickly in an emergency. The high pressure
cylinders like the oxygen, argon and 75-25 have a double seating valve and should be
opened all the way.
KEY POINTS
For most applications welders will be using 100 % Argon as the shielding gas with an
approximate flow rate from 20-30 PSI.
If you are responsible for selecting the shielding gas for a given application, check with
your gas and welding supply company for information about specific advantages of the
available gases.

4 FOOT PEDAL
The GTAW Foot Pedal is an optional Pedal added to the welding circuit to remotely
control the amperage and initiate the gas flow. When coupled with a Power Source that
has a high frequency capability it allows arc starting without contaminating the
tungsten electrode. Contaminating the electrode means the prepared point for welding
becomes dull or has globules stuck to it causing the arc to wander and the weld bead to
be wide. If the electrode gets contaminated the point will need to be re-sharpened for
welding.
The use of a foot pedal is especially useful for welding aluminum where the heat needs
to be lowered or increased during welding to avoid blowing away the sides of the joint,
or melting through the joint.
The foot pedal works similar to the accelerator pedal in a car pressing down increases
the amperage lifting the foot slightly lowers the amperage. When the foot pedal is fully
depressed the amperage is at the setting on the machine. Lifting the foot lowers the
amperage over a range until the arc is extinguished.

5 FILLER WIRE
Unlike Stick and Mig Welding, Tig uses a separate filler wire to add weld metal to the
Joint to be welded in a similar manner to Oxy-Acetylene or Braze Welding. Some pieces
may also be welded together by melting the edges of the joint called Fusion Welding.

Filler Wire is used to introduce more metal to the weld zone to fill the joint or increase
the size of the weld. Filler wire is available in different diameters or sizes, some of the
more widely used include 1/16th 3/32nds or 1/8th. The usual length is approximately 36
inches.
In general the filler metal or tig wire usually has the same composition as, or is
compatible with the metal to be welded, so that Carbon Steel wire is used to weld
Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel wire to weld Stainless Steel and Aluminum wire to weld
Aluminum.
There is a selection of filler wire available for these and other metals using the GTAW
process. Selecting a specific filler wire depends on many factors including strength
requirements, joint design and condition of the joint surface.
When selecting an appropriate filler wire, consult filler wire guide books available at
most welding supply stores and discuss job requirements and joint configurations with
engineering personnel or experts at your local welding supply outlet.
Filler Wire used in the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Process are classified by the
American Welding Society using a letter and numbering system. The following are some
examples:
Filler Wire for welding Carbon Steel
ER 70 S 6

Filler wire for welding Stainless Steel

ER 308 L

The Tensile strength of the weld metal is defined as the ability to resist forces acting to
pull the weld apart, measured in thousands of pounds per square inch.
The Classification for GTAW filler wire is similar to that of the GMAW process.

SUMMARY
GTAW is the most intricate of all the manual arc welding processes often requiring one
hand to angle the torch, one hand to consistently feed the filler wire and a foot to control
the amperage.
The metal is often thin and requires heat distortion control and must be kept clean.
Welds beads are usually relatively small and flat with deep penetration.
Although GTAW produces less sparks with no slag, the intense arc produces ultraviolet
and infrared rays that make the use of welding leathers and safety equipment
mandatory. The same safety equipment used for SMAW should be used for GTAW
except that the gauntlet gloves may be changed for tig gloves that provide adequate
protection while allowing a better feel for manipulating the torch and filler wire

MIG (Metal Inert Gas) Welding

Metal Inert Gas Welding is a process of welding that uses a gas to shield the weld metal. The
gas keeps the metal being welded from being effected from natural elements in the environment,
such as oxygen. This allows the welder to operate at a continuous rate, making the process fairly
quick. Operation of the equipment does not require an extreme level of skill by welders, however,
the equipment used in MIG Welding can only be used indoors due to the gas involved in the
welding process. MIG Welding was originally released in the 1940s but underwent many
upgrades until being perfected in the 1960s.
Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma Welding is very much like that of Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW). The two processes
are often compared because they basically work in the same fashion, only using a different type
of torch. This method was developed in 1954, though even today, it is still being improved upon.
Plasma Welding also requires more concentration than GTAW because of the smaller arc and
precision of the weld. In Plasma Welding, the electrical current is passed through an extremely
small nozzle which passes through the protective gases, enabling extreme accuracy when
welding small areas. Plasma Welding can heat metals to very extreme temperatures which can
result in deeper welds. Like GTAW, this welding process is generally used in the aircraft
manufacturing industry.

he Plasma Arc Welding Process

Summary
The plasma welding process was introduced to the welding industry in 1964 as a
method of bringing better control to the arc welding process in lower current ranges.
Today, plasma retains the original advantages it brought to industry by providing an
advanced level of control and accuracy to produce high quality welds in miniature or
precision applications and to provide long electrode life for high production
requirements.
The plasma process is equally suited to manual and
automatic applications. It has been used in a variety of
operations ranging from high volume welding of strip
metal, to precision welding of surgical instruments, to
automatic repair of jet engine blades, to the manual
welding of kitchen equipment for the food and dairy
industry.

How Plasma Welding Works

A plasma is a gas which is heated to an extremely high temperature and ionized so
that it becomes electrically conductive. Similar to GTAW (Tig), the plasma arc
welding process uses this plasma to transfer an electric arc to a work piece. The
metal to be welded is melted by the intense heat of the arc and fuses together.

In the plasma welding torch a Tungsten electrode is located

within a copper nozzle having a small opening at the tip. A
pilot arc is initiated between the torch electrode and nozzle
tip. This arc is then transferred to the metal to be welded.
By forcing the plasma gas and arc through a constricted
orifice, the torch delivers a high concentration of heat to a
small area. With high performance welding equipment, the
plasma process produces exceptionally high quality welds.
Plasma gases are normally argon. The torch also uses a secondary gas, argon,
argon/hydrogen or helium which assists in shielding the molten weld puddle thus
minimizing oxidation of the weld.

Equipment Required List

Power Supply

Plasma Console (sometimes external, sometimes built in)

Water re-circulator (sometimes external, sometimes built in)

Plasma Welding Torch

Torch Accessory Kit (Tips, ceramics, collets, electrodes set-up gages)

List of Plasma Welding Features and Benefits

Feature
Benefit
Protected electrode Protected electrode allows for less electrode contamination.
This is especially advantageous in welding materials that out
gas when welded and contaminate the unprotected GTAW
electrode.
Length of arc
Arc stand off distance is not as critical as in GTAW. Gives good
benefit due to arc
weld consistency. No AVC needed in 99% of applications,
shape and even
sometimes even with wirefeed.
heat distribution
Arc transfer is
Provides for welding of thin sheet, fine wires, and miniature
gentle and
components where the harsh GTAW arc start would damage
consistent
the part to be welded.
Stable arc in
Reduces arc wander. Arc welds where it is aimed. Allows and
welding
arc starting tooling in close proximity to weld joint for optimum
heat sinking.
Minimal high
Minimal high frequency noise once pilot arc started, thus
frequency noise in plasma can be used with NC controls. Another benefit lies in
welding
welding applications involving hermetic sealing of electronic
components where the GTAW arc start would cause electrical
disturbances possibly damaging the electronic internals of the
component to be welded.
Arc energy density Causes less weld distortion and smaller welds. Gives high
reaches 3 times that welding speeds
of Tig

Weld times as short Extremely short and accurate weld times possible for spot
as .005 seconds
welding of fine wires, accurate weld times combined with
precision motion devices provide for repeatable weld start/stop
positions.
Equipment options Offers a wide range of pulsing options for varied. pulsing up
offer to 10,000 Hz applications.
Low amperage art Allows welding of miniature components or good control in
welding
downsloping to a weld edge.
(as low as 0.05
amp)
Arc diameter chosen This feature assists in predicting the weld bead size.
via nozzle orifice

Features, Benefits, and Applications

Features
P

Protected electrode, offers long times before electrode maintenance (usually one
8 Hr Shift)

Low amperage welding capability (as low as 0.05 amp)

A Arc consistency and gentle arc starting produce consistent welds, time after
time
S

Stable arc in arc starting and low amperage welding

M Minimal high frequency noise issues, HF only in pilot arc start, not for each weld
A Arc energy density reaches 3 times that of GTAW. Higher weld speeds possible
W Weld times as short as 5 msecs (.005 secs)
E

Energy density reduces heat affected zone, improves weld quality

Length of arc benefit due to arc shape and even heat distribution

D Diameter of arc chosen via nozzle orifice

Benefits
The full list of reasons for using the plasma welding process is lengthy but can be
summarized into three main features where customers desire the advantages of at
least one feature.

Precision: The plasma process is generally more precise than conventional

Tig (remember that enhanced power supplies can create an arc that is
different to a conventional Tig arc) Plasma offers the following advantages
over conventional Tig:
o

Stable, concentrated arc

Forgiveness in arc length variations (Tig +/- 5%, Plasma +/- 15%)

Small Part Welding:

Low amperage capability (many plasma power supplies go down to .1

amps)

Stable at low amps

Gentle arc transfer (arc start) with no high frequency noise.

Short weld times possible (for spot welds - guidewires, tubes etc.)

High Production Welding:

o

Long electrode life offers many more hours of welding than Tig before
electrode contamination occurs.

In many applications, many of the unique advantages of plasma combine to benefit

the overall welding process.

Applications
Small Part Welding: The plasma process can gently yet consistently start an arc to
the tip of wires or other small components and make repeatable welds with very
short weld time periods. This is advantageous when welding components such as
needles, wires, light bulb filaments, thermocouples, probes and some surgical
instruments.
Sealed Components: Medical and electronic components are often hermetically
sealed via welding. The plasma process provides the ability to:
1. Reduce the heat input to the part
2. Weld near delicate insulating seals
3. Start the arc without high frequency electrical noise which could be damaging
to the electrical internals
Applications include Pressure and Electrical Sensors, Bellows, Seals, Cans,
Enclosures, Microswitches, Valves, Electronic Components, Motors, Batteries,
Miniature Tube to Fitting/Flange, Food and Dairy Equipment,
Tool Die & Mold Repair: A whole repair industry has sprung up to assist
companies wishing to re-use components with slight nicks and dents from misuse or
wear. The ability of modern micro-arc power supplies to gently start a low amperage
arc and make repairs has provided users with a unique alternative to conventional
repair and heat treatment. Both the Micro-Tig and micro-plasma welding processes
are used for tool, die and mold repair. For outside edges the Plasma process offers
great arc stability and requires less skill to control the weld puddle. To reach inside
corners and crevices the TIG process allows the tungsten welding electrode to be
extended in order to improve access.
Strip Metal Welding: The plasma process provides the ability to consistently
transfer the arc to the workpiece and weld up to the edges of the weld joint. In
automatic applications no Arc Distance Control is necessary for long welds and the

process requires less maintenance to the torch components. This is especially

advantageous in high volume applications where the material outgases or has
surface contaminants.
Tube Mill Welding: Tube mills produce tube and pipe by taking a continuous strip
of material and rollforming the edges upwards until the edges of the strip meet
together at a weld station. At this point the welding process melts and fuses the
edges of the tube together and the material exits the weld station as welded tube.
The output of the tube mill depends on the arc welding speed and total time spent
welding. Each time the mill shuts down and starts up again there is a certain amount
of scrap produced. Thus the most important issues to the tube mill user are:
1. Maximum tube mill weld speed obtainable.
2. Arc stability for optimum weld quality and consistency.
3. Maximum number of hours of welding electrode tip life.
Some tube mills employ plasma welding in order to get a combination of increased
weld speed, improved weld penetration and maximum electrode life.

Comparison of GTAW snd Plasma Welding Energy Input

The following is from a test made with the GTAW (Tig) and Plasma welding
processes on a specific strip of test material in order to establish a comparison of the
energy input of poth processes. The test results should be used as a general
guideline comparison only as welding engineers can change any of the parameters
noted below to achieve a different result.
Test Parameters: Manual welding, no clamping device, Cr/Ni steel, 0.102" thicknes.
All values determined with measuring instruments.
GTAW:
Plasma:

125 Amps, 12 Volts, 10.24 I.P.M. (26 cm/min)

75 Amps, 18 Volts, 13.38 I.P.M. (34 cm/min)

Heat Input:

V x A x 60
----------------Speed in cm/min

GTAW:

12 x 125 x 60
----------------26 cm/min

Heat Input:

18 x 75 x 60
---------------34 cm/min

3.46 KJ

2.38 KJ

In addition to the fact that a higher weld speed is possible, the lower heat input
brings the following advantages:

More consistency

Less distortion.

Less stress in welded component.

Lower risk of damaging any heat sensitive parts adjacent to the weld joint.

Shielded-Metal Arc Welding

Shielded-Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is also referred to as stick welding. This process is known
to be the most popular and widely used processes in welding today. The first form of SMAW was
created in 1938 but the process and equipment continues to undergo upgrades. It is a manual
welding process that is very simple and inexpensive to operate. The results often are not as
neat as other methods and molten splatter is a common occurrence. Stick welding is mostly
used by construction welders working on steel structures and other industries that require
welding but do not have large budgets.
Submerged Arc Welding
The Submerged Arc Welding process can only be used properly on materials containing high iron
contents, such as stainless steel. The device used in this process can be automatic or semiautomatic making it a fairly fast welding process. While it is a fast process, the electrical arc must
constantly be covered by flux in order to protect the metal from the atmosphere during the
welding process. This cover also prevents any welding spatter which makes it safer for welders
than some of the other forms of welding. The process is named after this need to be submerged
in a flux cover.
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) Welding
Tungsten Inert Gas welding is much like the process of Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding. The main
difference between these two forms of welding is that TIG uses a tungsten current form, while
MIG uses a metal electrode. Because TIG uses tungsten, it requires an additional filler placed
inside the welding device as tungsten does not melt in the welding process. Tungsten is unique
as it can be heated to a higher temperature before melting than all other metals. Tungsten Inert
Gas Welding is usually used in industries that work with stainless steel.

Welding
Introduction
A weld occurs when pieces of metal are joined by causing the interface to melt and
blend prior to solidifying as a uniform metal joint. This process may be caused by
heat, pressure or a combination of both. When heat alone is used the process is called
fusion welding.
Pressure welding usually involves heating the surfaces to a plastic state and then
forcing the metal together. The heating can be by electric current of by friction
resulting from moving one surface relative to the other.
The methods and equipment used for welding metal are also associated with cutting

metal. There are a large number of welding and allied processes.

The notes below provide a short introduction to some of the welding process.
are provided for accessing more detailed information.

Links

Welding Processs
Soldering Brazing

Solid
Gas
Arc
Resistance
Other
State
Welding Welding Welding
Welding
Welding
Allied processes

Adhesive
Bonding

Thermal
Spraying

Oxygen
Cutting

Thermal
Cutting

Arc
Cutting

Electron
Beam
Cutting

Laser
Cutting

Calculation relating to welded joints can be found on webpage... Weld Stress

Calculations
Notes on drawing representations of welds can be found on webpage .. Drawing of Weld
Symbols.

Soldering
Soldering is applicable for low duty joining of sheets, tubes, electrical and electronic
connections.
It is an understated but widely used process through engineering ,
construction, electrical and electronic industries. The solder is an alloy of lead-tin
which melts at a temperature of 180 - 280o depending on the composition The
surfaces to be soldered are cleaned and prepared with a flux. The area to be joined is
preheated and the solder when applied wets the metal and produces an intermettalic
bond. If the gap to be filled is controlled to about 0,1mm then the solder is drawn into
the joint by capilliary action to produce a uniformly filled joint. The joint is heated
using a soldering iron , gas flame , or by use of bath of liquid solder. It is important
the surfaces are suitably located when the joint is being made and there are no
separating forces.
The shear strength of a soldered joint is, depending on the solder, within the range 30
to 45 N/mm2.
The flux is needed to remove oxide films on the unjoined metal, and to protect the
surfaces from oxidisation , and to reduce the surface tension of the filler to assist in
penetration.
For soft soldering the flux is generally zinc chloride or resin.

Brazing
Brazing is a mechanical joining process which is similar to soldering but uses fillers
having a significantly higher melting points ( 450 to 800o ). Copper, nickel and silver
and the most frequently-used base metals for brazing alloys. The process is used
widely for machanical joining and sealing for higher preformance applications on
copper based alloys e.g. piping and heat exchangers and vessels.

Brazed joints are stronger than soldered joints. The higher temperaturs required
however can result in problems such as distortion, oxidation and discoloration of the
metal surfaces. Various heating methods are available including gas torch, furnace,
induction heating, resistance heating and molten flux bath.
The shear strength of a brazed joint is within the range 250-310 N/mm 2
Borax is generally used as a flux form brazing.
For both soldering and brazing the basemetal parts being joinded are not fused unlike
all the other joining process considered on this page.

Gas Welding and Flame cutting

In gas welding, the heat to produce fusion of the parent metal and filler rod is provided
by burning a suitable gas in oxygen or air. A number of gases can be used but
acetylene is the most popular, since it burns in oxygen and gives a high flame
temperature of 3100o - 3200o. C. . Oxygen and acetylene stored in cylinders under
pressure are passed through flexible tubes to the torch, which is either hand-operated
or mechanically manipulated. By adjusting the proportions of oxygen or acetylene the
flame can be neutral, or have either reducing or oxidising properties. For most
materials a neutral flame is used but, for welding high carbon steel , or aluminium and
its alloys an oxidising flame is used as, by these means, the volitilisation of the zinc is
supressed.
The capital cost of oxyacetyle equipment is low compard with that for arc welding. The
equipment is also easily portable and the process is very versatile . However, its
comparative slowness means that it is mor expensive than arc welding if there is a
considerable amount of welding to be done.
Oxyacetylene welding requires the following equipment.

1) A cylinder of oxygen (full pressure about 15MPa)

2) acylinder of acetylene (full pressure about 1,7
3) Pressure regulator valves for each cylinder
4) Hosess to transfer gas flow to torch.
5) Welding torch with various sizes of torch tips
The gas pressures at the torch are each regulated to be about 7 to 70 kPa.

Oxy-acetylene Welding

Flame Cutting
Flame cutting using an oxyacetylene flame is a well-known engineering process. The
cutting torch may be manually operated if low accuracy is permissible, or if higher
accuracies are required, the torch is mechanically mounted and controlled
numerically ,or by using a tracer system.
An outer oxyacetylene gas flame is used to
preheat the metal to about 1000oC . An inner by a jet of oxygen is then rapidly initiated
which oxidises the red-hot metal, enablng thick sectons to be cut. The cutting process
is then progressed with both jets on.

Oxy-acetylene Cutting

Manual Metal Arc Welding Process

Electric Arc welding is based on providing an electric circuit comprising the Electric

current source the feed and return path, the electrode and the workpiece. The arc
welding process involves the creation of a suitable small gap between the electrode
and the workpiece. When the circuit is made a large current flows and an arc is
formed between the electrode and the workpiece. The resulting high temperatures
causing the workpiece and the electrode to melt The electrode is consumable. It
includes metal for the weld, a coating which burns off to form gases which shield the
weld from the air and flux which combines with the nitrides and oxide generated at the
weld. When the weld solidifies a crust is formed from the impurities created in the
weld process (Slag). This is easily chipped away.

MIG & TIG Welding

The Metal Inert Gas Process uses a consumable electrode of wire form and an inert gas
shield of carbon dioxide when welding carbon steel.. The wire electrode provides a
continuous feed of filler metal allowing welds of any length without stopping. The inert
gas shield eliminates slag and allows cleaner and stronger weld.. This process is used
widely for automated welding using robots.

The Tungsten Inert gas (TIG) system uses a non-consumable electrode of tungsten and
also provides an inert gas shield of argon or helium.
This process was orginally developed for welding magnesium and it is now used for
welding aluminium, copper, stainless steel, and a wide range of other metals that are
difficult to weld. Consumable rods may be used depending on the type of weld and the
thickness of weld.

Submerged Arc Welding

This process involves the welding arc being continuously submerged under a mound of
granular flux. The bare metal is fed automatically at a rate which maintains the
welding arc.
As the arch and the molten metal are covered with the mound of flux , there is no flash
spatter, sparks or smoke.
The resulting weld is uniform with good physical and
chemical properties.

Side View - Submerged Arc Welding

Resistance Welding
Spot Welding
Electric spot welding in the main form of resistance welding. In spot welding, high

current at a low voltage passes through a spot on two pieces of metal, usually sheet
metal, for a short period of time.
This process is done using a spot welder. Resistance
to the current flow results in localised heat generation which melts the metal between
the spot weld electrodes.
The electrodes /welding tongs exert a moderate pressure
forcing the two metal pieces together at the spot . The weld results at the interface.
The actual spot weld operation includes the following
SQUEEZE TIME - Time between pressure application and weld.
HEAT OR WELD TIME - Weld time.
HOLD TIME - Time that pressure is maintained after weld is
made.
OFF TIME - Electrodes switched off to allow separation and
movement of component to next position
The welding time can vary from 1 to 120 Hz . Assuming a 50 Hz supply in the UK e.g 25
Hz = 0,5 seconds
The tip dia can vary from 2.5mm to 15mm dia based on the combined sheet thickness
being welded. A rough formula for mild steel sheet =
Dia of tip (mm) = 2,5mm + 2. Sheet thicknes(mm)

Typical specification range

Arm length.. 300mm to 450mm
Power rating.. 1,5 KVA - 20 KVA
Rated Output ... 3600A- 2,500A
Combined thickness of metal... 3mm to 6mm
Projection Welding
Projection welding is similar to spot welding except that one on the surfaces in contact
with the electrodes as a local projection. The projection defines the area of weld and
not the size of the electrodes. The projection is normally on the thicker component or

on the component having the highest reistance. The process generally results in the
collapse on the projection when the weld is formed.

.
Seam Welding
Seam welding is a variant of the spot welding process in which the current is fed
continuously or intermittenly to two thin copper alloy wheel electrodes which replace
the rod electodes used for spot welding. This process is ideal for producing fluid tight
joints in cans.

.
Solid State Welding
Solid state welding is a term used for welding processes which produces joining at
temperatures essentially below the melting point of the base materials, without the
need for brazing filler metal. Pressure is generally required but not always.
These
welding processes include cold pressure welding, diffusion welding, explosion welding,
forge welding, friction welding, hot pressure welding, roll welding, and ultrasonic
welding.

Electron Beam Welding

In this process a concentraed beam of electrons bombards the base metal, causing it to
melt and fuse.
The process is most efficient wehn done in a vacuum. Therefore the
size of the vacuum chamber limits the size of the workpieces that can be welded.
Advantages include the ability to produce welds of extremely high purity, ability to melt
any known material , ability to weld dissimilar metals and tbe ability to make welds
with depths as great as 150mm.
Electron beam welding is costly for two reasons, 1) the high cost of equipment and 2)
the time lost in pumping out the vacuum chamber between welds. When the welds
are not made in a vacuum, many advantages of the process are reduced.

Laser Welding.. (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emmission of Radiation).

The laser beam is a concentrated beam of light with sufficient energy to generate the
heat at the base metal surface to cause fusion. There are two types of lasers in use
(1) gas lasers and 2) solid lasers.
Gas lasers provide a continuous laser beam that is
best suited to continuous welding and cutting . Solid lasers release their energy in
short bursts or puses at a rate of 6 to 10 per minute . As each pulse only lasts for a
few millionths of a second the base metal is liquid for only moments and there is
limited time for chemical reactions to occur. Therefore flux type protection is not
required to obtain sound welds.
Laser systems can be precisely controlled and have sufficient power to weld and even
vaporize any known material. Other advantages include the ability to make welds
through transparent coverings and to make welds in locations impossible to reach with
conventional welding gear .
Limited depth of penetration however restricts the use of
laser welding to relaatively thin materials .

Welding process Designations

The welding process designations provided below are based on BS EN ISO 4063 and are
used when identifying welds to BS EN 22553

1 Arc welding
11 Metal-arc welding without gas 32 Air-fuel gas welding
protection.
321 Air-acetylene welding

111 Metal-arc welding with

covered electrode.
112 Gravity arc welding with
covered electrode.
113 Bare wire metal-arc
welding.
114 Flux cored wire metal-arc
welding.
115 Coated wire metal-arc
welding.
118 Firecracker welding.

322 Air-propane welding

4 Pressure welding
41 Ultrasonic welding
42 Friction welding
43 Forge welding
44 Welding by high mechanical
energy
441 Explosive welding
45 Diffusion welding

13 Gas-shielded metal-arc
welding
131 MIG welding: metal-arc inert
gas welding
47 Gas pressure welding
135 MAG welding: metal-arc
active gas welding
48 Cold pressure welding.
136 Flux-cored wire metal-arc
welding with active gas shield
Other welding processes
14 Gas-shielded welding with
non-consumable electrode

71 Thermit welding
72 Electro-slag welding

141 TIG welding: tungsten inert

gas arc welding
149 Atomic-hydrogen welding

73 Electro-gas welding
74 Induction welding

15 Plasma arc welding

75 Light radiation welding
18 Other arc welding processes 751 Laser beam welding
181 Carbon-arc welding
752 Arc image welding
185 Rotating arc welding
753 Infrared welding
2 Resistance Welding
76 Electron beam welding
21 Spot welding
77 Percussion welding
22 Seam welding
221 Lap seam welding
225 Seam welding with strip.
23 Projection welding
24 Flash welding
25 Resistance butt welding
29 Other resistance welding

78 Stud welding
781 Arc stud welding
782 Resistance stud welding

processes
291 HF (High-Frequency)
resistance welding 3Gas
welding
31 Oxy-fuel gas welding
311 Oxy-acetylene welding
312 Oxy-propane welding
313 Oxy-hydrogen welding