Knittel Optics of Thin Films Text

KNITTL
OPTICS OF
u
Z.
WILEY
KNITTL
Optics of Thin Films
WILEY SERIES IN PURE AND APPLIED OPTICS

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WILLIAMS AND BECKLUND
Optics
zernike and midwinter
Applied Nonlinear Optics
Optics
of Thin Films
(An Optical Multilayer Theory)
DR. ZDENfiK KNITTL

Meopta Optics
& Precision Mechanics
Works, Prerov, Czechoslovakia
Wiley-Interscience Publication
JOHN WILEY & SONS

London
New York
Sydney
Toronto
ACCESSION
CLASS
No.
96281
No.
2 9 DEC 1978.
Published in co-edition with
Copyright
1976,
SNTL,
by John Wiley
Publishers of Technical Literature, Prague
& Sons, Ltd
All rights reserved.
No
part of this book may be reproduced by any means, nor transmitted,

nor translated into a machine language without
the written permission of the publisher

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:
Xnittl, Zdengk.
Optics of thin films.
(Wiley series in pure and applied optics)
"A
1.
Wiley-Interscience publication."
Thin films Optical properties.
-QC176.84.07
ISBN
K57
471 49531
530.4U
X^^
Printed in Czechoslovakia
I.
Title.
73-20896
Contents
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
2.
II
and prefatory notes

The working hypotheses and the
11
Historical
1.3
Wave
1.4
The plane wave
practical bearing of the theory
equations of the electromagnetic
17
20
field
1.5
homogeneous medium
General types of solutions in non-homogeneous media
1.6
Transport of energy
25
in a
....
28
29
1.7 Polarization states
32
OPTICS OF DIELECTRIC LAYERS
35
2.1
Notation and preparatory remarks
35
2.2
Boundary conditions
37
in admittance notation
2.4 Input admittance at a
39
40
2.5
41
2.3 Fresnel's formulae
boundary
Matrix treatment of reflection and transmission
2.5.1 Admittance matrix
42
2.5.2
Phase matrix
2.5.3
System transfer matrix
42
2.5.4 Evaluating the transfer coefficients

2.5.5 Interference matrix
41
from S
and evaluation of the
42
transfer coeffi-
45
cients
2.5.6
Reduced matrix work
R-coefficients only
2.6 Recursion formulae for multiple reflections
46
47
2.6.1
Generalized Airy summation
47
2.6.2
An
49
2.6.3
Vector approximation of r
algorithm for complete Airy summation
2.6.4 Vector
approximation of
r/t
52
53
2.6.5 Quality of the approximations
53
2.6.6 Internal transfer coefficients
60
CONTENTS
3.
2.7
A recursion pattern for the input admittance.
2.8
Notes on numerical computations
66
BASIC DIELECTRIC DESIGN UNITS
69
3.1
The
The Smith Chart
69
single layer
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
Amplitude and energy coefficients

Analysis of the energy formulae for normal and oblique
69
incidence
70
Reducing and increasing
reflection
by one
layer.
Observa-
75
tion in white light
a prototype of monochromatic filtration

3.1.5 Theoretical principles of measuring the optical parameters
3. 1 .4
62
The
single layer as
79
of thin films
80
3.2 Periodic structures
83
3.2.1
Fundamentals of typology and notations
3.2.2
A rough orientation in a HLH.
3.2.3 Reflection at cardinal points
<p
83
86
system
(21
88
1) rc/2
92
3.2.4 Latent (A/2) layers
3.3
93
layers as correcting elements
3.2.5
Use of X\2
3.2.6
Stop-band theory
3.2.7
Symmetry and
3.2.8
Oblique incidence
104
3.2.9
Phase dispersion
107
by discrete points
The antireflection problem
Principles of achromatization by discrete points
109
Broad-band
3.3.1
3.3.2
96
103
periodicity
antireflection
109
....
Ill
118
Examples of use
3.4 Some detuned multilayers
3.3.3
130
.131
3.4.1
The simulated
3.4.2
134
Design of detuned three-layer antireflection coatings
Some further antireflection multilayers of the detuned type 139
3.4.3
antireflection bi-layer
3.4.4 Beam-splitters corrected

3.4.5
3.4.6
by detuning
Detuning as a means of interpolating

The sloping edge
141
reflection levels
144
148
3.5 Applications of periodic structures

3.5.1 Interference mirrors.
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
Low-pass and high-pass
The single-half-wave monochromatic filter

The double-half-wave monochromatic filter
Notes on multiple cavity filters
143
filters
148
159
162
173
CONTENTS
4.
OPTICS OF METALS
182
4.1 Generalizing the Snell law.
4.2 The invariants and
4.3 Orientation of the vectors
The inhomogeneous wave
on a
and
The
189
190
boundary
192
wave
single metallic film
4.6.1
4.6.2
183
187
H after refraction
dielectric/metal
4.5 Poynting's vector in the refracted
4.6
....
Ketteler's relations
93
195
Computing the outer field

Computing the inner field
200
GENERAL SYSTEMS OF LAYERS
213
214
Absorption in a layer system
218
5.2 Potential transmittance and absorptance
of
case
the
for
5.3 Distribution of absorption across a layer system
223
weakly dissipative media
5.1
229
5.4 Total reflection
233
5.5 Frustrated total reflection
6.
GENERAL THEOREMS ON STRATIFIED MEDIA

6.1 Left-and-right-incidence
6.2 Reversibility
6.2.1
Some
240
240
theorem
241
theorem
conclusions from
the reversibility
theorem
...
245
-
6.3 Equivalence theorems
4?
period
6.3.1 Computing the equivalent parameters for the basic
(0.5B)
249
A (0.5B)
layer
6.3.2 Analysing the spectral behaviour of an equivalent
ripple
6.3.4 Use of matching layers to manipulate pass-band
6.3.5 The stop-band
6.4
7.
potential transmittance
BASIC METAL/DIELECTRIC DESIGN UNITS

7.1
The Fabry-Perot sandwich

7.1.1 Basic
The transmission
....
270
283
283
2 **5
formulae
9~
7.1.2 Fourier expansions for 31 and
7.1.3
267
270
Theorems on maximum
257
270
Theorems concerning induced transmission

6.4.1 Front-extension theorem
6.4.2
251
255
6.3.3 Stacking the basic period
filter
286
293
CONTENTS
7.1.4
The
300
reflection etalon
7.1.5 Laser cavity
320
7.2 Dielectric-coated metallic mirrors

7.3
Some
7.3.1 Pohlack's beam-splitters
7.3.2
8.
328
.
328
....
filter
COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURES
337
and 1/d
339
Kard's theory of translumination
346
8.4 Circle diagrams

8.5
9.
349
Notes on non-polarizing beam-splitters
359
EXACT SYNTHESIS OF TUNED MULTILAYERS

9.1
365
9.1.1
Transformation of the formulas
9.1.2
Energy relations
368
9.1.3
Finding the a v ,b v
370
The
365
N*\ NJ!?
the matching methods
371
Some remarks about
374
problem
374
Butterworth and Chebyshev approximations of the low-
9.1.5
antireflection
9.2.1
pass
9.2.2
9.3
364
Principles of the procedure
9.1.4 Inversion of the
9.2
374
filter
Frequency transformations
380
germanium substrate
problem
9.2.3 Antireflecting a
380
The
384
semireflection
9.3.1 Pohlack's
expansion and
its
Chebyshev matching
....
9.3.2 Tables of synthetized semireflectors

9.3.3
9.3.4 Simplified
9.4.
9.4.2
398
achromatism by
Ak2 =0
401
405
The sloping edge in Lagrangian approximation

The pole-and-zero plot
405
406
9.5 Phase-change-upon-reflection in terms of the zero distribution
9.7.1
physical
analogies
408
410
9.6 Rational function for tan S
Some
385
390
Oblique incidence
9.4 Other cases of matching
9.7
332
337
Vlasov-Kard recursion formulae
8.2 Kard's dual expansions for r/d

8.3
The induced-transmission monochromatic
SPECIFIC
8.1
323
induced-transmission systems
between thin films and
electrical
networks
412
The
412
transmission-line analogy
CONTENTS
9.7.2
9.7.3
9.7.4
The "monochromatic" LC-network analogy

The "vanishing film" analogy
The rationalized-thin-film analogy
9.7.5 Insertion loss
the
413
416
418
analogy to optical transmission
9.7.6 Darlington's insertion-loss synthesis.
424
tions of realizability
10.
INHOMOGENEOUS LAYERS
10.1
10.2
The
WKBJ
Some
10.2.1
429
430
(geometrical optics) approximation
433
exact solutions
433
Exponential layer
436
437
438
440
10.2.2 Linear layer
Notes on other solutions. Computer-aided solutions

The inhomogeneous layer as part of a layer system .... 438
10.3.1 Generalizing the Fresnel coefficient for inhomogeneous
10.2.3
10.3
media
10.3.2
The
in the
approximation of geometrical optics
an inhomogeneous
inhomogeneous layers
interference matrix of
10.4 Transfer coefficients of single

10.4.1
Exponential layer
10.4.2
WKBJ
film
....
A general method
10.5.1
444
445
445
layer
446
448
10.4.3 Transition layer
10.5
421
Notes on the condi-
of integration
Drude's formulae a
first
approximation
......
453
The hyperbolic profile 455

10.6.1 A relationship between the hyperbolic and exponential
profiles. The method of simple reflections as a Fourier
transform
457
10.6.2 A reciprocity theorem on associated functions .... 458
10.7 Numerical examples
459
10.8 Notes on the preparation of inhomogeneous layers
471
10.6
11.
Approximation by simple
reflections.
THICK LAYERS
11.1 Planeparallel glass
11.1.1
480
blank with coatings
A pile of plates
Cemented plate
11.3 The cube
11.3.1 The simple beam-splitting cube
11.2
480
484
485
487
493
CONTENTS
12.
PERTURBATIONS
12.1 Dispersion
of dielectrics
496
496
12.2 Spurious absorption
507
12.3 Surface roughness
510
12.4 Cumulative tint in lenses
517
12.5 Obliquity effects in lenses
523
12.6 Production errors
536
INDEX
543
1
Introduction
1.1 Historical
and prefatory notes
The anomalous behaviour of matter if it is made to exist in the form

of a thin film is an established phenomenon of modern physics which is
being exploited both in basic research into the properties of matter and
for industrial applications, once the anomalies are under control.
Optics enjoys the historical priority of being the
first
branch of physics
to have been confronted with a thin film anomaly, in the form of coloured
reflection
from soap bubbles,
fatty patches
on water. The
air
wedges between glass surfaces and from
earliest descriptions
of these phenomena were
independently published in the 17th century by several natural philosophers:
Joannes Marcus Marci (1648), Robert Boyle (1663), F.
Robert Hooke (1665).
No
M.
Grimaldi (1665),
explanation was given of these colours apart
from some vague speculations in terms of reflection and refraction.

Thin film colours did not escape the attention of Isaac Newton (1704),
they
eluded an explanation in terms of the corpuscular theory of light.
yet
In fact, they remained the touchstone of optics until the beginning of the
19th century, when the foundations of physical optics were laid by Young
and
Fresnel.
Interference of light waves
of thin
films,
was discovered to be the cause of the colours

and the double-beam treatment of it on a plane-parallel layer
has been one of the classical sketches in physics text-books ever since.
In 1833 G. B. Airy extended this to a multiple-beam model, but his
formulae were unnecessarily exact, and involved, for the thin film phenomena
then under study: both the colours of thin films and Newton's rings were
adequately described by two-beam interference.
OPTICS OF THIN FILMS
12
From the theoretical ideas
of that time
let
us also recall Stokes' principle
of reversion (1849), used to account for the perfect blackness of the central
spot in Newton's rings.
However
have kept their importance in modern
old, all these ideas
optical thin film theory. In fact,
it
was only lack of
practical hints that
prevented 19th-century physics from developing the concept of the multi-
and the corresponding methods of analysis. No technical means were

known of producing multilayers artificially and no multilayers were registered
in nature. The Fabry-Perot etalon of the 1890's was the first element to
layer,
summation to describe the profile of its Haiwas still a "silvered" monolayer rather than a real
require the use of exact Airy
dinger fringes, but this

three-layer.
Not
until 1917
can one discover a paper concerning a genuine stack
of "plates" of alternatively low and high refractivity. The object of the study
was not a technical product, but a work of nature. This paper, by no less
a person than Lord Rayleigh, [1], gave an explanation of the spectral colours
observed in the reflection of light on the covers of some coleopterous
beetles,
known
band theory of
to have laminar structure.
We
have essentially here a stop-
dielectric multilayers, but, since
no
artificial stratifications
of this kind could be produced at that time, the paper
An
fell
into oblivion.
later
redeveloped by various authors in various terms.
The time was hardly
ripe then for the application of single layers.
Stop-band theory was
occasional observation (actually an unconscious duplication of earlier
findings by J. Fraunhofer
and by Lord Rayleigh) of some atmospherically
tarnished lenses led the optics manufacturer Dennis Taylor to the elaboration
of
artificial
unwanted
ageing of glass surfaces by etching, with the effect of reducing

reflection
from the refracting boundaries. The interpretation
of this effect was in terms of an intermediate refractivity step being introduced between air and the compact glass, as if the layer were acting as a thick
no
one, with
interference involved. Strangely enough,
it
was noted
at the
same time that the reflected light changed colour with the thickness etched,
and that maximum effect was obtained with a "slatey bronze" tint in
reflection.
The
British Patent
No
29561, granted for this process in 1904,
is
the
commercial antireflection technique. A similar

in
1919
to L. W. Bugbee in the United States, the etching
patent was granted
first
trace of a would-be
being applied during the polishing process.
gained a footing, however, because

into the process of glass-working.
it
None
of these procedures
was not a popular
step to admit acids
INTRODUCTION
The
13
real birth
of thin film applications in optics had to wait until the
was derived from the advances of vacuum technology

achieved within the framework of the electronics industry. The vacuum
evaporation process in a well-developed plant with an efficient pumping
system was discovered to be the best method of producing an interference
layer of specified optical properties. A. Smakula and /. Strong are cited
middle 1930's, when
it
Germany and
H.
A.
Pfund discovered
as independent fathers of the single antireflection layer in

the United
States, respectively. Parallel to
this,
the reflection-increasing potentialities of evaporated high-index layers.

It
was subsequently
realized that
may
one
evaporate more different
layers in succession. This led, in the period 1937 -r- 1947, to the elaboration
of the
first
multilayer theories for antireflecting and reflecting systems as
well as for monochromatic interference
VaSicek and A. W. Crook,
may
[2-4],
Pierre Rouard, Antonin
filters.
be regarded as the main contributors
to the generalization by recurrence of the Airy formulae to multilayer

systems, although a
computations as
well.
number of other authors have made various ad hoc

Important design work of deep foresight, unfortunat-
ely confined to patent literature,
is
due to Walter Geffcken,
[5],
who
also
pioneered wet and gaseous-reaction deposition processes. A. G. Vlasov
seems to be the Russian
classic
of this
era, [6].
Exacting technological requirements for the production of optically
and physically stable multilayers have caused the practical developments to be mostly confined to the laboratory phase. The manufacture of
effective
the Fabry-Perot type
real
commercial
filter,
which spread
after 1945,
may be
regarded as
hit.
The Airy summation was
also used
by
S.
Tolansky in 1942 when
analysing the Fizeau fringes in a silvered-wedge film.
Post-war development
is
characterized
by increased confidence
in the
rdle of optical multilayers, with corresponding efforts in the experimental
and
theoretical spheres. Special evaporation plants
were developed for
optical multilayers (with only a minority of firms adhering to additive

processes). Large scale research
was undertaken
wet
into materials suitable for
various spectral regions and satisfying the requirements of economical
manufacture and prolonged use of the
films.
Methods of controlled deposi-
tion were developed, optical constants, porosity, structure, adhesion, etc.
were studied and an enormous amount of knowledge and

this
new
skill
was put into
field.
Last, but not least, theory
of spectral
was invoked to discover new possibilities

of the word, which after all it the
filtering in the general sense
14
predominant use of interference films in optical applications. Theory was

also expected to help in interpreting measurements of optical constants,
in setting the production tolerances
and
in guiding the development of
new
or modified systems.
Early milestone papers of this second era are, for example, the Hadley-
Dennison electromagnetic treatment of the reflection and transmission

metallic interference
the
first
filter, [7],
the published thesis of F. Abeles,
[8],
being
general treatment of stratified media in terms of the electromagnetic
theory of light, and a paper by E. T. Welford,
[9],
introducing matrix
compu-
from those of Abeles. Pioneering design work was being

undertaken by F. A. Turner. The first conference on Thin Films summoned
by the Marseille University in 1949 showed how widespread and lively the
tations different
experimental and theoretical activities actually were at that time,

-
[10].
In the subsequent years four basic text-books on thin films appeared,
each having
its
own method
of approach and choice of material, thus
supplementing each other in the demonstration that a self-sustained new
was being born. These were the works of H. Mayer, [11], O. S.

A. VaMcek, [13] and the advanced though less accessible treatise by G. V. Rozenberg, [22], (to be followed only much later by the now
well-known books by H. Anders, [23] and H. A. Macleod, [24]).
discipline
Heavens,
[12],
From then on it would hardly be possible to follow the stormy
develop-
ment in any balanced proportions. Reference to literature in the present
book
is
kept at a moderate
level, the
goal being neither monograph-like
completeness, nor a historical look at every stage of the development.
At this point the author would like to make an apology to the effect that
any shortcomings of documentation should be interpreted as his insufficient
absorption of
all
the existing material rather than anything near
discrimination.
In the early stages, use of the theory was prevalently analytical:

interesting combinations, mostly the result of straightforward reasoning,
were mathematically studied and possibly improved in
detail.
Vector sum-
mation often helped where general theory denied direct insight. Although
thin film theory is a more compact piece of science than, for example,
geometrical optics, the final formulae to which it eventually leads do not
lend themselves to direct analysis in terms of the
many
design parameters.
Recourse was therefore had to large scale numerical analysis, which was
facilitated by the happy coincidence of this opening era of multilayers
with the advent of automatic computers. No desk-calculator teams had to
be formed in analogy to the optical design teams of the past (which also
INTRODUCTION
made
it
15
of the theorists with experimental
easier to integrate the minority
teams).
In the course of time real design theory began to grow, developing

special procedures for various purposes. Analogies with
new concepts and
network theory were established, which made it possible to design some

analog computers and elaborate exact numerical syntheses. Large computer
programs were also written for automatic differential corrections.

The theory of optical interference films has by now developed into a
of physical optics as regards
specific chapter
aspects have formed
it
importance for the science of optical

filters.
The author
is
its
principles, but the design
into a clean-cut technical discipline of about the

filters
as network theory
is
same
for electrical
tempted to apply a quotation from a network theory
classic to the effect that the science ".
physics and engineering." This
is
a beautiful blend of mathematics,
book on thin film theory will try to contribute
to the substantiation of the analogous belief that there
is
a beauty in only
skin deep.
It
should be admitted that the interdependence between theory and
much
practice is
stronger in optics than in electronics, starting with the
fact that the thin-film theorist cannot assemble his systems
separate parts with technical data printed
ially available
from commercon them. The
road to a practical realization of theoretical ideas is more arduous here,

which makes some of the practitionists sometimes think that enough has
already been done by the theorists to keep technology busy over the next
Alternatively,
if we admit that the discovery of

may be postponed in harmony with the needs of practice.
we may tolerate the thriving of some pure theory if the rest
of the science
is
decade or
so.
This view can be justified
fascinating ideas
This
is
flying at
an operational
height.
the philosophy adopted in the present
work which
is
to be
regarded as a text-book meant for advanced university courses or as a

reference
book for those working in the field. The aim is to acquaint the
modern concepts and the procedures of that part of the electro-
reader with
magnetic theory of light which

applications.
is today applied to stratified media in optical

rough knowledge of Maxwell theory is assumed.
Multilayers are regarded as elements affecting the propagation of

infinitely
extended plane waves, none of the recent developments of wave
guiding inside thin films having been considered.
The evolution of the basic theory is the first objective. The dominant
method of approach is matrix treatment, but other useful computational
methods are also followed. The now orthodox material on dielectric films
16
is
more or less
presented in
established notations. There
was more pedagogic
scope for the author in working through- therhwblved formalism of metallic
same time
films, providing at the
for a
physical situations occurring there.
found
maximum
Some
of insight into the new
known
less well
in the sections dealing with the inner field.
inhomogeneous
may be
layers are presented in close connection with the formalism
homogeneous
established for
results
The fundamentals of
Wherever possible
multilayers.
in the intermediate stages
of the presentation,
applications are introduced in special chapters written
from the view-point
was not the authors ambition to present anything like a complete

design theory for thin films, which would call for a special volume, possibly
written by several authors. It is hoped though that enough of this material
has been incorporated to make the book well balanced between basics and
applications. The chapters on thick layers and on perturbations should add
of design.
It
to this balance.
from the other side of the balance is devoted

to a type of exact synthesis, which has haunted the author's mind for some
years. A number of unpublished results are presented here in full awareness
of the fact that their elegance surpasses their utility, at least in the foreseeable future. Nonetheless, the general views obtained here, and the network
substantial chapter
may deepen
physical analogies,
the understanding of thin film interference
as well as supporting the educational value of the book.
In addition to
this,
the equivalent of several papers or notes, so far
withheld from separate publication,
book, (particularly in
it
being
left
is
dispersed over other parts of the
2.6.5, 3.3, 3.4, 5.3, 6.3.4, 7.1.4, 11.3
and
in
Ch.
12),
for the conversant reader to assess their usefulness in the
presentation of the particular subjects.

Finally a few
words on how this book came into being. As is often

was provided by personal notes piling up over the
research, some of the results having been published in
the case, the nucleus
years in industrial
on thin films at the university

a process of arrangement and growth resulting in two inter-
scientific journals.
later initiated
The occasion
to lecture
mediate stages of condensation: Lecture Notes for the 1966 Czechoslovak

Summer School and an enlarged version of these in English for my 1969
stay as guest lecturer at the Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan, Stockholm.
My
thanks here go to Professor E. Ingelstam for his friendly help and encouragement to make the last, but longest, leap between these lecture notes and
the present book.
This book could not have been written, had
not had the opportunity
INTRODUCTION
to
work
fully to
17
systematically,
my
and
wish to express
my
some extent freely, in the field. I owe

Meopta National Enterprise, Pferov. I
to
Organisation, the
this
also
gratitude to the late Professor E. Keprt, until recently
Head of
the Optics and Fine Mechanics Chair of the Palacky University,

Olomouc, who, at the time when we shared an industrial career, has launched me on the subject and set the conditions for my work. Thanks are also
due to
my wife for having understood the
share of private
life
that activities
like this require.
Having touched upon the early
remember the
years, I inevitably
who
stimulating personality of the late Professor A. Vasicek,
for
many
years disseminated enthusiasm for thin films in our geographical longitudes.
The team work of
my
laboratory has always helped
theory with practice and so to spend most of

flying height mentioned above.
computing centre
to acknowledge
is
my
me
to
combine
time at the desirable
The cooperation of the
staff
also appreciated. Last, but not least,
of the
Meopta
my
pleasure
it is
some advanced student work which helped me survey
several remote corners of the terrain.
book converge
to relative
rather unimportant.
1
The author
Since most of the computations in this

quantities, the question of physical units
is
hopes that occasional Gaussian ornaments
like (47t/c)
will
not offend the
Si-men among us.

Problems for solving are attached to each chapter (with the exception
of the first and last ones). Apart from the tutorial purpose some of them
serve to convey additional information on the subject in a condensed from
on the part of the reader. Such

Another type of problems
assumes the availability of a simply organized computer program for
dielectric films in normal incidence. These are also meant for conditional
use, although writing such a program should be a simple matter for most
requiring a higher degree of cooperation
problems
may well be
skipped in the
first
reading.
of the interested readers.
1.2
The working hypotheses and the
practical bearing
of the theory
Optical thin film theory
is
essentially the
Maxwell macroscopic theory
of electromagnetic waves applied to the propagation of light across layered

systems. Its working hypotheses
may
be summarized as follows:
18
is an optically isotropic medium, characterized

by its refractive index n, real for dielectrics and complex for metals
two adjacent media are separated by a mathematical dividing plane,
the mass of the film
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
where a discontinuous jump of refractive index occurs

apart from this, a continuous dependence of refractivity on space
coordinates is admitted. For practical purposes it is sufficient to consider n to be dependent only on depth in the layer (so called normal
inhomogeneity)
(iv)
a layer
is
its lateral
layer
is
defined in space by two parallel dividing planes, as by
dimensions being practically
(ii),
The thickness of the
of the order of the wavelength of light
the incident
(v)
infinite.
wave
is
linearly polarized in
considered as being plane, monochromatic and
one of the two basic azimuths, p and
s,
with
respect to the plane of incidence

Let us at once mention some existing physical factors which are mostly
neglected, or considered additionally as a possible perturbation on the
adopted simple model of
These
stratified
media.
are:
a) polycrystalline structure
of evaporated
films, possibly causing
some
scattering or absorption of light
and dividing
b) roughness of substrate
as
c)
by
anisotropy of film material due to structure or internal stress
d) dependence of structure
thickness
e)
planes, again leading to effects
a)
(critical
and
optical constants of films
on
their actual
with some metals)
time-dependence of refractivity and thickness (ageing)
f) diffusion
between adjacent materials, giving
rise to internal transition
layers
giving rise to external transition

g) subsequent adsorption or oxidation,
layers
h) inhomogeneity of films
i)
due non-stationary evaporation conditions
dispersion of optical constants of dielectrics
(always taken into account with metals)
To
take account of
a),
b) calls for
more work on
the standard mathe-
matical model with a corresponding increase of numerical
work
in the
applications of the theory.
The papers by G. Ross., [14], may be mentioned as a recent effort to

consider the scattering effects in the mass of the material. The influence
of surface roughness seems to have been studied by more authors. Diffuse
INTRODUCTION
reflection
on very
is
19
either treated in terms of geometrical optics or as diffraction
fine surface irregularities.
for thin films, but so far
it
The
latter
approach
is
of importance
has only been used for single boundaries, to
account for anomalies in measured Fresnel
or for single films,
reflectivities,
to estimate measuring errors of ellipsometry. These problems are discussed

in 12.3. Neither surface nor
volume
scattering have been incorporated
into a complete multilayer theory.
In a simplified approach, volume scattering
of
slight
may
be taken as the cause
energy losses in the collimated beams taking part in multiple
interference. Accordingly,
an empirical damping factor
may be
introduced
summation formulae, leaving the refractive

indices real. This method will be used in sections 5.3 and 12.2 of this book
to account for some phenomena of practical bearing.
Although anisotropic media (point c) have long had their own matrix
for the amplitudes in the Airy
caluculus [15], with a substantial recent generalization in
[16], it
can only
be used to compute the transformation of the amplitudes upon one tra-
no account being taken of multiple
versal of the system,
reflections
due to
internal Fresnel coefficients.
Items d)
i)
could be taken into account by the present theory if
the actual optical parameters and the actual inhomogeneities of the system
were available. Since a surgical look into a completed system

exception (see [17,
18]),
recourse
is
made
then sought between computed and measured
The
interpretation of the
is still
to assumptions, and a best
phenomenon
an
fit si
results, [19].
listed
under d)
is
beyond the
scope of the macroscopic theory, being essentially a generalized theory
of dispersion.
It has been intensely studied by the Marseille group of thin

and others, [20, 21].
Having established the working principles of the theory of thin films,
we may ask to what extent it may give valuable answers in physical research
and in practical applications. The situation differs between dielectrics and
films
metals.
In the optics of dielectrics, multilayer systems are analysed with an
accuracy which
is
adequate for subsequent photometric measurements.
and positions are

made, as well as means being devised to correct long-wave or short-wave
subsidiary maxima outside the bands. With reflectors and semireflectors
energy levels and states of polarization in oblique incidence are successfully
computed and means are devised to obtain broad reflection maxima.
Monochromatic filters with various types of transmission maxima (peak,
Reliable predictions of stop-band or pass-band widths
20
square-topped) are designed and optimized with respect to losses. Many

types of antiref lection layers have been computed for various band-widths
unorthodox demands of individual customers can

be met, the development always starting with a computer analysis.
Some critical situations arise when the resulting reflectivity is meant
and
ripples. In addition,
to be zero or 100 percent (high-performance antireflection films, laser

mirrors). Photometry then raises higher demands than theory is able to
meet with the underlying data. The problem is rather a technological one.
In the optics of metals, possibly combined with dielectrics, structural
effects cause discrepancies between theory and experiment due to uncertainty of optical parameters (see above). Nevertheless, computations are
useful at least to give a fairly good qualitative theory of the system under
which then guides the final refinement in the experimental phase.

Also, some advanced design concepts in the optics of combined metal/
associated
dielectric layers are due to theory alone (e.g. all the phenomena
study,
with the concept of induced transmission).

Last but not least, the macroscopic theory -sometimes also called
phenomenological- defines measurable optical constants n, or r\ and x,

and yields formulae for their determination from suitably conducted
measurements.
1.3
Wave
equations of the electromagnetic field*)
media is concerned with the propagation of

are either
linearly polarized harmonic waves in systems of media which
optical
partwise homogeneous and/or normally inhomogeneous, i.e. their
the
layer.
normal
to
the
along
measured
depth
the
on
constants depend
The theory of
stratified
is not so.
In these cases the form of the waves is planar, but generally this
waves
electromagnetic
the
of
components
We therefore first assume the
to have general phasor functions:

Ja
E(x, y, z) e *
H(x, y, z) e
jtot
= V( " D
following sections
*) Systematic development of ideas called for this and the
details they treat will
to be introduced at this stage of the book, although the full
Any reader
not be needed until much later, in the chapter on inhomogeneous layers.
eager to plunge right
with basic knowledge of the electromagnetic theory of light, who is
this introductory chapter
into the main subject, is encouraged to skip sections 1.31.7 of
and
return for reference
when needed.
21
INTRODUCTION
finding various types of electromagnetic (linearly
The problem of
waves in various types of media
polarized, harmonic)
that of finding the phasor functions as solutions of
is
identical with
differential equations
which result from Maxwell's equations.

Assuming the media to be at rest and without any electrical charge,
Maxwell's equations for the harmonic waves are (in Gaussian units)
where c
is
div (eE)
cud
div (/iH)
H,
-j
the velocity of light
(1-la, b)
H=
curl
and the complex
^ IE
(l-2a, b)
dielectric constant
= s -j
(1-3)
CO
known formal expedient accounting for the conduction current

in (l-2b). (Any time we need to stress that a quantity is complex the horizontal bar will be used. However, other quantities not marked in this way
is
the well
may
is
to
also be
complex numbers. Complexity due to cumulation of layers
marked by bold face types.)

For reasons of generality we shall first assume the material constants
depend on all three variables:
occasionally
e(x, y, z), n(x, v, z), a{x, y, z), e(x, y, z)
We then have
=
div (eE)
div
Setting the left-hand side equal to zero
+-
E grad
and introducing the logarithmic
derivative leads to the relationship
divE
Taking the curl of
curl. curl
where the right-hand
side,
curl
Inserting this
(l-2a)
and
= -Egrad(lne)
we have
grad div E
- AE =
with
fi
variable,
\i
curl
(pH)
(1-4)
H+
(1-4), into (1-5)'
-j
curl (juH)
(1-5)
must be performed
grad n x
and using
as
(l-2a, b)
we
obtain
AE + ^
c
efiE
grad (E
grad In
e)
grad In e x curl E
(l-6a)
22
In a similar
way we
obtain, quite symmetrically,
AH +
ifiH
+ grad (H
grad In ^)
+ grad lni x curl H =
(l-6b)
These are the
differential equations for the
general case of inhomogeneity. It
is
phasor functions in the most
only in this case that there
is
complete
symmetry.
The symmetry
terms In
fi
in fact almost complete, because in the latter
is
alternates with In s or with In
specialize for
i.
This symmetry vanishes
we
normal inhomogeneity:
Introducing the coordinate system in such a

are parallel with Oxy, the material constants
Assuming
two
if
n to be
we have
in addition
optical applications
way that the
may
layer surfaces
be functions of z only.
constant (and possibly equal to unity) in the
JE + ^-i + grad(,^^-) =
(*!)-
(l-7a)
AH
\ ipH +
grad (In
i)
x curl H
(1 -7b)
Now
with
its
let
a linearly polarized E-wave be incident on the layer surface
vector oriented normal to the plane of incidence, this plane being
Oxz.
identified with
(l-7a) then
assumes the form

d
co
_,
,. _ .
(1 " 8a>
v
V
-ri- + -rir + -r ^( z) Ey =
c
az
ox
E E
x
being zero.
Turning to the third term in
a normally
(l-7b), it is evaluated for
inhomogeneous layer as
JdH x
'
\ Szs
dHz \ dln$
8xf) ^ dzM
JdHx
J
\dy
dHy \
din's
dz ) M dz h
The second bracketed term vanishes, however, if we take E

polarized as jEy and insert this into (l-2b), which then reads
>S
(8HZ
_
~
\Jy
8HA - (8H* _ 8H\ + k

cT) j {-oT IF)
to be plane-
(^_^\
\JT
dy )
INTRODUCTION
23
Writing (l-2a) out in
we can
(l-7b)
infer
may
a
full also,
from both equations
therefore be written in
component form as
dx
5x
dz
\d z
te
d
dx
dz
8x J
co
pi(z)J7,-0
(l-8c)
Eqs. (l-8a, b, c) describe the harmonic
wave of the
so-called transverse electric
as s-polarized.
We
shall
adhere to the
field for a linearly polarized

(TE) type, traditionally also denoted
latter term.
Considering the other basic polarization

transverse magnetic (TM), wave, we have
state,
H = jH
the /^-polarized, or
and by the same argum-
ent as above find
The
dy
dy
third term in (l-7b)
is
now
evaluated as
Sine 8H
-J
dz
dz
and the equation reduces to
^
dx
The
aX
dz
aini(z)
8H^
Sz
dz
jgl
c
.
Mz)H
* w y
third term in (l-7a) written out in full yields
(l-9a)
24
where non-zero values appear only in the
We
first
term of
and
in the k-term.
thus arrive at the following component form of (l-7a):

2
^
5x
EX
Ex
6E2
a^ + ^în^
dz
m2
8 In e(z)
alin^)
dz
dz
_.
dz
^
c
(l-9c)
Eqs. (l-9a, b, c) describe the harmonic field for the p-polarized wave.
Obviously, (l-9a)
than (l-8b,
c). It is
simpler than (l-9b, c) just as (l-8a) was simpler
is
easier then to describe the behaviour of the transverse
component of the electromagnetic wave. Since the vectors and H are

interrelated by the Maxwell equations, we are free to choose the simpler
differential equation as the starting point, determining the other component
from the general field properties (referring to (1-2): essentially using the
partial derivatives of the solution found).
Let us specialize these results for normal incidence using the notation
for the p-ca&e,
assuming E
i.e.
oz
e^ _
dz
We
have from (l-9b) and (l-9a)
_ain
!!
iEx
w L ep,
8z
col
Az) Hy =
a-iob)
E% obeys a simpler*) equation than Hy due to the assumption that n = const.

Finally supposing the
medium
to be homogeneous, (l-7a, b) reduce
to the well-known d'Alembert equation

2
AA + ^-/isA =
C
For
*)
Simpler to solve
0,
A= E
or
(1-11)
J1
complex this is actually the equivalent of the telegraphy equation,

for e real we have d'Alembert's equation proper.
Recalling (1-8) and (1-9) we see that the transverse component always
oscillates by (1-11), but with a variable e = e(z).
Ch. 10 that
it
is
is
not always equivalent with simpler form. E.g.
contains an additional term with the
forE.
we
shall see in
easier to solve the differential equation for the H-vector, although

first
derivative as
it
compared with the equation
INTRODUCTION
1.4
25
The plane wave
in a
homogeneous medium
While we proceed from the general case towards the

deriving the differential wave-equations,
it is
expedient to
special case in
move in the reverse
direction in seeking the solutions.
Taking the homogeneous medium, the basic type
is
the linearly polariz-
ed monochromatic plane wave
A =
where k
is
ajtf exp {][cot
is
z cos 0)]}
(1-12)
medium and the angle

wave normal in the Oxz plane
sin
k cos
a unit vector along whose direction the oscillations of
place, while si
A may
the propagation constant in the given
defines the orientation of the
k(x sin
is
take
the complex amplitude of these harmonic oscillations.
stand for either or H.
Suppose formally we have a />-polarized wave. For the moment let

us take its oscillations along a general azimuth /? in the Oxz plane, so that
the phasor of (1-12) for the electric
With
(i
sin
k cos 0)
component
S exp
[-jk(x
is
sin
respect to the preceding section the magnetic
z cos 0)\
(l-13a)
component must be
taken as
H = jHy = pf exp [-jHx sin
z cos 0)]
(1-1 3b)
Inserting these results in (l-9a, b, c) with e constant, the following condition

results for the
propagation constant:
2
k =.L/ii
= kî
(1-14)
where k
2jtA
_1
is
the propagation constant in vacuo.
Note: The product as* is sometimes written as the single symbol A, called the
complex vector amplitude. It involves the concept of a physical vector of direction a
and that of the complex vector ^, describing by its rotation with exp (j<ot) harmonic
oscillations of the physical vector A. We prefer the composite notation ast, which is
more apt for a later generalization in the optics of metals: both for E and for H, a splits
up
into
a complex physical vector
meaning.
We
shall often shift
a'
+ ja",
while si retains
s/ in phase along the
2 axis.
its
purely mathematical
26
Introducing by analogy with dielectric media a complex refractive
index n
t]
jx such that the intuitive relationship k
tive index as the ratio of phase velocities)
far for the phase velocities),
no implication so
(with
k n
(n
we
refrac-
k = k n
formally replaced by
is
see that (1-14)
is fulfilled if
(1-15)
y/Ou)
which implies
2
ri
where
is
From
-x 2 =
tive
trics
afii
(1-1 5a, b)
(l-16a,b) one can deduce
is
y [V(*
2 2
+ 4* T ) + ]
0-17a, b)
a relationship between the optical parameters
medium and its electro-magnetic

we simply have
n
The
= JHfJL =
the period of the oscillations.
J}
This
t\x
fis,
explicit
material constants
r\,
e,
x of a
n, a.
dissipa-
For
dielec-
= VO0
(1-18)
importance of these relationships
is
very limited, because
they have only been verified to some approximation in the far infrared.
The problem
is
that one uses the constants
e, \i,
a measured with more or
phenomena involving very high frequencies.

The only inference we shall make from (1-16) and (1-17) is that the
_1
while
optical constants of metals explicitly depend on frequency T
with dielectrics this dependence is only implicit through e. The practical
consequence is that the measured values r\ and x are much more dispersive
less static fields in
than those of n.
We
thus
come
to another point of this discussion: adapting (1-12)
by a condition of the type

parameters
in
r\,
(1-13) leads to the introduction of
measurable by purely wave-optical means, as
x,
due course.
Let us now
insert
as/ exp
k n into
xd
(1-12).
We
ex P
mt
some new
will
turn out
have
~ id
(1-19)
INTRODUCTION
where d
27
= x sin
direction of its
z cos
normal
covered by the wave in the
(9 is the distance
a phase velocity
at
c\n
_1
some amplitude attenuation exp ( 2nk xd).

The components of the complex refractive index t], x may thus naturally
be interpreted as refractive index proper and absorption index.
there being
make
In order to
some
further conditions
with constant
div
fulfilled in
addition to (1-14). Taking (1-4)
(l-13a) yields
s,
= - jk <f(sin
In addition to
compatible with Maxwell's equations,
(1-1 3a, b)
must be
Hs =
sin
we have
cos p cos
also Es
= 0,
0) =
which
=>
is
fi
n/2
the well-known condi-
tion of transversality for electromagnetic waves (established here for the
plane wave within the formalism developed for the />-polarization).
Taking
now
we have
(l-2b) for (l-13a, b)
dH y
dH y
dz
ox
ca
__
which in both components leads to
\JP =
depending on
ft
+
tf
if
nil. Referring to (1-15)
we may
write
= l(\ / - nS
(1-20)
the latter version being important for optics where n
equal to n due to (1-15).

The sign problem is obviously
settled if
we
1.
Js
is
practically
express our result in the
form
H =n[sx
We
wave
have thus shown
in a
with two
related
by
all
the essentials of a plane monochromatic
homogeneous medium.
It is
described by the expression (1-19),
different amplitudes for the electric
(1-20)
and
(1-21)
and magnetic
intensities
(1-21).
Obviously, the planes of equal amplitude are parallel with the planes
of equal phase. Such waves are called homogeneous, as contrasted with
28
inhomogeneous waves, where such a parallelism is lost. Situations of this

kind are encountered when an absorbing medium is entered through a plane
surface at oblique incidence. We shall develop the corresponding generalizations in the section dealing with metallic films.
non-homogeneous media
1.5 General types of solutions in
We
now approach the solution of (1-8) and (1-9) in terms of a

method known as separation of variables. Taking a hint from (1-12) which
shall
can be written as a product of the type as#U(x)
V(z) exp
(jcot ),
where,
and V are the remaining exponentials, we try to write the

s-polarized wave in the normally inhomogeneous medium as
of course,
=/ UWV(z)
=j
Inserting into (l-8a)
we obtain
a 2 -,,A
/a 2 v
\8z
7~ u wV =
tI
+ r
fis(z) v U +
2
J
8x
r
2
which can be reconciled with the following two ordinary
differential
equa-
tions
^
dz
J Az) V = G V,
2
-G 2 U
(1.22a, b)
dx
G being a constant.
Obviously, (l-22b) has a solution
U(x)
const
exp (jGx)
(1-23)
so that
E,
will
*,V(z) exp (+jGx)

is
a solution of
= ^- /i8(z) - G 2
(1-25)
be a correct phasor of the s-polarized wave,
^
dz
f (z)
V=
0,
f (z)
(1-24)
if
V(z)
The constant G is usually determined from the boundary conditions

imposed by the fact that the inhomogeneous medium starts at a surface
the
adjacent to a homogeneous space (or layer) of refractive index n
,
INTRODUCTION
29
incidence angle of the
wave being
6>
Equalizing the corresponding jc-func-
tions for a fixed z yields
G=
n
c
With
y (x,
z)
sin6>
(1-26)
known, the magnetic components
for the s-case are
determined from (l-2a) as
H. =
H =
;--,
dz
JC0/I
--
^-
jCOfl
(l-27a, b)
ex
Turning now to the /^-polarization, we write the transverse magnetic

*
phasor as
H = JHy = WMX)
V(2)
Inserting into (l-9a), separation of variables
is
a solution
The
= jf,v(z)
if v(z) satisfies
electric
again obtained and
exp (+ jGx)
(1-28)
the equation
component
is
then determined from (l-2b) as
*."A^L
ox
*.--A^.
oz
jcoe
The second order
is
0-30a,b)
jcoe
differential equations
(1-25)
and
(1-29) are the
cardinal problems of the theory of inhomogeneous media. Their solution

will
be presented in Chapter 10 for several types of inhomogeneity.
1.6 Transport of energy
The measurable quantity
in optics
is
the radiation flux rather than the
amplitude or phase of electromagnetic waves. Interference films are expected

to modify the energy fluxes rather than the wavefronts.
We
shall
now
briefly treat the corresponding concepts.
Electromagnetic theory defines the energy flux as the vector product
i xH
called Poynting's vector.
(1-31)
30
A theorem then states that for any kind of electromagnetic disturbance

a balance
between the rate of change of electromagnetic energy
exists
and the flux of the vector P across that surface.

as the radiation flux per unit of area normal to it.
stored inside a closed surface
is
therefore interpreted
With quickly
oscillating fields
We
are meaningful.
now
shall
only the time-averaged values that
it is
deduce a formula for computing the time
average of (1-31) given a plane monochromatic wave in complex notation
of the type
part of
(1-12).
This
of course a symbolic replacement for the real
is
allowing easier manipulations provided
itself,
are linear. Such
not the case with (1-31)
is
Taking the
field
(jcot),
components generally as E(x,
we
it
out in
full
*"
in order to see the correct result.
H(x, y, z) exp
in space of
the operations
all
and we must write
exp Qcot) and
y, z)
are interested in the time average at a fixed point
P=
_L [Re ( e
j<ot
x Re (H e^ )]
(1-32)
Writing the real part of a complex quantity z as half the
sum z +
z*,
we
can replace (1-32) by

[(E e
E* e- j0") x (H e"
Jart
+ H* e
**)]
16ji
(E x
H e 2ja" +
E* x H*
- 2jfl> *
E* x
H+
E x H*)
16re
On the time
average the
first
PAV =
which
is
^Re(ExH*)
'
(1-33)
a general formula for computing the average flux of energy of an
electromagnetic harmonic
H(x, y,
two terms vanish and we have
wave with given phasor functions
E(x, y, z)
and
z).
first use this to compute the energy flux carried by a simple

wave of the type (1-12), possibly propagating as a damped but
homogeneous wave of the type (1-19). Using (1-21) we obtain
Let us
travelling
PAv = s-^
where Re()
tj
for metals
and n
Re(B).m 2
for dielectrics.
(1-34)
INTRODUCTION
31
The energy flux of a homogeneous travelling wave is therefore propormodulus squared of its (local) complex amplitude and to the
refractive index proper of the medium. We shall frequently use this result
tional to the
in
forming the energy coefficients of reflection and transmission from the
corresponding amplitude coefficients, which are the immediate results of

thin film computations.
more general use of formula
waves in metallic media
At
present
energy flux.
It is
we
shall
(1-33) concerning inhomogeneous

be discussed in due course, (section 4.5).
mention another general aspect of computing the
will
not necessary that only a single travelling wave be consider-
ed in (1-31) or (1-33). In fact, E and

the integral of P over a closed surface
H
is
must represent the
total field, if
to be in balance with the changes
in the volume-stored energy.
In thin film theory the space investigated for energy balance
an
infinitely
ing one or
is
usually
extended slab of medium, mostly uniform in thickness, contain-
more
layers.
The
total field
on
its
boundaries
the
is
sum of the
incoming and outgoing waves, these waves being of course coherent.

Let us therefore have two travelling waves of equal polarization running
For reasons of simplicity let us take these directions

normal to the boundary. Drawing this boundary as a vertical line in a conin opposite directions.
ventional figure, one
may then speak of a right-going and a left-going wave.

now widely adopted subscripts R and L, respec-
Distinguishing these by the

tively,
we have
cl
Pav/total
- -gj^ Re [(ER + EL) x (H| +
H)]
- -^ L Re(ER xH) + Re(EL xH*) + Re(ER xH + EL xH*)]
(1-35)
Using the obvious substitutions resulting from (1-21)
HR = n(s
HL = (-s
x Er)
x EL)
(understanding that the E-vectors in the R- and L-waves are measured
along the same positive axis)
Pav/total
we can
- s-^ Re(n)
rewrite (1-35) as
SK
2
|
- $-|- Re() /L
+ s -; Re [ 2j Im(E L E*)]
2
|
+
(1-36)
32
This formula indicates that the total (in other words: net) flux of energy
across a surface
given by the difference of the individual fluxes carried
is
by the travelling waves plus a

two waves.
third term
which
is
due to interference of the
we have
the intuitive
result that the net flux is simply the difference (or algebraic
sum) of the
media which
In dielectrics with real n this term vanishes and
two
One can always reason
partial fluxes.
are never metallic,
and
in this
way
in outer
The
in dielectric films generally.
implications for
metallic films will again be deferred to a later occasion, where the effects
of inhomogeneity of waves will also be taken into consideration.
1.7 Polarization states
So far we have only considered linearly polarized waves oscillating in

same direction. This is actually the only case of importance as far as
energy detection is concerned. In this section we shall pay some attention
the
to this aspect of interference.
Let us consider two travelling waves E t and 2 differing in azimuth

in the
Oxy
plane by
/?.
If
El
is
directed along the x-axis,
we may write
the
average Poynting vector of the two waves superposed as
- Re {[iY^!
+ S 2 cos P) + }S 2 sin j8] x
571
x [-i\r|sin0
+ \{*e\ + jftcos #)]}
where use was made of the notation Ej

This
is
\S^ etc.
easily seen to equal
pAv/i +
fc
iW + -^ Re (***!*!)
For two coherent waves with a path

of space
it
cos pl
difference
Az
(1-38)
at a given point
holds that
Sz =
Writing n
(1-37)
e*
7
,
qS' l e
x
,
q proportionality factor-
the third term in (1-38) assumes the form
-^-nqK^cosjS.cosf^-Az +
4jt
\ A
y)
J
(1-39)
INTRODUCTION
This
It
is
33
the
term
interference
obviously vanishes for
ft
n/2,
of the superposition considered.

which results in the following general
statement: no interference can take place between two mutually perpendicular

linear polarizations.
As a consequence, any
other type of polarization
may
be decomposed in an orthogonal system of coordinates into two linearly

polarized oscillations with appropriate phase relationships, which may then
be treated independently as far as detection of energy is concerned.
Having more oscillations of different polarization states, they are
decomposed in one orthogonal system and then each set of projections is
superposed by the pattern (1-37).
In thin film theory the
common
orthogonal system
automatically
is
determined by the plane of incidence and the corresponding normal.
We
compute sets of coefficients for the p- and s-polarizations which are eventually combined into a final result according to the polarization state of the
incident wave.
In most practical situations the incident wave
is
nonpolarized, which
wave packets with

means that
random orientation. The input energy may be regarded as equally distributed between the p- and s-components. Correspondingly, the energy coefficients of reflection and transmission are
it is
a sequence of short eliptically polarized
e*
When
there are
- y(e P +
more
<?*
is
= y(*P +
(1-40)
*.)
thick substrate plates in tandem, their individual
surfaces having coefficients p'v ,p"

v,
the indicence
**
e s )
...
p'
,pl
...
tp ,
Tp", ... t'

s
%l, ...,
and
if
co-planar, then
y (eX - + QW
In optical instruments
it
...),
T,
= -l^
...
+ TX -)
(Ml)
often happens that a ray undergoes a series
of reflections which are not co-planar as regards the planes of indidence.
Then each
reflecting surface has its
own
coordinate system and a
new
decomposition must be made each time the wave comes from one surface
to the next.
Let us for the moment return to (1-38) and (1-39). They represent
two-beam interference in a rather general notation of electromagnetic theory,
including the assumption of a complex refractive index of the medium.
They have served for our demonstration, but will never occur in the "multiple-beam" theory of thin films. Relation to the classical interference
34
formula of instrumental optics
medium
dielectric
(y
0)
is
easily established
and writing
by emerging into a
"intensities" for the energy fluxes:
^1 + 2 = ^1 +3^2+ 2 7(^1^2)008 T^-dz

J
References
[1]
Lord Rayleigh, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London),
[2]
P.
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
Rouard, Ann.
A 93,
565 (1917).
Phys., 7, 291 (1937).
d.
A. VaSicek, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 37, 623 (1947), with later developments.
A. W. Crook, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 38, 954 (1948).
W. Geffcken, German Patents BDP 902191 and 904357 (1954).
A. G. Vlasov et al, Prosvetlenie optiky, Gostechizdat, 1946.
L. N. Hadley and D. M. Dennison, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 37, 451 (1947) and 38, 483
(1948).
[8]
F. Abeles, Ann. d. Phys., 5, 596 (1950).
[9]
writing as
W.
[10] special issue
Weinstein,
J.
Opt. Soc. Am., 37, 576 (1947).
of Journ. de Phys. et Rad., 11, (1950).
[13]
H. Mayer, Physik dunner Schichten I and //, Stuttgart, 1950 and 1955.
O. S. Heavens, Optical Properties of Thin Solid Films, Butterworth's, London, 1955.
A. Vasicek, a) Optics of Thin Films, (in Czech), Prague, 1956,
b) Measurement and Preparation of Thin Films, (in Czech), Prague, 1958,
c) Optics of Thin Films, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1960.
[11]
[12]
[14]
G. Ross, Opt. Acta,
[15]
R. Clark-Jones,
[16]
D. W. Berreman,
[17] J.
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
M.
16, 95
and 451
(1969).
Opt. Soc. Am., 31, 488 (1941).
/.
/. Opt. Soc.
Am., 62, 502
(1972).
Pearson, Thin Solid Films, 6, 349 (1970).
H. K. Pulker and K. H. Gunther, Vakuum-Technik, 21, 201

W. N. Hansen, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 63, 793 (1973).
P. Bousquet and P. Rouard, Appl. Opt., 3, 435 (1964).
C. v. Fragstein and H. Romer, Z. Phys., 151, 54 (1958).
[22] seeref. 1. in
[24] see ref. 29.
Ch.
2.
Ch. 2.
in Ch. 3.
[23] see ref. 7. in
(1972).
2
Optics of dielectric layers
2.1 Notation and preparatory
remarks
two possible ways of numbering a system of layers we choose

the one beginning at the left of a drawing (which usually, but not necessarily,
From
is
the
the input side of the system), see Fig. 2-1.
f>,
^s
^-TT-
k+1
,?
h*
^^
E 1L
n
n1
"Z
Fig. 2-1 Notation in
starting
"k+1
"k
a layer system
from the
front.
we reserve the subscript 0, for the right k + 1

number of layers. (There is very small risk of confusing
-1
of Ch. 1.) In many situathis k with the propagation constant k = Ink
index
of
air
(= 1), k + 1 for that of
tions n will stand for the refractive
some sort of glass. In this case ng or n G will be written instead of nk+1
k layers imply the existence of k + 1 boundaries. These will in turn
be numbered from 1 to k + 1.
..., 6> k+ x
The refraction angles will be denoted by O
1
For the
where k
is
left
half-space
the total
36
The
incident
wave
and refracted waves in all of

where only the refracted wave
gives rise to reflected
the media except for the output half-space,

exists.
The
and left-going waves in Fig. 2-1

and L, respectively.
In dealing with the boundary conditions, we provide all the entering
quantities with subscripts identical with the order numbers of the respective
boundaries and with a directional subscript R or L. Thus E 1R is the electric
component of the right-going electromagnetic wave, measured on the first
boundary, <f 1R is its complex amplitude. It remains for us to define on
characteristic parameters of right-
have the subscripts
which face of the boundary these quantities are measured.
We adopt a rule
current in optical imaging that quantities belonging behind the optical

surface
We
(i.e.
to the right-hand face of a boundary) are provided with a prime.
1R and
thus have
'
1R ,
H 1L
and H'1L as
pairs of different quantities.
Fig. 2-2 Orientation of coordinate systems
and the electromagnetic wave
The boundary conditions
trihedrals.
are formulated in terms of the tangential
components of the electromagnetic field. It is therefore expedient to introduce

a special notation for the complex amplitudes of these components:
(A.
=E
We
again distinguish between
On
the other
hand
(*%. = H
Em
and E'1K
1L and H'1L etc.
there are quantities where a distinction by prime
,
E2 , =
on the left face of the second boundary yielding E 2s this
being equal by principle to E 2 , as the tangential projection of E 2s =
= *2K + E 2L
is
unnecessary. These are the total field tangential intensities; e.g.
= 2R + E 2L
37
The orientation of the coordinate system with respect to the stack of

and to the plane of incidence is shown in Fig. 2-2.
The Oxy plane is usually placed in the first boundary, but any other
boundary would do as well, because we only work with phase differences.
All the cases of oblique incidence can be treated as /- and s-polarizations only. This is no limitation in practice, since any state of polarization
may be split into these two cases in the orthodox way (see 1.7).
In every plane electromagnetic wave the vectors {E, H, $} form a righthanded trihedral. We shall orient these trihedrals in the incident and reflected
waves in such a way that for normal incidence both the/- case and the s-case
yield the same result as regards the phases of the E-vector: the H-axis
changes orientation upon reflection, and the E-axis does not. In the refracted wave the orientation of the trihedral is identical with that of the
layers
incident wave.
Note: Most of the literature on physical optics uses, for/>-polarization
whose E- and H-axes are oriented negatively

with respect to the drawing in Fig. 2-2. The convention adopted here
follows a recommendation by Rozenberg [1] and has the advantage of
unifying some signs in Fresnel's coefficients. (See also [2]).
in reflected light, a trihedral
2.2 Boundary conditions in admittance notation
The theory of
optical stratifications is based
boundary conditions
on repeated use of the
between two media, the
for a simple dividing plane
coherent coupling between adjacent boundaries being effected by phase

shifts
applied to the separated R- and L-waves.
concise form of the
s-polarizations under
one
boundary conditions, possibly unifying Hasp- and
formalism, is therefore desirable. This purpose is met by the concept of
optical admittance, borrowed from similar problems of network theory.
Bearing in mind that only the tangential components enter into the
boundary conditions, we define the characteristic optical admittance of
a medium as the ratio of the tangential components of the magnetic and
electric intensities in the right-going
wave:
7 = 5*
Er
(2-1)
38
Specifying
into the
now
for the/>-
and
s-polarizations, projecting accordingly*)
boundary plane and using
Y,
(1-2)
!!*
<f R
we have
(see Fig. 2-3)
-- n cos
(2-2a)
n
Y,
The
Ey
negative sign with
the projection of
(2-2b)
cos
Er
follows from the fact that with a positive
points along the negative x-axis.
Scheme of
Fig. 2-3
projections for the
p- and s-polarizations.
The
left-going
With
may
may
characteristic admittance
wave as
-HL /EL
Then again
these definitions the
also be defined in terms of the

(2-2a, b)
hold for
Ya
boundary conditions for the
and
Yp
v-th surface
be written as
V5
Evs = E vR + EvL = E^ R + E'vL

= r,.!^ - Yv . E^ = FV E; R - YvE' l
v
(2-3a)
(2-3b)
where the Yv Yv . t are taken as rpv Fp/v _i or Fsv F, /v - ls according to

the type of linear polarization considered.
The equations (2-3a, b) have the simple form of boundary conditions
for normal incidence, the optical admittance taking over the role of the
,
refractive index
and the tangential components
E oR EoL
,
...
assuming the
place of the full vectors.
Owing
to the
symmetry of
(2-3b) in the Y,
the negative sign in (2-2a) defining
of the boundary conditions (see
Ys
However,
we may obviously drop
this is
not allowed outside
10.3.2).
Note: Being confined to dielectrics, and excluding for the time being the case of
we may say that all the characteristic admittances will be real numbers.
total reflection,
*)
We do not explicitly deduce the Snell law as a consequence of the boundary condi-
tions, but
proceed directly to amplitude relations assuming the refraction angles known.
39
Let us
first
We
R-wave.
consider the v-th boundary in isolation, illuminated by an
then have E^ L
and a simple algebraic elimination
yields
the two formulae of the Fresnel type
E vl _
'vtL
By symmetry of the
components
^vl/^vr
is
The formula
reflection
0\r) s
E cL /E dR
^v-i
E vR _ 2j v _
EvR
Fv _i + Yv
'v
Yv +i + Yv
(2-4ab1
and reflected rays, the ratio of tangential

same as that of the actual complex amplitudes
incident
the
(2-4a) therefore covers the classical Fresnel amplitude
formula at oblique incidence both for
its
p- and s-versions,
Things are somewhat more complicated in transmitted

is
(r vR)
identical with
Fresnel's ratio <^ R /? vR only for the s-case,
light: (2-4b)
where
and
For the /7-polarization we must compute S as E/cos 0, which

an additional factor cos j-^cos V for the />-polarization on the
are identical.
leads to
righthand side of (2-4b).
To
cover this feature generally for the transition of light between any
two media of order numbers
/cos
'vr
full
6>s/cos 6>j
\1
iJ
The Fresnel transmission
Writing out the
and j, we define
for
for
(2-5)
coefficient in particular is then
c v-i/v-r?
1Y
"
form of the Fresnel
_
,
(2-4c)
coefficients is left to the reader
as a problem.
Graphs describing Fresnel

presented in [3] and [4].
reflection
and
refraction at a
boundary were
is practically secured in all cases, where the layer system is evaporated onto
a supporting plane-parallel slab of material. Illuminating at oblique incidence from
either side, the input medium is actually air and no total reflection may occur at any of the
This situation
boundaries.
cubic embedding
is
needed to provoke such a situation
(see Sect. 5.5).
40
2.4 Input admittance at a boundary
Another useful concept of

films is the input admittance of
tangential
components of the
circuit theory
a boundary.
total-field
may
which
be used in thin
defined as the ratio of the
It is
magnetic and
electric intensities:
[XI
y(v)
= _^vS_
(2. 6)
Es
The order number of the boundary
is
now
contained in the upper
bracket, thus expressing the cumulative character of this kind of admittance.
We also introduce the cumulative reflection coefficient rR
v)
influence of
all
the boundaries
v,
E vL =
. .
k,
rÊ,vR
Moreover, expressing the magnetic components by the

according to (2-2a, b),
y(v)
we may
covering the
so that
electric
ones
write
_ yv -iEvR Yy-xrRÊyn _
EvR + rEvR
v_1
1
R
+ #>
r.
(2-7)
from which
v)
"r
Y
= r:i
Y*"'
^7
( for
either of the polarizations)
(2-8)
This formula shows that the cumulative reflection coefficient may be

computed by a Fresnel type pattern, inserting the characteristic admittance
for the input medium and the input admittance of the boundary for the
second medium. A method of recurrent calculation for the Y (v) will be
shown in 2.7.
Let us simply check for a single boundary:
r Rj
Evs = Ev Yw = Yv and
r vR as expected (see Eq. (2-4a)).
Note: The use of input admittance tp compute the transmission factor

venient (see
= l- e
[5]),
and
is
is less
con-
also of limited importance for dielectric systems where r
41
2.5 Matrix treatment of reflection
&
transmission on a thin
film system
2.5.1
Admittance matrix
Introducing the admittance matrix by the relations
-1
v-
'-(w,)
the boundary conditions (2-3a, b)
v*v;1=1
-!(!_)
may be
(2 - 9)
written as the matrix equation
(2- io)
-'fc)- -()
or alternatively
We
shall call the single-column matrices in these relations matrices
field (separated in the sense that one knows the R- and

L-components of the total field). Eq. (2-11) describes the transformation of these matrices upon penetration through a boundary from its right
of the separated
face to the
one.
left
The transforming matrix is accordingly called the matrix
of refraction. Writing out in
W-i/
(i
full
one has with respect to
Yjr-.\, i-r,y,-_YV
(2-4)
Cv-l/v
foip or s
It is
useful to
know
(2-12)
the determinant of this matrix. Obviously
detWD _ 1/D = YJY,.!
(2-13)
Note: We have established Eq. (2-11) in such a form as corresponds to working

through the system from the right to the left, i.e. from what is usually the output towards
the input. However, this does not prevent us from choosing the actual input on any end
of the system (see 2.5.4).
42
Phase matrix
2.5.2
Writing Eq. (2-3a, b) for

for
two adjacent
planes.
Both
and
sets
we have the boundary conditions
1,
of complex amplitudes
E are not independ-
ent, because the undulations on the two boundaries are coherent and are
liable to the obvious phase transformation
-ft
-)(&)
where
(2
Pv=-J- n vK COS V
<
is
the well-known phase-shift angle
(It is actually
shall
traversal of the v-th layer.
1.4.)
denote the square matrix in (2-14) as
determinant
is
Repeatedly using Eqs. (2-11) and (2-16) for v
phase matrix.
U((p),
and
2.5.3
System transfer matrix
call it the
one obtains the
Its
Uv
or in more detail
of unit value.
1, 2,
...
k,
1,
total transformation
R
(f.1
the increment of the z-component of the phasor of a plane
wave, defined in
We
upon one
" 15
01
U t W 12 U 2
S=
where
...
||
k _ 1/k
s ls
U k Wk/k+1 (g+;-)
(2-16)
||
be called the system transfer matrix. It transforms the tangential components of the separated field from one end of the system to the other.
will
2.5.4 Evaluating the transfer coefficients

Denoting the elements of S by s^,
i,j
from S
1,
2 and writing out in
full
for (2-16):
E 1R =
E 1L =
we may compute
SuEk+l.R.
s 2 iE k+1;R
+
+
s 2lE k +i,L
s 2 2E k+lfL
the amplitude coefficients of reflection
(in short: the transfer coefficients) for
and transmission
both directions of the incident
light.
43
We
Let us start with a right-going input wave.
and a simple computation
rR
where
c 0/k+1 is
duced by
(2-5).
= |iL =
2I,
fR
Ek+1L =0
= J%idL = i2l
s 1.1
(2 -l 7 a, b)
" 1R
the reduction for obliquity between the outer media intro-
We
recall that
& k+1
O cos
'cos
ô/k+i-Vi
"XI
and that
then have
yields:
/^-polarization
s-polarization
are read as fpR , fsR or fpR , fsR , according to the admittances
f, t
used.
For the other case of the input wave
rL
= 3Uk.
Ek + 1/R
Considering
=-hl
S
fL
we
and we have
= _i^_ = hUS. det S
W'j and
ll's
(2-18a, b)
5l1
^k+l/L
as the product of the
their determinants,
E 1R =
and knowing the values of
find
detS = Fk+1 Fo
(2-19)
so that (2- 18b) and (2- 17b) yield the important relation
ck
k+1
Ik+i
^
Y
J
2
2
/0
This set of formulae uses

matrix
outer
S and
f
*R
R
all
_
=
n k+l cos0 k+
"k+l^""^k+l
cos
n
ya
6>
.
-
(7.7C0
V- LK})
four elements of the system transfer
describes the behaviour of the layer system with respect to the
fields for
both the possible cases of illumination (R,
L). In oblique
Yp
incidence the basic linear polarizations are respected by taking the

values in the refraction matrices
D/u+1
For further work it is of use to introduce the

complex transfer coefficients.
We
or
full
notations for the
put
?
= re\
i=t<j d
where any of the subscripts R, L, p, s may be applied, e.g. rpR SsL etc.
r and t are the relative changes in the amplitude magnitudes, 5 and d
,
are phase-changes
upon
reflection or transmission, respectively.
44
These values are extracted from r and i, given by (2-17) and

by the usual manipulations with complex numbers, e.g.
= 7(ff *)
Following the discussion of Sect.

ficients,
measured as the
ffR.L
It is
beam of
ratio
1.5
coefficient
obtain energy transfer coef-
0
*R>
"'
n k+1
(2-21)
tl
aperture before and after refraction (those in reflection
which
2-4.
This leads to the definition of a
cos6>
may be
SiL
"
""
cos>
(2-21')
cos@ k+1
interpreted as measuring the ratio of the
energy fluxes.
It is
energy balance p
new transmission
be called normal:
will
_ cos@ t+1
(see
we
f\t*
sometimes useful to make a correction for the cross-sections of a

finite
remaining equal), Fig.
It
of energy fluxes per unit area
TR
rR,L
2Ja
(2-18),
normal components of
only with the normal coefficient of transmission that the
(both for the R- and L-directions)
is
satisfied
problem 2-5).
There is yet another combination of the elements s^ which yields
a valuable
result;
we
find that
Mi
R'L
Vl =
|S|
s 12 s 2i
s z2
(2-22)
<f>-biOtn arta
riw:rf.-HM '
:
Fig. 2-4 Relationship
between beam areas
before and after refraction.
The
45
left-hand side of this equation has
Airy summation
(see 2.4.1). In the
of the main diagonal elements of
some importance
matrix treatment
it is
in the
method of
given as the ratio
S.
2.5.5 Interference matrix and evaluation of the transfer

coefficients
Let us return to the matrix product in (2-16) and use the association
rule for the sets of the type
MV
l '*"
-VUV-'-lf{Y1 -Y
2
){ 0,
'
"
y,
cos
(p y
cos<p v
characteristic matrix.)
The system
S
Vo
\~
\ '
We shall call M v the interference matrix of the v-th

it
'
-^-sin<pv \
\jyv sin<j0
call
Y;1
t-^)[u -177
layer.
transfer matrix
(Some authors
is
then given as
MVk+1
(2-24)
= J7M V is the system interference matrix.

The determinants of M have unit values.
The physical meaning of the interference matrices
where Ml
(2-24) into (2-16)
v
The
and taking V
is
found by inserting
to the left-hand side:
fe)-&)=- -(l;")- M (H^)

v
interference matrices obviously transform the tangential
of the
total-field intensities
The matrix
Writing
M =
||
Wij
Es
components
no simple relation to the transfer

we must first compute S by (2-24) as
bears
||,
coefficients.
^2! + Yt m 12 + Yo l Yt m 22
1
ro n + Y m 21 - Y m 12 - Yo Y m 23
t
t
l
m u - Yo m 21 + Yt m l2 - YZ l Y% m 22
m u - Y m 21 - Yt m l2 - Yo 1 Yl m 22 l
(ii
ô
(2-26)
and then
insert this into (2-17)
and
(2-18) to obtain r RL , t RL .
46
we have
In particular
Yq Yg m 22
= m lt
mu +
7o 'fynjz
Reduced matrix
Working out
Cos
2.5.6
+ Yg m 12 - Yp ^m^
+ Y^m^ + x Yp m 21
.
(2-27a, b)
same denominator
workR-coefficients
the product of the
2x2
only
matrices in (2-16) or (2-24)
represents a considerable amounjt of work. However, for various reasons
one does not usually need the R- and L-coefficients simultaneously. As will
turn out later, a number of symmetries exist among the energy coefficients,
particularly
when
the media are dielectric.
may have
It is
more
for the sake of phase-
compute the complete set of coefficients.

number of operations may be
reduced by one half if one sets out to compute the R-coefficients only. This
is done by putting E + 1L =0 and carrying out the product (2-16) or (2-24)
changes that one
It is
to
therefore useful to note that the
starting with the
one-column matrix
/Ek +1>R\
o
v
on the
right of these equations, proceeding leftwards.
It is easily verified
that the intermediate results will be
matrices from which E^ +1R
may
one-column
be factored out, and that the
final result
must be
()-()*"
<2 -28)
from which we are able to evaluate f R and fR by (2- 17a, b).

In computer practice this is accomplished by starting with the matrix
When
into the
one explicitly needs the

computer in reverse order.
L-coefficients, the layer system is fed
47
2.6 Recursion formulae for multiple reflections
2.6.1 Generalized Airy
summation
The matrix method may be regarded as a modern approach to the

theory of stratified media, having the advantages of succinctness and generality
hand
both for basic research and for numerical procedures.
there have existed
methods of computing the
On
the other
transfer coefficients of
a single dielectric layer since as early as 1833 (Airy). These were later
extended to include metallic films and arbitrary numbers of layers and have
much of the theoretical work in the 1940's and 50's.

summation of multiple reflections inside each layer and
a recursion pattern for working across the system of layers. This method
served as the basis for
The idea here
the
is
forms the basis of the

Anders' book,
approach
it
[7]. It
offers for
in a very short
way
book by Vasicek, [6], and more recently of

importance for the future owing to the intuitive
classical
retains
its
many
practical situations.
We shall derive the method
again using the matrix notation,
[8].
Let us divide the layer system according to Fig. 2-5 into two subsets
and II, separated by a distance layer of phase angle <p v
Denote the
partial system matrices as S,
||
s'
||
and S
||
s'^
\\
and
carry out the product
s =
After some algebra
iKj||
s 21 s 1
Si
3
S 11
11,5,
reducing the expression s'^s'^ exp
by
us
I1
we may compute
S 21
ratios
=s
(2-17), (2-18)
and
r lR
(2-22),
(j<p D )
"
T
+
i 22 s 21
S 12 S 21
and interpreting the newly formed
we have
(t lK tIL
-rlR rlL )rm e

-2i<p
MLMIR
Fig. 2-5 Splitting
up a
layer system into
three basic components with a simple

central layer.
'
2i<p "
(2-29a)
48
Similarly
C 0v
SllSll e
C v/k+l
S 1221 e
*ir*iir
(2-29b)
rIl/lIR e
should be emphasized that the r IR r R etc. concern the subsystems considered isolated (in the actual embedding of the adjacent layer v considered
It
The formulae (2-29ab) thus reduce the computation of the

the computation of two simpler systems I & II. Applying
to
system
starting
the same procedure to I and II, respectively, a further simplification is
as a half-space).
obtained.
left
In practice this amounts to starting with a single layer either at the

end or at the right end of the system, regarding it as subsystem I or II,
The
respectively.
transfer coefficients of this single layer are again given
by
and II now stand for simple Fresnel boundaries, see 2.3.

one further boundaries into consideration, regarding
by
take
one
then
We
subsystems II or I, respectively. This is the essence
corresponding
them as the
of the so called recursion method (see below).
(2-29a, b),
where
The formulae
(2-29a, b)
may
easily
be developed in
infinite
geometric
series
rR
Ir
= rIR +
* IR f ILi- IIR
<,r'r e-*"(l
e-
2j
"(l
+ q +q +
+
1
...),
. . .
(2-30a)
.),
'u/hr e"
2 ^"
(2-30b)
allowing of an interpretation in terms of multiple reflections in the v-th layer

(see Fig. 2-5). This is actually the way the formulae (2-29a, b) are often
deduced: first the series (2-30a, b) are intuitively set up, then they are
summed up to the closed forms (2-29a, b). Strictly speaking, this approach
may raise some doubt as to whether one really sums up everything, considering -the
Intuition
is
enormous amount of
really sure only with
possible zig-zags in the whole system.
a single
layer.
Moreover, Berning,
[9],
has
reported a singular situation in metals, where the series of the type (2-30a, b)
diverge (see Problem 4-8). In the matrix treatment (adhering esentially to
the boundary conditions), the formulae (2-29a, b) are simply the result of
algebraic manipulations. (2-30a, b) should be
of thumb
more or less regarded
as a rule
for deriving the former.
The importance of the formulae
(2-29a, b) is twofold: First, they serve
as a basis for a recursion pattern, which enables one to compute the transfer coefficients of the whole system given the Fresnel coefficients of the
We
shall elaborate on this

single boundaries and the optical thicknesses.
in the next section. Second, they express the transfer coefficients of the
49
whole system by a formula resembling that for one layer
and
singled out) with composite boundaries I
II.
This
looking at multilayer interference in certain problems (see
is
(the v-th layer
a useful
way of
e.g. 3.4.2, 3.5, 5.2).
2.6.2
An
We
section
algorithm for complete Airy summation

show how the recursion mentioned in the preceding
two and three layers and then state (without
shall first
is
written out in full for
actually proving
it)
a general algorithm for writing the complete formulae
and t directly for any number of layers.

Having a two-layer according to Fig. 2-6 and subdividing it accordingly
for recursion from the back (which is simpler than from the front owing to
the identity (2-3 lb)), we obtain system I as a Fresnel boundary with the
for r
following simplifications:
'il
= -r 1R = -r IR
r 1L
we obtain
Inserting this into (2-29a, b)
r iR
The
left
boundary
*i!R
r lR r lh
(2-31a, b)
for the two-layer
'
r 1R rI1R e
t IR t lL
,
tR
'ir'hr^
same denominator
in subsystem II also being simple,
,*,
,->
is
\l-5ldi, b)
we may immediately
write
r ,IR
Everything
omit
+ r 3R e
-2
+ ^R^Re ^ 2
r 2R
now
r 2R'3R
(2-33a b)
same denominator
"*
'
we can
we have for
being expressed in terms of the R-coefficients,
this subscript entirely. Inserting (2-33a, b) into (2-32a, b)
the two-layer
rR
l+
,.
,.
tJih e
= li^LT
+r \*
(2-34a)
i(<pi+<p 2 )
(2-34b)
same as above
rf
rt
r3
"$
Fig. 2-6 Recursion pattern for a two-layer.
50
should be noticed that the scheme presented in Fig. 2-6 calls for r R
to be computed first during numerical work, since it is the only quantity at
the start expressed entirely in terms of the known Fresnel coefficients. This
It
why the process is called recursion from the back. For this purpose it
would have been more convenient to have the films numbered from the
back also, as is the case in some books. However, aiming at the general
algorithm, it remains more advantageous to keep to our present system.
This will only cost us some occasional renumbering when switching from
a two-layer to a three-layer according to Fig. 2-7 and making a subdivition
is
for a back-recursion:
Subsystem
a simple boundary; subsystem
I is
may be computed by
II
(2-34a, b) effecting there the changes

"* r v+i. v
Proceeding
rt
r
r2
now by
e- 2J"
=
+
e- 2j * 2
r2 r 3
!.2, 3
(2-29a, b),
->
<?> v
l9l+9ii + r4e > + r^r^+
-2 * 3
a,( l+ )
2,( +w>
r 1 r 2 r4 e"
+ ra r 3 r4 e+ JVê
r3
r 2 rA
Q- 2 '^1+
^+
r 3 rA
e~ 2iV3
r 1 r a r 3 r4
e- 2,( * ,+w)
(2-35a)
tiff
iiWt
-j(<Pl
tH=
n.
n,
+ <P2 + V3)
( 2 -35b)
same as above
"t
Fig. 2-7 Recursion pattern for a three-layer.
We
see that the
formulae become more and more involved and are
not amenable to direct general analysis as functions of
many
variables
However, pursuing the recursion for more
layers, one Would

making it possible to write the result directly as a
simple fraction for any number of layers, [10]:
(i) define the phase, distance of the v-th boundary from the first (input)
(ro
>
9b)-
discover a set of rules
tooandary as
#v
<j?u.+
92
Pv-i.
2, 3,
...*+
1:
<*>!=()

(ii)
51
define the phase exponential of the
a monotonic sequence of integers
number between
and k
and following the pattern
+ $h -
4> l3
...
(#, being defined
by
(i))
exp {2j[-J}
define the phase exponential of the even type as being derived from
a monotonic sequence of integers // > l2
> 1$ (S being any even
. . .
number between
and k
exp {2j[<*v
(iv) define
4>
1)
and following the pattern
+ $h -
...
<p
s ,]}
the products of Fresnel coefficients:
odd type
rh r, 2
even type
(v) state the
rl3
... r,
.
. .
lt
L,
rls ., l[
<
<
l2
l2
<
<
...
...
<
<
/L
L odd
ls
S even
correspondence rule requiring that:
each odd (even) Fresnel product by (iv) is multiplied by a corresponding

phase exponential of the odd (even) type by (ii) or (iii) respectively
(vi)
the resulting r R and t R for a complete Airy summation

expressed by the formulae
_ sum of all the possible odd products rh rl2

1 + sum of all the possible even products
ru -r
. .
...
exp {2j[
exp
{2j [<*>,,
may
+
<t>
then be
P,
. .
.]}
...]}
(2-36a, b)
_ hh - tt+i exp {-jl>i
q> 2
... <p t
]}
same as above
where the statement
tonic subsets
=
It is
2, 4, 6 ...
lt
<
"all the possible"
l2 ...
lL
l[
full for
would
more than
means one must take
<l2\<l's
but never exceeding k
unlikely that anyone
formulae out in
<
where
L =
1, 3,
all
mono-
5 ..., S
1.
ever use this algorithm for writing the

3 or
layers.
However,
it is
theoretically
important to see the order which exists in the formulae describing the response
of a
One can arrive at equally general algorithms in the matrix

In the present chapter these general formulae will help us to
approximations.
stratification.
treatment,
establish
[1 1].
some
52
2.6.3 Vector approximation of r

In
many
practical situations, particularly in the visible region of the
spectrum, the Fresnel amplitude coefficients r are of the order 0.20 or
0.30. Their products of increasingly higher order therefore tend to zero.
One
is
lead to the idea of neglecting
some terms
in (2-36a, b).
More
infor-
mation can be extracted from the reflection formula.

As a first approximation we have
rJ^Ti + r 2 e" jM +
r3 e
-KX1 + X2)
r k+i'
-j(M + X2++Xk)
(2-37)
where the / are positive or negative quantities and together with the exponentials form a set of complex vectors in the Gaussian plane (Argand diagram). For brevity we now write xv for 2</> v
The formula (2-37) is sometimes called "approximation by simple
reflections", the underlying illustration being given by Fig. 2-8. However,
adhering strictly to the idea of simple reflections, one would have to reduce r 2
.
by a factor
< 1R f 1L
r3
by t 1K t 2ii t21
t 1L
etc -> in order to
account for the Fresnel
attenuation of the emerging rays. This actually leads to a different approxi-
mation, which cannot be seen from our general formulae (2-36a,

Intuitively
is
dubious.
one would expect more
We
b).
exact results here, but the actual effect
shall adhere, as is customary, to the
expansion (2-37).
It is
it is clear that with k

number of approximating rays is k + 1.
The modulus squared T 2 is the object of interest in most applications.
The expansion (2-37) has been of great use in the theory of multiple
antireflection films: either one fixes the relative optical thicknesses by some
usually referred to as the &-ray approximation, although
layers the
integral ratios
and obtains
for the v ) by annulling
explicit solutions for the r v
are determined by the technology available

is
(and consequently
at several points of the spectrum, or the n v and rv
and the Argand diagram of T
jy
run across the spectrum, adjusting the relative optical thicknesses in such
T 1 small. Both methods will be used in the subsequent
a way as to keep
chapters.
Fig. 2-8
Approximation by simple
reflections.
53
The.validity of the expansion (2-37) decreases with the value of the
About 20 percent may be taken
reflection coefficient approximated.
a generally safe
limit,
beyond which increasingly erroneous
T >
obtained, including the physically meaningless values
as
would be
results
(for details
see 2.6.5.)
2.6.4 Vector approximation of r/t
As a second
step one
may
think of the next higher approximation.
Since the binary products are contained in the denominator, the second
approximation would not yield a useful simplification. There
a better
is
way to follow.
Noticing thatj^2-35a) and (2~35b) have the same denominator, one
naturally lead to
rjt
form the
_1
(^/ 2
fk
i)
ex P [J(î
<Pz
This has rigorously eliminated
...
'
9k)]
sum of au dd
may
T e**
infer that
fk+xJrapC-jfo +
<p 2
expresses
... o k
with the quality of at least the second approximation. Since

greater than unity without violating physical laws, there
fit
products]
the even products. Considering
all
again the simple expansion (2-37), one
Be " = -jiVi
is
ratio
(2-38)
)]
rjt
may be
better scope for
is
with r.
The
practical use of this approximation is effected in the following
way: prescribing q as a function of phase angle

form
\n
as a function of
q>,
tj
multiply this by
(f
<p,
we
take x
p,
\rjt\
. . .
k+ 1 ) and analyse in terms of T.
2.6.5 Quality of the approximations

Since an algebraic analysis of the errors incurred by the respective
approximations would be very
difficult,
recourse will be had to numerical
runs of situations differing significantly in

configuration and refractivity.
For
this
reflectivity, layer
number, vector
purpose a comparative program
54
can be written computing

latter quantities will
For example,
q,
T 2 and B 2
and possibly also
y and
/?
(the
0.33, 0.50
and
5,
not be commented on here).
let
us take three reflection levels q
0.66 respectively, and design tuned (quarter-wave) stacks of the type
l( n i n 2)
Tg
k even
Fig. 2-9
Approximation
50%reflectors with
tpi
gg
numbers 2,
tests for
various layer
4, 6.

in such a way, as to keep q at
55
<p
constant for increasing k
ti/2
kept at the value 1.38 and n^ was computed by the method of Sect.
n 2 was
3.2.3.
At
from the numerical analysis, possibly without understanding how the examples were
devised. These aim at investigating how, for various given q, the layer
present
it is
sufficient for the reader to follow the inferences
number affects the approximations.

The study was carried out for k
From
the
many graphs
a few examples of the
2, 4, 6, 8, 12
obtained in this
0.5-reflector,
way we
and
16.
reproduce as typical
showing some features
common
to
all
the cases (Fig. 2-9).
The coincidence between the
three values q,
T2 B2
,
is
excellent in the
region which will later be called the pass-band of a quarter-wave system
and continues into the stop-band until about two thirds of the maximum
value Q(n[2) is reached. This means safety limits of 0.20, 0.30 and 0.40 for
the three reflectors in question, independently of the number of layers
involved.
Proceeding towards the value
q>
n[2,
B2
and
T2
increase sharply
compared to q, their mutual difference increasing slightly. The ratio between

B 2 r 2 and q increases with the number of layers and with the value e(7t/2),
as illustrated by the following Table 2-1.
Both quantities seem to converge with k to some ceiling values.
The same tendencies can be observed with tuned multilayers having
,
Table 2-1
Constant
refractivity:
reflectivities e(7t/2)
B2
and
T2
12
16
.45
.46
.49
.49
.50
.42
.43
.44
.44
.46
.83
.88
.90
.92
.95
.75
.77
.77
.77
.78
1.38
1.51
1.58
1.64
1.70
1.18
1.21
1.23
1.23
1.24
B2
.42
r2
.42
B2
.64
r2
.62
1.09
1.05
B2
r2
produced by increasing numbers of layers of decreasing
comparison of approximations by
.33
.50
.66
56
pronounced maxima outside of the region
q>
rc/2 (see
for example the
case (D depicted i Fig. 3-27).
A particular fact of practical importance covered by these rules is that

multilayer antireflection systems are well approximated by
T 2 We
.
present a specific figure to this effect because the situation

illustrated
by the curves
interval n/2
<
q>
<
in Fig. 2-9 if we imagine
is
shall not
qualitatively
them to be plotted over the
n.
certain study of refractivity influence can be
made by
taking the
preceding designs and multiplying the same number of high indices and
low
indices, respectively,
by a constant
factor.
The reader
is
again referred
to Sect. 3.2.3 for the substantiation of the fact that this "scaling" does not
Fig. 2-10
00
Approximation
scaled-up designs.
tests for
57
change the value of p(nj2), although generally the function g(<p) is different.
By doing this we may check with the above table what changes occur for the
approximation of a given q if different vectors r t ,r 2 ... are involved in
,
building
up.
it
shows the new situations for a 50 percent reflector realized

by 2 and 6 layers. The scaling factor is 2. The central q now
seems to be approximated more accurately by F 2 and B 2 the reason
probably being that it is no longer the maximum of the whole g(<p) curve.
Fig. 2-10
in Fig. 2-9
This
lies
and
about the value
in this region
original design.
50 for the two-layer, and the behaviour of

q,
about the same as it was about 
is
similar tendency
computed cases not shown
is
seen in the 6-layer case and in other
here.
maximum"
This supports the "two-thirds of a
above and extends
its
the reason for a local
The
validity outside
maximum.
tolerance for a coincidence of
in a steep edge than
The edge
is
safety rule enunciated
of the central region, whatever
it is
B 2 and r 2 may of course be greater
in a flat part of the curve.
assesed by the slope, and a small shift between true and
approximate curves need not be taken seriously. Therefore correspondingly

greater ordinate differences
From
by
r2
this
may
be allowed in a sloping part.
viewpoint the edges of B 2 in Fig. 2-9 are well approximated
but not so the maxima. The situation
is
more favourable in
Fig. 2-10.
All the cases considered were tuned multilayers having equal optical
thicknesses.
The question may be
affects the quality
raised as to whether the degree of tuning
of approximation.
randomly chosen example a staggered
the r61e of a neutral beam-splitter is
30
Fig. 2-11
SO
Approximation
6-layer,
computed
go
test for
roughly
fulfilling
in Fig. 2-11. It displays
120
a staggered
150
6-layer.
ip'
ISO
58
about the same degree of

described in
between the three functions
fit
q,
T2 B 2
,
as
the previous tuned cases. Analogous situations have been
observed in irregularly detuned systems as well.
To
look more closely at the dependence on configuration, one can

more or less arbitrary configuration of the Argand
devise the following test: a
diagram
is
chosen such that the
tip
of the v-th vector r v passes through the
JDf
so
so
n*
7/
00
to
\\
'
"^
/a*
10
*s-*Vs
180
060
b)
Fig. 2-12
A study in vector configuration.

remaining vectors rv+l
origin, the
figuration
59
F ejy and f 2
If this
r v+2
rk+l determining
Argand diagram
changes, then (2-37) changes only in
its
phase
y,
is
by
their con-
varied so that only
xv
remaining constant. This
does not correspond to an actual crossing of the spectrum (because with X

all the x v must run proportionally to the optical thicknesses A ), but it
v
definitely is a configuration test in the following sense: we compute the
and
B2
for the various sets {x l ,x 2 ,.x v ..xk } with x v

changing and observe their possible deviations from the constant T 2
true reflectivity q
shows several situations of this kind. A six-layer was chosen

with a formal sequence of indices 1/2 1 2 121/2 ensuring
Fig. 2-12
that
the vectors r are equal. This facilitates the choice of the basic
all
configurations.
b illustrate how q and B 2 change with x6 or x s within the

framework of two basic configurations. The levels of constant F 2 are 0.11
and 0.42 respectively. Drastic differences are observed between q and T2
and between B 2 and T 2
Figs. 2-12a,
The
third case (Fig. 2- 12c)
was devised so as to keep
zero value. This required changing two of the values
were chosen in the configuration shown.

Again, one is tempted to say that the
ties
xv
at
T2
constantly at
a time;
x t and x s
T 2 and g or B 2 could
between
not be looser.
Each of the three cases was subsequently checked for spectral behaviour
by taking a specific value of the variable xv and developing this combination
{*!
x2
xv
. ,
x6 } across a range of phase angles
ing ratio. Conventional phase diagrams
in the constant tun-
were then obtained displaying

some significant anomalies. Fig. 2-13 shows the development of case c,
in Fig. 2-12. The values at <p = 90 of the former figure correspond to the
point x t = 135 of the latter. The fact that in Fig. 2-12 f 2 = corresponded
to substantially non-zero values of g
because they
not
make a
all
B 2 need not be taken very seriously,
belong to a through of their respective curves and we need
point of the exact
the discrepancy between
many former
and
g(<p)
situations
minimum
T 2 and B 2 at
B 2 > T 2 This
.
value.
What
is
serious, however, is
low values. Contrary to

seems to be due to a vector con-
relatively
from that which was inherent in earlier cases. The steep

edge, however, is present with good acuracy.
2
It may be concluded that the use of T as an approximation to q or B 2
requires some caution and that in individual narrow ranges of q> it may
behave in a fickle way. This applies particularly to the irregular secondary
figuration different
ripple of detuned multilayers. Regular ripples of tuned
and detuned systems,
60
as well as cut-on
and
cut-off edges of various steepness, are approximated
with sufficient accuracy for the overall shape of the curve to be adequately
described.
The approximation F 1
- q
is
quite reliable in the design of
multilayer antireflection films. Broad-band semireflectors of up to 50 percent

in q should be
least
amenable to the approach
a good starting design
methods. All
below
10, say,
this
is
T2
->
B2
with the chances that at
obtained for further refinement by other
holds almost independently for any number of layers
and for any technologically conceivable
indices of refraction
within the range 1-6.
Fig. 2-13 Reflectivity
corresponding to case
(c)
diagrams
of figure 2-12.
2.6.6 Internal transfer coefficients

field inside one of
and compute the rightand left-going waves in the v-th layer, given a right-going wave at the input.
We shall use the transformation relations for subsystem I, borrowing
from the whole system I-v-II the relation E 1L = r RE 1R Thus
It is
sometimes of interest to compute the internal
the layers. Let us again have recourse to Fig. 2-5
ElR
ElL
SilEvR
r RElR
^laEvL
S 2 lE v H
S 2 2^vl.
61
Solving these equations for the required ratios,
vR
EyR
..
L 0vTj5
The two
(*22
' i t
Sj
tfiRriL
"Vll)
(2-39a, b)
it
,^,V. s ll rR
s 2\)
as follows:
''iRÎL
\I
>v
rR 5 12^
C 0v
jil('lR*IL
r n* riL e
1141 -t-
may now be manipulated
brackets
ir
EvL
'L _
u,
E
1R
Ov
'
C 0v
T7T7V 22
E 1R
ir
^vL
we obtain
^r'il
'
St
r R r II.)
IIR
where use was made of
(2-18a), (2-22)
and
(2-29a).
Further
(s'
where again
rR
s 21 )
(2- 17a)
^(n
r1R)
~2
'lKt,Lrme
= s'n
l-rIL r
IIR
_Z*
2j
and (2-29a) were invoked.
Inserting these results into (2-39a, b) and interpreting by (2-1 8b)

-1
1
as fji. , we obtain the two internal transfer coefficients as
Aîi S
I
1
_
Vrr
-;
l--, L rUR e
*o,rl
^liT'
2j *"
'iRÎIR
l-i"iL-iiRe
rrj
2J ^
r~> ac\
u\
(2-40a, b)
where abridged symbols were introduced, reading for example: t0o RR "transfer from medium o to v, input R-going, result R-going". Similarly
*Gv,RL-
the formulae may be expanded in infinite geometric

again allowing an interpretation in terms of multiple reflections.
Evidently,
series,
It is interesting
to note that
*0v,RL
One would perhaps
We
The computed
*0v,RR
hesitate to set
shall often use it in
v-th layer. In
Ch.
up
ir\
jsv
tov.RL e
(2-41)
this relation inside
a layer intuitively.
transfer coefficients refer to the left
an arbitrary plane
tov.RRCOôv.RRe"-^
*ov.rl(0
riiR e
4.
at
boundary of the
a distance to the right of this boundary,
the relative amplitude inside this layer
is
given by
fortheR-wave
c
T
for
the Lwave
.,
2k
v
r
= r- n
X
C
v*
cos
,_ Art
6* v (2-42a,
vV
'
b)'
62
2.7
recursion pattern for the input admittance.
The Smith
Chart
We
now deduce
shall
a recursion formula for the computation of the
input admittance of a system of layers, which then determines r R by formula

(2-8). Since it is esentially a recursion from the back, we shall renumber all
the layers and boundaries according to the Fig. 2-14.
Yjc,i
\
ns
nmt
n,\ n.
Fig. 2-14 Notation in a layer system

f(iml)
from
starting
Y">-Yo
Using the definition of input admittance
and the transforming
(2-6)
we may immediately
properties of the interference matrix (see 2.5.5),
'21
y(v+l)
Hy+l,S
Ev+i,s
where the
ik
rear.
_ m 2lETs + Wt22"vS _
mnE vS + m 12 HvS
+
,
m.
W 22
write
y(Y)
Hhi. y (v >
m,,
are elements of the v-th interference matrix. Obviously
m 21 =
jy
v tan<jt> v
m,
m,
m,
nt.
1,
m.
-^-tan<p v
so that
Y(
which
is
(v)
+jyv tany v
Y.+jY^tan^
v+1 )
(2-43)
in
The starting condition

the substrate medium.
is
identical with that used in
the sought recursion formula.
since there is
no L-wave
The formula
(2-43)
treat transmission lines (see
Ch.
9).
The
opticist
may
use
is
Y (1) = Y
network theory to
it
as another basis
computer program for thin films, the advantage being that the
(v)
have direct physical significance, which may
intermediate results Y
for writing a
effectively
be used in design considerations,
[12], [13].
The main importance of (2-43) is that it

simple graphical evaluation by means of the so
is
amenable to a
relatively
called Smith Chart.
To
this
end
it is first
63
normalized by introducing the reduced input ad-
mittance
*
y _
v)
so that
w=
1
1
_ yV W
+ ,W
(v>
'
_(v)
(v)
(2-44a, b)
(2-43) then reads
y v+1) =y y
v
-1
v
.?
+1
(v)
(2-45a)
where
p)_
(v)
J>
+ j tan <p v
+ jy v) tan<jo
(2-45b)
v
may
be regarded as a mere phase transformation of v) from

the right to the left inside faces of the layer boundaries. In fact, using
(2-44b)
(2-45b)
and the
identity
l-jtany =
1
(2-45b)
may
be writtenas
-(v)
y
With regard
cumulated stack
Owing
_
e 2jv
+itan<jD
(2-46)
= r (v) e- 2 ^" is the reflection coefficient of the

T
measured at the boundary v + 1 on its v-side.
to (2-41)
(v),
(v)
2j ^
= l-r e
-(v
(v)
-^v
1 + r )g
e
to (2-44b)
(v)
is then the corresponding input admittance.

formal renormalization to the outside of layer v by (2-45a) is
nothing but a statement of continuity for the tangential componentsv+1 ) =
Y(
y (v)
j>
Its
The Smith Chart is a graphical means of evaluating the formula (2-45b)

by having constant recourse to its interpretation by (2-44b) and (2-46).
Denoting, in accordance with the usage of network theory, y = r + jx
corresponding to resistance and x to reactance), setting r = p +
jq and
inserting into (2-44b), we obtain after some manipulations the following
loci
of constant r and x:
(r
34
(-TT7J + q
=
1
x partwise constant)
(r,
These are two
sets
of orthogonal
circles,
which actually constitute the
Smith Chart shown in Fig. 2-15.

The origin of the Opq system lies in the centre of the great circle, the
real axis + Op pointing upwards, the imaginary axis + Oq pointing to the
left. The system Opq is not actually drawn.
The circles form a curvilinear coordinate system whose lines are
labelled with convenient positive values of r
values of
At
and with positive and negative
x.
this stage
of the presentation
following: given a reduced admittance

in the curvilinear system
and
interpret
we
r
are evidently able to state the
its
jx,
we
locate the point P(r, x)
radiusvector p
jq in the
Opq
system as the complex refaction coefficient

r
= r e6
where
= p2 +
Practically, r is evaluated as the ratio
length of the diagram, which

r
on the
vertical axis
is
2
,
arctan (q/p)
OP
of the vector
to the unit
the distance between the points
0.
and
This must then be squared to obtain
g.
5 could be read on a linear scale (in degrees) on the circumference of

the chart starting on the uppermost point and proceeding counter-clockwise.
However, the angles we can actually read on commercially available charts
are 180
Let us
(2-45b).
5.
now
suppose we
We locate the point
(v)
know some y and wish
(v)
[r
(v)
]
to
compute y
in the chart, interpret
it
as r
(v)
(v)
in
by
Opq
and switch over from (2-45b) to its equivalent (2-46): the radiusvector of r
(v)
Reading the coordimust be turned through the angle -2cp to obtain r
nates of this new radiusvector in the curvilinear system then yields the com.
ponents of
(v)
j;
directly.
Renormalization by (2-45a)
is
a matter for the desk-calculator or slide
This linear scaling of the two admittance components brings about

a non-linear jump in the curvilinear system. The new radiusvector represents
(v+1)
In the next step this is going to be
the actual reflection coefficient r
rule.
turned through -2
i
40
30
i
50
t
60
70
90
80
i
100
i
swrm CHART
Fig. 2-15
The Smith Chart
65
Table 2-2
Example of a form
unity*
125
for
computations with the Smith Chart,
mm
"Jn v + 1
180
225
0.6593/0
0.6593/0
0.25
0.3125
135
cv
1.516
ril x i
0.6593
1
2.3
0.1875
r 'llx
1.36
0.85
Au2
r'2 lx'
2
r 3lX 3
0.5913
3
2.3
A3
2.3
1.28/0.38
1.523/0
1.28/0.38-
2.164/0.64
2.575/0
2.164/0.64-
0.1594
0.2125
'l
r 2 /x 2
1.6912
0.6593/0
Aj
0.64/0.64-
0.416/0.20-
0.378/0.378- 0.246/0.12-
0.2656
0.446/0.21
0.264/0.123
0.1875
0.25
0.3125
r 3lx 3
0.585/0.8-
3.33/1.6
0.85/1.35-
rA jxA
1.345/1.84-
7.66/3.68
1.95/3.10
1.0
0.193
8"
~r(mm)
exact values:
facilitate
0.2868
-139.0
-174.3
-206.5
77.8
100.5
94.2
0.623
0.804
0.753
0.388
0.644
0.567
d
e
To
0.2421
-138.1
-174.0
0.382
0.656
-206.5
0.574
laying off the angles 2q> in the clock-wise direction,
another circumference
is
provided, usually labelled as
lengths toward the generator". This
is
=
2k
the quantity
"number of wave-
66
and the angle

u
0.25 at 2<p
Thus
laid off is 4nu.
for
0.85
2-2.
1
is
A =
A/4
we have
180.
The computation may be organized

by Table
example for
into a convenient
form exemplified
A slightly detuned three-layer with relative optical thicknesses

computed
for three values of the phase angle q> (measured
in the unit layers) at normal incidence.
In the era of automatic computers
it is
that this graphical procedure reduced the
only a pale reminiscence to state
amount of work
in
comparison
with the Airy summation by a factor of 10 and that a team of two could
run a 7-layer in one phase angle in 1 5 minutes. However, the Smith Chart
does retain
its
importance in various odd jobs of
filter
design, yielding
useful insight through the concept of admittance matching or mismatching.
extended to metallic films, as described in [5]. We confine

ourselves to remarking that the chart is already of great help in the simple
case of a dielectric/metal boundary, yielding immediately the complex
Its
use
may be
Fresnel coefficient of reflection,
if
we regard
the complex refractive index of
the metal normalized with respect to the adjacent dielectric as the input
admittance. (See Problem 4-1.)

Note: An affiliated graphical method is based on the use of the exponential polar
admittance chart, where the logarithms of the complex admittance are plotted. It is described in [14] and sometimes referred to as the Kard calculator, [15].
2.8 Notes on numerical computations
general analysis of the complete formulae for a multilayer
is
only
special situations to be
seldom possible. Such cases are confined to some

encountered later in this book. Most of the insight into the behaviour of
multilayers had to be computer-aided. Catalogues of useful systems,
fitting various purposes and corrected to a lesser or greater degree, have
been piling up in research laboratories during the last 15 years or so, but
proprietory reasons caused only a minor part of these results to be published.
Corresponding to subsequent spectral measurements, the independent
variable in these computations
is
wave -number 1/A,

some reference wave-
the wavelength A, or the
or possibly a proportional quantity l
jX,
where A
is
length.
it is
When dispersion of refractive indices is neglected with dielectric layers,

expedient to choose as the independent variable the phase angle <p in

one of the layers regarded as unit
layers for
67
layer.
The phase
any X are then proportional to the
these layers with respect to the unit layer.
angles in the rest of the
relative optical thicknesses
With varying
 v which enter into the general formulae

and yields, for example, the function g((p). This is more general than the
knowledge of a g(X), since it is only now that we can fix the optical thickness
determines the distribution of the
of the unit layer (and thereby proportionally the thicknesses of the other
layers)
and place the function
ence rule
in a specific spectral region.
The correspond-
is:
choosing nh
plot
A,
g(<p)
the abscissa A
at'
2%
A cos. An
<P
important situation
into X
We
choose
is
with tuned multilayers (see
A =
--
(in
2.6.3), to place q
(*)
normal incidence).
In dealing with all-dielectric systems
we
shall
almost exclusively work
with phase diagrams, the independent variable being
.
References 2
[1]
G. V. Rozenberg, Optika tonkosloinych
pokrytij, (Optics
of Thin Films), Moscow,
1958.
[2] P.
H. Lissberger, Optical Applications of Dielectric Thin Films, Reports on Progress
in Physics, 33,
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
17]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
No
3,
197268
(1970).
H. B. Boll, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 57, 683 (1967).

J. Komrska, Opt. Acta, 15, 389 (1968).
P. H. Berning, Theory and Calculations of Optical Thin Films, in: G. Hass, Ed.,
Physics of Thin Films, Vol. 1, Academic Press, 1963.
A. VaSicek see ref. 13c, in Ch. 1.
H. Anders, Thin Films in Optics, Focal Press, London, 1967.
K. Ishiguro and T. Kat6, /. Phys. Soc. Japan, 8, No 1, 77 (1953).
P. H. Berning, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 46, 779 (1956).
A. W. Crook, see ref. 4. in Ch. 1
S. Kolnik and K. Macak, Act Fac. Rek. Nat. Univ. Comenianae, Phys. IX, Bratislava,
1969. See also ref. 32. in Ch. 10.
P. J. Leurgans, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 41, 714 (1951).
J. A. Berning and P. H. Berning, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 50, 805 (1960).
P. G. Kard, Proc. Ac. Sci. USSR, 1, 257 (1956).
W. Baumeister, Lecture Series on Optical Thin Films and Multilayers, Institute

of Optics, Rochester, N. Y. (1967).
[15] P.
[16]
H.
S.
Hou, Appl.
Opt., 13, 1863 (1974).
68
Problems
2-1
Write out in
Fresnel coefficients by introducing the proper
full the
admittances into (2-4a,
Compare with formulae
c).
in other literature
taking notice of a possible difference in the sign for r p Verify that for
& = we have r = rs while with the other trihedral orientation
.
one has
although the same
electric vector is described.
impedance
2-2
What would be the Fresnel

Z = Y~ l were used?
2-3
Derive the amplitude coefficients for the magnetic vector in terms of
2-4
Verify that:
either
Y or
Z.
where 9 are the energy

2-5
Coefficients if the characteristic
rv R
fV R
coefficients
c v/v-i
of normal transmission.
Verify in detail the energy balance q
for FresneFs coefficients
in oblique incidence.
2-6
Show
that the product of
any number of interference matrices retains

main diagonal terms
the property of the single layer matrix that the

are real
2-7
Show
and those
in the secondary diagonal are pure imaginary.
that in building
WUW...
up
the S-matrix, any partial product
from
has the property that the terms of the same diagonal are
complex conjugate.
2-8
Consider the simplifications ensuing from Problems 2-6 and 2-7 in
2-9
program for dielectric films.

Using the property proved in Problem 2-7 for the complete S matrix:
s it = s 2 s 12 = sti and tllie formulae (2-17, 2-18)show that f R/=R +
writing a simple
'r'l
fR^R
^l ^
(principle of reversibility for dielectric
films; see also 6-2.).
2-10 Factoring out the c v _
1/v
t~
terms of (2-12) in the product for S
in (2-16), develop the rule for building
.(>(:>
up
the product
1, 2,
and then compute r and i. Note the equivalence with:

of 2.6.2, (ii) another procedure described in [16].
(i)
the algorithm
3
Basic dielectric design units
3.1
The
single layer
3.1.1 Amplitude and energy coefficients
The formulae corresponding

With
to Airy
summation are mostly known.
the simplifications already explained in Sect. 2.6.2, with subset II for
now
a two-layer, we have
+ 2 e-
+ rê" 2 -"
where
i-
Mie~* rr-
=
l
ri r 2
e- 23 "
n
i m
(3-la,
b)
the coefficients are understood as R-coefficients of the p- or s-type;
all
e.g. (r 1R
monolayer
2J *
rt
for the
and
(r 2R )
leading to
Sometimes formula (3.1b)
is
(j-r),,.
encountered in the literature without the
factor e -J,> in the numerator. In this case the transmitted amplitude
is
mea-
is somewhat less logical.

Another set of formulae, which is very convenient for a straightforward
analysis, can be obtained from the formula (2-27) involving the interference
sured at the input boundary, which
matrix. After
some arrangement we have
yt (Fo - Y2 )cosq> + j(Y Y2 - Y^sing

Y^Yo
+ Y2 ) cos <p + j(y Y2 + Y 2 ) sin <p

2y y2 co;2
=
t
same denominator
Formula
(3-2a) is
sometimes reduced by the factor cos
appears in the imaginary term.
<p,
(3-2a ' b)
so that a tangent
70
Some
simple complex algebra applied to the formulae (3- la, b) yields
for the energy coefficients
+ 2ri/ 2 COS 2<P

+ r\r\ + IrSiCosbq)
r*
n n 2~ *f
"
r*
'
2 2
f
same denominator
(3 . 3a b)
Instead of the squares of the Fresnel amplitudes in these expressions we

might introduce the energy coefficients directly:
rl
From
Qv
r t r2
the second set
n n2
=4(.QiQ2),
tl
x x x2
we obtain
2
2
_ Y{(Y - Y2 ) cos q> + (Y Y2 - Y\f sin 2 cp
2
2
Y\(Y + y2 ) cos cp + (Y Y2 + Y\f sin 2 cp
t
^qi2YqY 1
4nf,n 2
(3-4b)
same denominator
3.1.2 Analysis of the energy formulae for
normal and oblique
incidence
more instructive because of "higher contrast" to deal with g
It is
than with
x.
(Anyway, every statement about q implies a complementary
statement about x
We
variable.
=*=
Q, in
the case of oblique incidence.)
in terms of
cp
as the independent
is
(3-4a).
Obvious importance
multiple of
ji/2,
<p
<
or 9
more simple and general than one using X as

(see notes 2.8). The object of our attention will be
Such an analysis
the independent variable
formula
q,
shall analyse the function
-(2l +
lies
with the cardinal points
cp
even or odd
with the following implications:
= ln=>r.= y
o
=>r
~^
-r 12
Y Y2
-Y
2\
_( Yt -Y
=
7 v
\Yo + Y2 J
(3
" 5a >b)
2
_ (Y Y2 -Y\ \
(3-6a, b)
Since the squared functions cos
2
<j,
sin
cp
are symmetrical at these
and g/2 must be the extremes of the function (3-4a).

being
equal
to the reflectivity of a bare n jn 2 boundary (at the corQn
points, the quantities g x
responding angle of incidence),
it is
independent of the layer index.
To
71
investigate q k/2 let us first put
(This
Y = Y
tion of the layer with one of th e
= \Iy Y2
is
is
Y2 Then
or
an obvious
reducing in (3-6b), q k/2

Qx
normal incidence, because the condition n x
-
some
after
result, particularly for
n or n 2 means the amalgama-
embedding media.) Further,
= 0. Since V Y Y2 must lie between Y
Y2
Y =
for
and since Qn/2

q %i2
these
summarize
we
may
admittances,
a continuous function of the
,
and
results into the following statement:
Yo^Y %Y2 **0^
<
Q n/2
(3-7a)
Qn
or in words: a monotonic sequence of admittances leads to a reduction of the

original bare reflection.
The opposite of condition (3-7a)

between Y and Y2 We then expect
is
that
^Y %Y ^
Qlc/2
Yx
lies
outside the interval
>
(3-7b)
Qn
or in words: a symmetrical combination of admittances leads to an increase
of the bare reflection.
These situations are termed as reflection-reducing or
reflection-
increasing layers. Another way of putting it is antireflection and semireflection
00
f%
10.0
90
60
\
80
70
60
3.0
2.35
20
2.0
/~\\\
\l
//
/"~\ \\
30
\\
/^\\\
50
\\|
\\l
\v|
10
6
4
2
Fig. 3-1 Phase diagrams g(y) of
various dielectric single layers
a glass substrate (n.
on
1.65) in air
>t-^
>-j-^

see
Fig. 3-1.
The
application of these Results
simple with normal incidence,
is
where admittances are identical with indices of

practical situations n
1,
most
semireflection
^ nG ,
lower n F brings lower q and vice
n 2 , or, to help the memory, n F
G for "glass":
stands for "film",
and
the decision between anti-
depends on the inequalities t
where
refraction. Since in
versa.
The
analysis
example, n
cos
<
<
equally simple for the ^-polarization. Let us have, for
is
< n 2 Then by Snell's law

&i < cos & 2 Putting YYS
n1
cos
O
=:
>
>
n v cos
2 axid
V
then
accordingly
obviously
*o s < î < ^2s- 1 a similar manner any other type of inequality between
the refractive indices remains valid for the corresponding s-admittances. It
is
therefore the combination of refractive indices alone which determines
the kind of extreme at q x/2 for the s-polarization at all angles of incidence.
different situation arises with the/-polarization. The definition being
=
Yyp (cos V ) -1 , the cosines at oblique incidence tend to weaken the
between the = Yv at normal incidence. In fact,

j-eferring to an analysis to be performed in Sect. 3.1.5, with increasing
O
there sooner or later comes a valhe for
O where Y0p = Ylp or Ylp = Y2p
original inequalities
on boundary
(the so called Brewster reflection
1,
or
2, respectively).
Let us
denote these values by 6>o B ob- (ob * s tne Brewster angle for boundary 1,
ob becomes Brewster angle for boundary 2 only after refraction through
the first boundary, but it does define Brewster reflection there in terms of
the input incidence angle.)
Now
@ob and
whichever of them
interval,
is
an
6>S B define
greater.
With
any inequality between the n v
this interval, either the relation
(depending on whether we
ob) or (@Sb>ob)>
from zero towards this
interval (6> b>
&
between
increasing
copied to the Yyp Upon entering

Y0p and Ylp or between Ylp and Y2p
is
or <9qb) * s reversed to the

opposite of what exists between n and n t or n t and n 2 , respectively. Changing
first
encounter
6> 0B
one of the inequalities in (j-7a, b) means converting the monotonic

combination of admittances to the symmetrical one and vice versa. The
effect of the layer becomes the opposite of what it was at normal incidence.
just
Increasing
the
Yp s,
still
O further,
one
ip
weakening the other inequality between
copying that between the coTrcspuuding v
Going "through
the right end of the interval of Brewster reflections, this inequality goes

through equality to
in (3-7a, b)
we
its
opposite.
73
Now
having both inequalities changed
restore the original condition of the admittances being
monotonic or symmetrical (although in a different way than the v everything being reversed). The layer then again behaves as in normal incidence.
Fig. 3-2a, b shows the regions of antireflection and semireflection at
,
various angles of incidence for the embedding media n
was chosen
(the value 1.2
than
it
would be with
in order to
air as
make
the illustration
1.2,
n2
1.7
more general
).
3.0-
Fig. 3-2
Diagrams
potentialities
illustrating the reflection-reducing
of a single
polarizations.
It is
and
reflection-increasing
dielectric layer in oblique incidence for the
Embedding: n
1.2,
n%
two basic
1.7.
also instructive to plot the value of t
at the particular angle of incidence.
which ensures zero reflection

Without going into the details, we state
the corresponding formulae
n\
(2A)
q sin
-1
[1
+ nllA
- 4Anl sin 2
s-polarization
^(l
<9
)]
(3-8a)
p-polarization
(3-8b)
where
We
(n
2 )
_1
cos
up
as 30.
/-polarization finding
its
7(1
"o"J
sin 6>
(3-8c)
do not differ appreciably from normal

With increasing O they split substantially, the
due passage through the Brewster conditions.
see that the conditions
incidence as far
74
^ >
It is interesting that for
So
far
[1],
see also
Problem
we have only
makes the
layer
forms the basis of interference
highly reflecting for the s-polariâtion. This

polarizers,
of re-
6>ob> the antireflection indices
fraction for the />-polarization are rather high, which
3-11.
dealt wjith the ordinates of the function q(<p).
The
sometimes called the amplitude conditions, while the

is applied to the spectral positioning of the extrema:
results derived are
term phase conditions
We denote the optical thickness at oblique incidence by nh cos

From
(3-5a), (3-6a)
follows that with a given
it
the extremes
<? /2
the extremes q
The
are
linear relations
shown
4A
will occûr at
will occur at
between X and
in the Fig. 3-3.
To
A,
A
*3
(3-9a)
JJt
,__
number
odd
4A
2A
even number
integer
(3-9b)
with different orders of interference

of how many extremes
facilitate the estimate
will fall within the visible spectrum, the
corresponding interval
is
drawn
along the A-axis. With increasing A the extremes are more closely packed.
For a given A the extremes are more densely distributed on the short-
wave end.
Inverting the conditions (3-9a, b) one
extremes to be placed at a specific k

for Q /2
by
may
say that, demanding the
one must proceed
A = odd
multiple of -(3-10a, b)
for g n
by
Aq
=t
integral
multiple of -=
visible,
Fig. 3-3
Graph of
the phase
condition for the extrema
of a
dielectric layer.
minima, dashed
maxima.
Solid lines
lines

Note:
as
we
It is
not our intention to analyse the phase
d as thouroughly
shifts 5,
We
did the energy conditions.
functions
75
confine ourselves to stating that the

d(q>) are antisymmetrical about the points q> = l(n/2),
/integer.
8(cp),
For a single layer of any index of refraction d(n/2) is essentially given

by one traversal of the system, the phase shift being - has a negative derivative ddjd<p. In reflection R(7t/2) =

= ddn IZ) = 180 for all combinations of indices except n > n < n
(e.g. if n
= n g n l = 1) when they are equal to zero. All the derivatives
d5/d 0.
function 8
<5
c5
General theorems on phase
shifts are
presented in Ch.
8.
See also Sect
3.2.9.
3.1.3 Reducing and increasing reflection
by one
layer.
Observation in white light

Let us explicitly state the amplitude and phase conditions for normal
incidence in the usual case n
antireflection
(q /2
0)
semireflection
Both cases operate
nF
= Vg
> na
(3-1 la)
(3-1 lb)
in the first order of interference, nh
/4,
leading to
spectrally flat extremes.
The condition
value of !
Yt =
nx
is
(3-1 lb) is only qualitative. To know exactly which

needed to obtain a given gn/2 we must solve Eq. (3-6b) for
In extracting
q, the negative value

must be chosen, since
identical with rnl2 . By inspection of (3-6a) this quantity
is seen to be negative for n
y/n^. With this stipulation we obtain
t
.
the square root
-Jq
is
>
The following Table
3-1 gives
some
typical value obtained in practice
The
results.
is
e /2
pioneering work of 1936,
is difficult
to
fulfil
glass (n G
1.75)
g x/2
=0.25%.
with practically suitable mate-
A compromise is made by letting gn/2 be small,

with MgF 2 ! = 1.38 and G = 1.52 one has
e /2 = 1.4
rials.
ZnS nr = 2.35.
John Strong in his
0.32 using
antireflection condition (3-1 la), attributed to
but not zero. E.g.
%,
while for heavy
76
Table 3-1
Thin film
refractive indices required to obtain prescribed reflectivities
on an
air/glass
and glass/glass boundary (normal incidence).
H
60
10
20
30
40
50
air/glass
1.71
2:00
2.28
2.59
2.98
3.48
glass/glass
2.10
2.48
2.81
3.19
3.67
4.29
%>H/2
( g
1-52)
200
A'W
2-
.6
A/um
a)

All this
was
analysis at a central point. Across the spectrum the g(A)
and t(A) curves are more or less

reflection
of A
77
bent, this giving rise to
more or less coloured
and transmission. These colours also depend on the positioning
More
colour saturation
is
of course found with reflected
light. Esti-
20
10
d)
:6
/tfTI
soap bubble
e)
A/im
%.
air
^v
^^\\X=&tQ
^=^7 /
r\
-oil -
water
_____-0
\^-280
5
4
f)
jF
& = 7Q0
\/vm
Fig. 3-4 Theoretical spectral reflection curves of typical single-layer systems:

(a) air
MgF
2
(Newton's
glass, (b)
Refractivities used:
A/2 thickness for A
air MgOglass,
water
MgF2 1.38;
rings), (e) air
560
ZnS
glassairglass
water
patches).
ZnS
glass
A A/4 and
(c) air
glass, (d)
air (soap bubble), (f) air
MgO 1.71;
nm considered
are also drawn, the latter
oil
2.35;
(fatty
1.52.
each time. In case (f) curves for 3 A/2 and 5 A/4

also for unpolarized light at 45 incidence.
78
mating the optical thickness of a layer by
its
reflected colour belongs to
well-proven laboratory and workshop practice. (See Table 3-2.)
MgF 2 MgO and ZnS on a light

Each material is supposed to be deposited
in two thicknesses: A t = A/4 and A/2 for A = 5600 A. Both the maxima
and the minima are therefore illustrated within the relatively narrow range
Typical curves corresponding to
glass are
shown
in Fig. 3-4a, b,
c.
of the visible spectrum.

Table 3-2
Interference colours for low-index
and high-index
layers in air-glass
A = XJ4
< 4000
1000
no colour
4200
1050
straw yellow
4400
1100
yellow
4600
1150
yellow brown
4800
1200
5000
5200
1250
brown
dark brown
1300
magenta (red-brown)
5400
1350
violet
6000
1500
blue
yellow white
6800
1700
light blue (cyan)
golden yellow
7600
1900
blue green
rosy golden
order
MgF2
ZnS
no colour
bluish white
>
A/4
;./2
3A/4
embedding.
V white
8400
2100
yellow green
rosy
10 800
2700
green
dark rosy
12 000
3000
yellow
blue
16000
4000
dark magenta
green
gap between two glass

surfaces, such as is encountered with Newton's rings. This is an example
of a symmetrical index combination moderately enhancing reflectivity. The
Another important type of thin
corresponding curve
Finally
let
is
shown
film is the air
in Fig. 3-4d for n
which represent index combinations 1/1.33/1 and

Figs. 3-4e, f
ng
1.52.
us recall the soap bubbles and the fatty patches
show
these curves.
on
water,
1/1.5/1.33, respectively.
Sasic DIELECTRIC DESIGN UNITS
A note on the conditions

shown
79
of observation
may be
useful.
Curves of the
and their analogues obtained by shifting the Qmax

or 0min are encountered by the color-selective system of the eye at the various
points of the Newtonian wedge when illuminated with white light.
In an oil patch, high surface inhomogeneity of thickness is present and
type
the
mean
in Fig. 3-4d
may be
optical thickness
several times
more than
A/4. If
it
happens
to be, for example, 5 or 6 A/4, then the corresponding lines in Fig. 3-4f
replace the simple curves and the much more varied spectral distribution
now
perceived by the eye
is
shifted across the
spectrum owing to thickness
variations.
There
incidence,
also the aspect factor. Observing a thin film at oblique
is
its effective
optical thickness decreases as cos
wavelengths for a physically given
we have 0* =
instead of q
(q p
optical admittances. Fig. 3-4 also

fatty layer at
shift to shorter
^ and
the extremal
wavelengths. Further,
Q a ) owing to the change in the effective
shows the increased
of the
selectivity
45, again positioned at 5 600 A.
All these factors contribute to the lively colour display observed with
patches on water. They apply, of course, quite generally to any type of
oil
stratification.
3.1.4
The
a prototype for monochromatic
single layer as
filtration
It is
evident from Fig. 3-1 that increasing the refractive index of the
layer leads to very flat reflection
the points
We
<p
t2
re,
...
maxima in the cardinal points
cp
/2,
automatically becoming sharp maxima in transmission.
thus have monochromatic filtration inherent in a single layer.

Let us rewrite formula (3-3b) for the important case of symmetrical
embedding
t).
= -r2 = s/q,
{r t
We
=
1
the sign depending
on nF
^ nG and
,
t,
then have
2q cos 2q>
(1
q)
Aq sin
2
q>
l+^sin 2 = 0, which of course leads to (3-9b),
&
the
In the vicinity of the maximum value, the greater the value of
#" is sometimes called the coefficient
quicker t(q>) will change. This is why
analysis of the Haidinger fringes
the
in
introduced
first
finesse, a term
of
in the
Fabry -Perot interferometer
&
(see 7.1.3).
maximum
requires q to
us to the
brings
This
be 60 percent or, preferably, more than 80 percent.
indices
present
with the
issue of the realizability of a monochromatic filter:
cannot exceed about
of refraction for the visible spectrum (n < 2.5), o
layer cannot be put into
17 percent. The potential filtering effect of a single
layers, the underlying
more
using
in
consists
actual solution
itself
increases with q.
reasonably sharp
The
practice.
coefficients of reflection
idea remaining the same: to increase the internal
effect being still intertotal
the
with
at the boundaries of a central layer,
that layer. This idea
on
preted as a generalized Airy summation (see 2-29b)
will
be further developed in later sections.
optical parameters
3.1.5 Theoretical principles of measuring the
of thin films
We
shall
now
analyse
some
typical situations
which may lead to the
thickness, or possibly
determination of the index of refraction and/or of the
the optical thickness, of the dielectric film.

Polarimetric measurements
plane wave to be
Let us suppose a linearly polarized monochromatic
of
the polarization
azimuth
the
O
incident on a boundary at an angle
measured from the plane of polarization being e.
,
Looking against the
reflected ray
and using the p- and
s-directions as
point are described by the

reference axes, the electric oscillations at a fixed
components
r^'sinee^',
This
it
is
by
an
elliptically
rp e
Jip
polarized disturbance.
ellipsometric techniques,
one may
cos e e**
By
analysing the parameters of
interpret (though not without
results in terms of the n

numerical labour or tables prepared in advance) the
of effipsometry to thin
and h of the layer. Pioneering work in the application
This work is summarized in his
films was done in the 1940's by A. Vasicek.

second book on thin
method
this
Many
films, [2].
The
81
recent decade has seen a busy revival of
in connection with the study
of oxide films grown on metals.
papers have appeared contributing to further refinement of ellipso-
metry, see
e.g. [3, 61].
Photometric measurements
Using the
reflection
extremes
Referring again to formula (3-12), we may use it in the experimental

way: suppose we measure at normal incidence (or very nearly so) an
extreme of the q> = jr/2 type, knowing both its value and its spectral location A
x Vs K
Fig. 3-5
% A%
Ao
-*%
Extrema of various orders
in
a q(X) diagram of a single
layer.
Then nF may be computed by (3-12) and the optical thickness by (3-10a).

The appropriate order of interference is generally estimated from the know-
ledge of the preparation of the layer or
the spectral curve
<?(A).
by inspection of a broader range of

is shown by Fig. 3-5, which is
general scheme
a spectral transformation of what
is shown in Fig. 3-1 as a e(<p)-diagram.

Only a part of this <>(A)-diagram is usually covered by measurement. The
method fails when A is below the measuring range of the instrument.
In order to choose the correct type of extreme
maximum) one must know whether nF ^ n G This

.
When
a minimum or a
usually the case.
the material suffers from appreciable dispersion (like
blue region and further downwards), Fig. 3-5
mation of Fig.
more
(i.e.
is
percent.
3-1.
The
true optical
ZnS
in the
no more a simple transforthickenss may differ from A /4 by 10 or
A correcting term is derived in
is
[4].
Dispersion effects will be
discussed here in Ch. 12.
is
Note: The values q k yield no information in this theory as far as F

may be used to compute FAF from their location. We
concerned. They
82
then compare whether n F h F
A /4 and also =Ao/2, where
of the next higher extreme. Generally
not exactly
k' is
the location
Also, q k is not
always equal to bare glass reflectivity. These discrepancies are attributed
and to
to dispersion of n F
this is
so.
inhomogeneity across the normal dimension
its
of the layer, see Fig. 10-10 and
12.1.
Using the Brewster angle of incidence
The formula
at
a particular angle of incidence. In
cos
sin
n t cos
6>
20 = sin2@
sin
this the Snell
With
one has n
Condidering at the same time the Snell law n t sin
one obtains
7i/2.
Y0p = Ylp
putting
fact,
vanish
multiplying these equations together and then by 2,
ai*d
may
(2-4a) has the interesting property that g p
law
which
only possible
is
may be written
tan6> 0B
where the subscript "B" means that
when
= -
OB
is
as
(3-15)
the Brewster angle of incidence
ensuring g p = 0.
Finding this angle experimentally for an air/glass boundary essentially
(on boundary
0/1),
constitutes a kind of refractometry.
decimal places)
other
hand
is
it is
However, the accuracy obtained (three
not high enough for what
sufficient for thin film
modify the method so that
it
needed with
is
problems.
It is
glass.
at the Brewster angle 6> 0B

is
(Fig- 3-6).
first
due to
boundary of the
Then the angle of
in its turn the Brewster angle for the opposite direction

first
is
[5].
Let a /^-polarized wave be incident on the
the
the
correspond to the conditions of observation.
This extension of the Brewster angle measurements to thin films

Abeles,
On
only necessary to
boundary: 0,
6> 1B
As a
result, there are
inside the layer. All the reflected energy
is
no
film
refraction <9 t
of incidence on
zig-zag reflections
given by the simple reflection
on the lower boundary.
- Y2p )j{Ylp + Y2p)] 2 but since the above reflection is Brewsterian, Y0p may be substituted for Ylp Hence the same amount
of energy is reflected by the film in the condition
O = <9 0B as would be
obtained with a non-coated support under the same angle of incidence @ 0B
This
is
equal to [(Flp
A hint for the experimenter is therefore to
and seek such an angle of incidence, when the two

The refractive index of the layer is then
where practically n = 1.
in jp-polarized light
halves present equal luminance.
given by (3-13),
observe a half-coated glass
83
Experimental arrangements for
Some
The Abeles method
were described in
this
disturbing factors are discussed in
[6]
and
[7].
[8].
F As a complementary method,,
measurement may be mentioned. Thin
general are described in the books [9], [10], [11], [12]
yields only
yielding only h F , the Tolansky step

film
measurements
and
in [13], [14].
in
Fig. 3-6 Brewster reflection
on the
first
boundary of a
layer.
3.2 Periodic structures
3.2.1
Fundamentals of typology and notation
An
important class of interference layer systems, having very

typical
spectral characteristics, are periodic structures.
They are defined by the
repetition of a basic unit. The simplest basic unit is
a two-layer, consisting
of two materials with refractive indices n (the
higher one) and n L (the
H
lower one), and with optical thicknesses A and A
H
L , respectively. These
may be equal or different. Let us choose one of the thicknesses
as unity,
e.g. A H and denote this layer by H.
Let the relative thickness of the otherlayer be c L Then the two-layer basic unit may
be coded as
,
H(c L L)
both cases being optically
An
or
we choose
different.
equivalent definition
would be
(cH H) L
if
(c L L)
L as the unit layer
or
L(c H H)
and then cH
/c L
Cascading these units to a periodic structure

[H(c L L)] k
or
[(c L L)H]
will
be expressed as
(3 -l 6 >
84
where the formal k-th power corresponds to the actual multiplication of the
interference matrices. Obviously, the layer
number
is
now
2k.
from indicating the embedding media here. Whenever

We
necessary, we denote the air half-space by the the numeral 1, the glass
4
half-space by G. Thus 1(HL) G is an eight-layer on glass.
There may be more complicated basic units than so far shown. Even
refrain
keeping to just two materials one
may have
for example,
(c^H)(ci.L)(c^H)(c^L)
For reasons of symmetry we express all of the layers in relative thicknesses.

None of these need be unity, since the unit layer is simply a reference
quantity for the computer.
basic unit with
more
optical materials
may be
(c A A)(cB B)(c c C)(c D D)
be mainly concerned with periodic structures

in the
of the type (3-16), called alternating, since two materials alternate
from
distinguished
as
alternating,
system. More exactly we should say even
In the following
we
shall
systems like
HLHLHLH
H(0.5 L) H(0.5 L) H(0.5 L)
L (HH) L (HH) L (HH) L (HH)

called
odd
sense, but
and
alternating,
whose
L,
(HH = 2H)
which are not periodic
periodicity
is
felt in
in the
above mentioned
the regular alternation of indices
relative thicknesses.
An odd
alternation has a central layer of symmetry.
Symmetry may
also be present with other systems, as
ABCBA
which
is
like
of course not a two-component alternation, or with systems
(0.5 L)
HLHLHLHLHLHLH
which dees not appear to be a periodic
(3-17)
(0.5 L)
structure.
However,
if
we
define
the basic unit

(0.5 L)
the above system
may be
(0.5 L)
written as a formal 7th power of this basic sym-
metric unit, since inside the system always (0.5 L) (0.5 L)
L.
g5
Symmetric periodic structures have the important property of being

equivalent to one layer with variable parameters (see 6.3).
From
odd
may be
another point of view, (3-17)
alternating
system addition of
1(0.5 L)
HLHLHLG
or
regarded as an extended
on both
(0.5 L)
sides. Similarly
HLHLHLHLG
1(LL)
are extended even alternating systems.
The concept of extension
a change of the optical medium. This
why
interpreted as 1(L)
LHLHLHLHLG,
is
i.e.
involves
the last indicated system
is
not
an extension by L of the odd
as
system 1(LH) 4 LG.
An
additional layer cannot be inserted inside the system, because
it
would be optically identical either with its left or right neighbour. What
would actually happen is detuning of the original system. A third material
is
needed, see 3.2.5.
tuned system
is
one with equal optical thicknesses,
In a slightly more general sense
we
shall regard as
e.g.
1(HL) 10 G.
a tuned multilayer such
a system whose detuning consists of integral relative thicknesses,

[H(2L)] k , but also [(0.5H) L] k , since this
Another example: 1A(2B) (3C) G, where A,

the optical thicknesses are in the ratio
e.g.
essentially the preceding case.
is
B,
are three materials and
3.
detuned system
really
has relative thicknesses which are far from simple rational numbers.
Extensions and detuning are usually a result of a correcting procedure
on the basic properties of the alternating or periodic structure.
Another interesting structure is the type
HLHLHLHLH
(LL)
HLHLHLHLH
which may be regarded as two odd alternations separated by a spacer layer

of twice the optical thickness (we shall explain later why this is referred
to as two A/4 systems separated by a A/2 layer), or it may be regarded
as two face-to-face even alternations (HL) S (LH) 5
.
With
filters,
respect to the functioning of these systems as
the concept of a A/2
spacer layer
is
monochromatic
more apt than the concept
of some systems lying face-to-face.

In concluding these introductory notes
we
wise strictly periodic
(e.g.
two contiguous
a more general
when they are part-
state that, in
sense, such systems are regarded as esentially periodic,
stacks, see 3.5.1).
86
3.2.2
A rough orientation in
As
HLHLHLH
system
stated earlier, the computations of dielectric systems mostly use
2%X~ 1 nh in the unit (possibly Active) layer as the independent variable.

Choosing different layers as units, one obtains different sets of relative
thicknesses and different diagrams q{<p). These are differently compressed
or expanded (along the <p-axis) versions of essentially one phase-diagram
<p
leading to a unique diagram g(A), once the optical thicknesses are
C(ip), all
With a strictly tuned multilayer there is only one such diagram.

For the 7-layer 1(HL) 3 HG it is shown in Fig. 3-7.
For such multilayers the (p-diagrams are symmetrical about the line
<p = ji/2 and have a period tt. Esentially, it would have been sufficient to
specified.
plot only half of the diagram for
A characteristic feature
rc/2.
cp
the existence of high-
is
low-transmission regions, sometimes
With a tuned multilayer
about the value
trically
of periodic structures
reflectivity regions (or, equivalently,
called stop-bands).
<p
this region is situated
symme-
n/2.
With the seven layers considered, the maximum e(rc/2) = 94 percent.

The other maxima are smaller and the central maximum as a whole has
a convex shape.
Increasing the
maximum, which
Jt/2
number of layers would lead to a higher and flatter

k -> oo would tend to fill up the stop-band interval
reflection, and drop abruptly to substantially smaller
for
with unity
oscilations outside this interval. (The band- width 2e will be subjected to
analysis in Sect. 3.2.6.)
The
oscillations
of
q(<p)
outside the stop-band are called secondary or
With seven layers there are three on each side. The

same would be the case with eight layers and it would only be with nine
layers that we would obtain the pattern 414, 1 being the central maxi-
subsidiary maxima.
mum.
etc.
Similarly a 3-layer has a qualitatively similar (jo-diagram as a 4-layer
The
values of the subsidiary
maxima have a tendency
to be smaller
towards the outside. Their envelope, as well as the values of the minima,
depend on the embedding. In
particular for n
n g the minima are
all
zero, see Sect. 6.3.2.
Below the
<p-axis in Fig. 3-7 there are
two nonlinear
scales in A,
corresponding to specific locations of the (^-diagram in the spectrum and
computed
tion
as A
A = ~-
2jtAip~'
1
.
Placing the value
(for all the layers).
g(7t/2) in
leads to the condi-
The value
wavelength.
sometimes be written as q X is called the design

be a Amin or a Amax depending on the combination of
g(7t/2) will
(It
indices.) This
87
may
term
will later
be generalized simply to
mean any wavelength
of importance for the design of any kind. The relative optical thicknesses
of the design are then expressed as fractions of the design wavelength.
We may give an example of such a generalization in the present example:

suppose we are interested in using the left-hand slope at
as a cut-on edge in a high-pass
filter,
and place
it

32
1.6
1.2
1.0
.9
t00%
K'OS
Fig. 3-7 Phase
diagram eif) of a seven-layer 1 (HL) 3 H

(2.3
A-scales for two different quarterwave values.
Keeping the A-scale

rule stated
of what
is
on
p. 67,
1.36
1.52) with
and transforming g(q>) to q(X) by the

one obtains a slightly asymmetrical inverted picture
linear
seen in the ^-diagram. This
is
the A-diagram, Fig. 3-8. Proceed-
ing below A /2 requires the use of the second period of g(q>) etc. Thus we
obtain the central maxima of the orders I, III, V, etc. at the wavelengths
/3,
/5.
The
physical
meaning of the 1-diagram
is
limited to those
regions of the spectrum, where the assumed optical constants are valid.
OFflCS OF THIN FILMS
88
The
central
maxima of periodic
structures serve as interference mirrors,
their slopes serve as cut-off or cut-on edges in low-pass or high-pass filters.
Much
design
Some
of these problems will be dealt with in later sections (3.5.1 and
1.0
work
needed to refine the curves to
is
fit
various purposes.
6.3).
0.5
M
I
iLjWm
0.2
VWn^-^X
maxima of various
orders for a tuned seven-layer being one
quarterwave for
3.2.3 Reflection at cardinal points
[an.
<p =*
This analysis for the odd multiples of

generally with
/urn
Mk
*o/5 AoA-Ao/3
Fig. 3-8 Central
0.5
0.250.33
an arbitrary sequence of
(2/
it/2
l)
*/2
may be
carried out quite
refractive indices n lt n 2
...n k ,
the only condition being a tuned (quarterwave) multilayer.

First of all
we
shall consider the points
q>
tc/2,
5jc/2, 9ji/2.
The
system interference matrix being the product
flttf)
we
obtain the following results
k odd:
m u = m 22 = 0
m,
m
(3-1 8a)
k even:
m 12 = m 2 =
i
0,
m, 2 =
= ("1) 1
Wli
Y2 Y4
...Yk
(3-1 8b)
Inserting these results into (2-27a)
we
= y-Y;2
y + Y e(t
obtain, after a slight modification,
eft'
<?
(3-19)
89
where
/Y
Feff
k odd
k even
Y,
= < v vg_i
\r r g
j'
called the effective admittance (in
is
yjr4 r 6
n eK
k even
,..
normal incidence:
index of refraction). For two alternating refractivities
Yct{ =
M
(3-20ab)
^3^...
F =
and
or to
it is
nt
effective*)
equal to
k odd
(3-21ab)
Increasing the
number of basic
layers 2.35/1.38
have an
../2.35
an
units in
to a very high index of refraction for
alternating structure
one layer
(at
<p
effective refractive
ji/2,
is
equivalent
.).
E.g. seven
index eff
11.6, the
resultant q being 95.6 percent.
Only a
remains to be said about the cardinal points
little
-,
At
which
equivalent to supposing that
is
= -
<p
the sines in the secondary diagonal are
these points
1,
all the Y v are negative. Obviously,

Yef( becomes negative for k odd.
1) n/2 may be maxima or minima
nothing changes in (3-19), although
The
cardinal points
(see Sect. 3.2.7
<p
(2/
on symmetry): with
alternating
-layers
they are always
maxima.
Table 3-3 shows the dependence of the
and of q
on the
total
number of
of refraction,
effective index
two ways of
layers for the following
alternation
a)
ni
b)
2.35,
n2
nL
Both use the same pair H nL but

,
1.38
,
nL
1.38,
n2
nH
2.35
in a different order. Jointly they cover
a relatively dense pattern of reflecting
levels.
(For an extension of
this see
3.4.5).
In practice, by adding layers one generally means "evaporating some

further layers onto
what we already have". This
is
not the case in Table 3-3
*)
This effective index is not to be confused with the concept of equivalent index to
be introduced later. The former has a much narrower importance than the latter. It is
denned for a more general
class of multilayers, but only in
replaces the multilayer by the effect of one layer.
one point
Compare Problem
o
1.70
39.8
2.90
4.00
1.38
0.59
1.3
9.8
10
87.7
0.34
0.81
15.7
89.8
77.9
11.6
8.41
95.6
96.3
0.28
0.20
0.47
54.8
48.1
11
4.94
6.81
73.1
68.3
0.12
81.4
91.7
12
13
14
15
19.8
14.3
33.6
24.4
57.3
41.5
97.6
98.4
98.7
99.5
99.6
99.8
99.85
99.9
0.16
93.2
0.07
97.1
99.64
99.15
99.0
0.033
0.024
0.056
0.04
0.10
97.6
99.7
where one starts from the top layer and additions occur at the glass side.
However, combining both rows one obtains the answer even to the laboratory
case. E.g. starting with H on the glass and working up from the bottom, the
reflectivities of the systems 1HG, 1LHG, 1HLHG etc. are found in al,
b2, a3...
Having solved the problem {n t n 2 ... k } => q it is also of use to

n 2 ... correspond to a given g ? We leave
it: what sequences of n 1
,
invert
it
to the reader to verify the following algorithm:
Define
Wi?
Veo
+ Vgo
(3-22a)
Then
êff
with y given by (3-20a).

The amplitude reflectivity
is
ff l,2
(3-22b)
\[y
given by (3-19) and equals
and +V(?o when choosing a 2

The two values are the inverse of each other: g x g 2
chosing
a2
ffj
in (3-22)
smaller, than unity.
when
l,<r t
being greater,
ai
particular case of interest
ai
Taking the
(3-22b) assumes the form
A
ox
is
91
is
"i"3- =
/s/{n n % )
n2n 4
x^/^noWg
...
>
given energy g
may
k odd
k even
')
be always realized with two different
a 2 and the amplitude phase shift
sometimes of use
With g 0,
of normal incidence,
the antireflection case.
practically important case
may
in interferometry.) Let
therefore be zero or n. (This
how
us see
this
works
in
incidence with alternating systems, where w h l * > 1> Dut Wi.% 1 <
When k is even and the embedding is symmetric (n = n g),
and eff by
= v' 1 < 1
(3-21a)
is
for n l
n2
nH
GHLHLHLG
1-
y = 1
n L and to a 2 =
1 for n x = n
H n2 =
Thus, for example, the systems
>
equal to a t
nL
normal
GLHLHLHG
and
= 0.849, with r R = -yfoo = -0.92 for the first case

+0.92
for the second case.
+y/e
With asymmetric embedding y # 1, and the inverse of eff (corresponding to the exchange L <- H) is no more the inverse of a (corresponding to a
change *- 7t/2 in R). The change L <-> H will ensure <-> n, but simultanhave a
common
and
rR
eously a slight change in the energy level occurs, as

systems
1HLHLHLG
1LHLHLHG
With odd k such
rR
<->
replacing
greater
=0.898
0.780
even in symmetric embedding,
rR
rR
=
=
-0.905
+0.821
So
both ways. The reason obviously
With
eff does not simply become
highly reflecting surfaces in the system,
LG boundaries
for example, the
its
inverse
The systems
GHLHLHG
GLHLHLG
differ in
= -0.947
= +0.883
differences occur
because for the change L

value (see 3-2 lb).
rR
in,
GH
lies in
some
=
=
0.819
0.675
the different
loss being
number of
GL and
due to the
and HG.
numbers of
films these differences will decrease, because

the outer Fresnel reflections form a relatively small contribution to the
final effect.
When
the limitation to only two materials
vanish, because the matching
by
(3-22)
is
is
removed, these problems
possible (or nearly possible,
92
having some technological limitations in mind) with both values a x
and any
y.
In oblique incidence one must either

(3-22)
a2
is
applicable only
if
a g 0p or q 0s
is
work with Yp or Ys The algorithm

.
given,
which
is
seldom the case.*)
Let us briefly mention that the extraction of the refractive indices from the
computed admittances
a straightforward algebraic process, yielding
is
linear equations for the n in the s-case,

p-ca.se.
and n g
and quadratic equations
in the
are of course given beforehand and together with
specify the conditions of observation as well as the admittances

for (3-20a). Detailed formulas are written
down
<9
,
Yg
in Sect. 9.3.3.
No
exact procedure exists

%{g p
so far to synthetize a reflector for a central wavelength by the value g*.
For unpolarized
light
g^
g s ).
Experience shows, however, that, performing the exact synthesis in normal

incidence for g
the value q* at 6>
=45
is
from g
negligibly different
(Compare Sect. 9.3.3.)

g* to the right wave45
certain
(see 3.2.8).
length is to match the optical thicknesses for
All one has to do
in placing
importance
attached to the degree of polarization (g s
is
g p)
(g s
gp )
and to the way it changes at further possible

reflections. Another design problem is the flatness (achromaticity) of the
These problems
p(A)-curve in the neighbourhood of the central maximum g
and
8.5).
will be dealt with in special sections (3.4.4
suffered at such a reflection
3.2.4 Latent
If,
(A/2)
layers. (Cardinal points
in a system of
in the condition that
matrix
is
where
formation of the
The
r,
In)
any tuning, a tuned or detuned layer
its
1 is
phase angle
(p
the unit matrix.
field vectors,
does not influence
<p
g or
t,
In, I integer,
then
its
is
operating
interference
The layer does not affect the
trans-
except for a possible change of sign. (This
only t
may change
behaviour of the film in such a situation
sign with the negative
is like
1 .)
being actually present
but only latently present for <p v = In. We shall denote a layer
in these conditions as latent. (Sometimes the word is absentee layer.) Obviously, the optical thickness of the layer is an integral number of halffo r
all <p v j= In,
wavelengths for the particular
For example,
*)
The
ponent
A.
in a tuned alternation
1HLHLHLHG,
increasing use of the laser in optical experiments
reflectivities interesting.
all layers
now makes
become
even these com-

latent for
q>
n and the
93
phase angle must be identical
reflectivity at this
with that for the simple boundary 1G. This
is
seen in Fig. 3-7.
In analysing periodic structures one often finds that eliminating a layer

as latent for a particular spectral point, another combination immediately
becomes a
Thus having a simple monochromatic
latent layer etc.
filter
(HH)
or
GHLHLHLH(LL)HLHLHLHG
(LL)
we
see that in the conditions
obviously for
cp
when the central (LL)-layer is
latent (this occurs
of the remaining layers can be paired to further
nj2), all
latent layers, the result corresponding to systems
1G
GG
or
according to the kind of embedding.
With a double-half-wave system we may have
HLHLH LLHLHLHG = GHLHLHG

GLHL HH LHLHL HH LHLG = GLG
GHLHLH
(the latter case having
LL
It also instructive
much
has for
<p
equivalent to
3.2.5
In the same
1
LG
Use of A/2
at
higher q(kj2) than the former).
to realize that, for example, the system
<p
(0.5 L)
HLHLHLHG
reflectivity as
(0.5 L)
G, which in
its
turn
is
7c/2.
layers as correcting elements
The absentee property of
A/2 layers allows
them to be
freely
added
any interference system as outer or inner extensions, without affecting

their performance at the design wavelength (this is now that A = X for
to
which the added layer
is
A'/2).
By
interesting privileged status, without
itself this
would represent merely an
any use, were
of the A/2 property. The result of a A/2 extension
it
not for the dispersion
is
then a more or
less
substantial change of q(X) in the vicinity of X, the value q(X) remaining
unchanged. This fact
is
of importance for the design, because one usually
94
wishes to change an unsatisfactory shape of g(A) without seriously affecting

the reflection level.
The amount of change induced depends on the refractive index of the

on the face of insertion. The extended system need not be
tuned of course, but most of the applications so far concern tuned systems.
A/2 layer and
Since the system to be corrected as a rule consists of an alternating
sequence of two indices h h /w l
the simplest approach
is
to
add
either
2H
or2L
such an insertion
If
3H
is
made
inside of a tuned system, there results
or 3L layer. However, this situation
is
not typically interpreted as the
addition of a A/2-layer, but rather as the use of a 3 A/4 layer instead of the
simplest multiple A/4.
a more
lively
The reason
ing system where part of the layers
band
reflector in
reflect the
The
for such a choice usually
is
to induce
A-dependence into the system. Thus, for example, an alternatis
A/4
and part
3 A/4
is
becomes a narrow-
a moderate sense of the word, which can be made to
green part of the spectrum.
by a A/2
actual extension
layer observing the restriction to
two
materials can only occur at the outer faces of the multilayer.
With a tuned basic system a typical response is the change of the second
d 2 g/d = 0. (For an organized approach
derivative
to this condition see 9.3.4.) If the second derivative assumes the positive
sign,
a trough appears. If
it is
shallow, the case
is
regarded as good from
the point of view of achromatism.
Extensions of this kind are easily analyzed in the individual cases of

interest,
but one must be prepared to discard part of the
addition of a A/2 layer with a given refractive index
is
results,
A choice of useful results is to be found in [15].

We quote (with H = 2.35, n L = 1.38>
H
1
1
as well corrected
(LL)
(LL)
<?*
q*
=
=
32
50
%
%
non-cemented beam-splitters and
G H L H L (HH) G
G LHLHL(HH)G
g*
g*
=
=
50
65
%
%
as cemented cube beam-splitters.
(We
shall refer to the latter
once more in
because the
not an infallible step.
Sect. 3.4.4
.)
95
Note: Experience shows that systems of this kind may first be corrected to a flat
normal incidence. In the conditions of oblique incidence it is sufficient to match
level in
the optical thicknesses and the reflectivity for inpolarized light g, ..= i(g
g s ) remains
p
very nearly unaltered. The single components g and g also have flat maxima, but these
s
p
are on different levels, thus giving rise to a more or less intense partial polarization. The
problem
particularly severe with
is
with in Sect.
cemented cubes. Polarization
effects will
be dealt
8.5.
n'flff
SO
25
20
1(2X)HLH6
60
70
")
a)
tH(2X)LHG
90
60
70
60
rir-as
50
25
d)
1HL(SX)HG
60
70
BO
90
60
HLH(SX) G
SO
70
various refractive indices: (a)

extension,
30
1.36 2/1.52 by A/2

outer extension, outer
inner extensions.
Fig. 3-9 Extending a tuned three-layer 1/2
left
layers of
(b)
right
(c), (d)
The fully general exploitation of the A/2 extensions calls for a variation
of the refractive index. In particular, studying a tuned system at <p = n/2,
one can always find a refractive index such that a flat top or a trough occurs.
Fig. 3-9
shows a numerical study of this kind.
With a third refractive index one can even start inside additions, but
more bizarre indices are obviously needed to obtain the same flattenning
effect.
96
an antireflection three-layer
by inserting a A/2 layer between n x and n 3
(a) -{!, n 3 , n4 } designed to yield e(ji/2) = 0;
an overall compromise.
(b)
Fig. 3-10 Correcting
not a general rule and internal positions for a A/2

layer may be found in certain designs where beneficial influence is obtained
with realistic refractive indices. A design of this kind concerning the anti-
However,
reflection
this is
problem
fractive indices ,
is
due to Jupnik,
n3
1.38,
[16].
1.548, w 4
The tuning 1:2:1:1 with re1.38 and n 2 in the range 2.2
an efficient achromatic four-layer for the light glass ng = 1.51.

The approach to this system was to use three convenient indices such
that the amplitude condition t n 4 = n 3 V("o g) is met for zero reflection
at q> = jc/2. The A/2 layer at the second position was reserved for manipula-
2.35
is
vicinity
ting (through a change in n 2 ) the shape of the reflection curve in the
of
q>
n/2, Fig. 3-10a.
If the
1
.548
tried for the basic tuning
same were
n 2 with n 3
free,
1:1:2:1 making now
no satisfactory n 3 could be found for a flat reflection
curve. This only confirms
what was
said
about the
relative correcting merits
of a A/2 layer in a system.
On the other hand we may extemporize with the verified second position
for a A/2 layer
and
try
its
influence in a design which only partially satisfies
the condition for g(nj2)
0.
We
1.71
then find that, for example, the index

- 1.49/1.52 never exceeds 0.7 percent
2.22
combination 1/1.49
in an interval of almost 1 2, Fig. 3-10b.
:
In concluding these
comments on the
A/2 layer
we remark
that the in-
an arbitrary cross-section inside the

parts.
system, thus splitting one of the layers into two equal or unequal
However, this possibility dees not seem to offer an easily obtainable correc-
sertion
may
in principle
be effected
at
tion power.
3.2.6 Stop-band theory

In this section
we
shall deal in
some
detail with the theory
of the stop-
the
band, first mentioned in 3.2.2. The complexity of the analysis depends on
sytems
alternating
to
ourselves
structure of the basic unit. We shall confine
/
97
of the even type. (Considering also the odd type would lead to complications not
worth
tackling, because
20 or 22 layers as good as 21 in stop-band
predictions.) In this case the basic unit
matrix
cos
ify
is
cos
j(Yt sin
a two-layer, whose interference
is
the product of two simple matrices (2-23)
q> 2
fl?!
cos
sin 99j sin
j
s'n
-a
Before proceeding further,
the folowing
let
cos
y2
(3-24)
us rewrite the secondary diagonal terms in
form
=j
sin (Pi
c=)Yi
ship?!
^2)
<y>
~
2)
r i2 sin (<Pi
V2)
+ r 12 sin(<jg 1 + r ia
t
q> 2 )
where
- y2
= Y
ri + r2
t
*12
is
two media (taken in the order 1-2).

The problem now is to find a suitable analytical expression for the
power of the matrix (3-24), representing the use of Ik alternating
the Fresnel coefficient between the
fc-th
layers.
its
Denoting the bilayer interference matrix (3-24) by B and considering

unimodularity, one can easily derive
B 2 = 2x B .
x and
where x
We may
compute
after
+d
z
where q 12
r{ 2
1 is
(3-25)
the unit matrix.
some manipulations
cosppi
tp 2 )
QuGosjqf!
(?12
<p 2 )
98
B2
Multiplying (3-25) succesively by B,

relationships
. . .
and recurring from previous
upwards one has
- 1) B - 2x 1
= (8x - 4x) B - (4x 2 B 5 = (16x4 - 12x 2 + 1) B B3 =
(4x
B4
2
3
1) 1
(8x
Ax)
thus discovering the rule
Bk =
-i(*).B-ek _ 2 (*).1
where the Q v (x), v = 0, 1 2,

of the second kind, see e.g. [17].
Their argument in our case
,
. . .
(3-27)
are the so called Chebyshev polynomials
v (x) are related to
is half the sum of the diagonal terms in B.

some transcendental functions in the following
Q B (x) VO -
/_!(*)
way
*2) =
sin [(v
arccos
1)
x],
(3-28a, b)
&(*) V(*
1)
^-i(*)
sinh
where the square root on the left-hand

sin co or sinh co if
we
1*1
arc cos
<
x],
be interpreted simply as
normal
for cosine,
arg cosh
or
shorten the subsequent formulae,
for sine,
may
side
argcosh
1)
introduce the respective interpretations
co
To
[(v
we
(3-29)
introduce the unified notation
or hyperbolic, depending
on the value
1.
Let us
now take
the
k
term of B in view of (3-27) and (3-28a,
We can write
<5[(fc-l)co]
(SQcco)
_ a
S(fcco)
(5(a))
(co)
(co)j
a-d
S(fcco)
s(co)
@[(fe-l)co]
@(co)
Exchanging the r61e of a and d yields the ( ) 22 term.

No manipulations will be effected in the secondary diagonal.
Making use of the
identity
/k (x)
- Uk _ ,(x) = Tk (x)
@(x)
b).
/
99
where
Tk (x) = (*),
is
Chebyshev polynomial of the

power of B
the
A>th
+C(fcco) +
first
kind, one finally obtains for the
<5(fcco)
<S(co)
<S(o>)
S(fcco)
(co)
"[3
where
2r 12
sin
and the
A, B, C,
sin
<p t
l-r? 3
<p 2
are real, in accordance with the expectations for a dielec-
multilayer system.
tric
According to (2-27a) the reflection coefficient of the whole stack
_ (A-Yg Yo D)+j(BYg -CYo

(A+Ye Yo D)+j(BYg + CYo
l
_ L
*(k<o)(Y
+ Yg ) +
<5(oo)
)
)
(5(co)
+j^W
- n>]
(Yo
(
((o)
is
c)
<S(co)
(3-30)
Recalling that the stop-band
is
defined by
->
with k tending to
easy to state from (3-30) the corresponding necessary condition:

only with the hyperbolic functions that some members of the formula
infinity, it is
it is
tend to
infinity,
which k
->
thus making
oo implies
-*
converge to unity. All values of
for
co
then define the stop-band. Obviously, the
outer media are irrelevant.
The decision
lies
92 =
<ty-
x
some detuning
with the inequality
analyse, introducing into (3-26)
which we now
such that <p i
ratio c
shall
<p,
\
100
Dealing with absolute values of (3-26) requires the analysis to be
up
into
two
split
numerator positive and negative (denominator always
cases:
being positive).
For a
c)
<p],
positive numerator,
>
when cos
i.e.
[(1
cos
[(1
c)
>
<p]
q 12 cos
[(1
leads to the condition
Q12 {1
cos Rl
c ) <?)}
>
c)
<?]
or equivalently
2
ei2 sin
[(l-c)|J>sin 2 [(l+c)^]
For a negative numerator we have cos
[(1
<
c) q>]
q 12 cos
[(1
c) q>]
and
C12 {1
cos
[1
c) p]}
>
cos
[(1
c) cp]
or equivalently
Ql2 cos
The
["(l
- c)|1 >
periodic structure being given
the intervals of
We
<p,
+ e)|J
cos [(l
by q 12 and
c,
the inequalities define
in which hyperbolic functions are applicable in (3-30).
show with a few examples how these conditions are
are going to
used.
(i)
Let us have a tuned multilayer. Then c

either
cos
or
cos 2q>
There
is
2
<
q 12
first set
<
cp
<
tc/2
s,
where
sine
Checking the
first
e is
inequality,
we
sin
cos
is fulfilled
all
<
<

set
we
start
in the interval
(3-31)
re/2
of the second
see that the solution

2<j
cos
2
<p
sin
situation arises in all intervals shifted
the one computed. Therefore
given by
= +sfoT2
anticipates its validity in that eos
The same
and we have
of inequalities. In the other
with the second inequality. Obviously, this

jt/2
and simultaneously
and simultaneously
q 12
no solution to the
the cardinal points
centres of stop-bands with a width 2e.
<
cp
by
q>
it
cos 2

and
Q 12 cos sm 3
2 
(3-32a, b)
or
cos3
2 cos
<p
(3-33a, b)
the
With some intuition we find that the second set is satisfied with (p = it/3,
with 
it/2.
about these "centres", or cardinal
to determine their limits
points (we shall see subsequently that
ti/3
and 2n/3 are not exact
centres
of the bands).
Let us equalize (3-33b) and take the positive and negative square roots.
we
After some goniometry
find that the limits of the stop-band about rc/3
satisfy the condition
= yV( 1 +Vei2)
sin|-
combination they are
E.g. for the 2.35/1.38
case the value 60
<p'
51, cp"
68.4. In this
nearly the centre of the stop-band. Principally this
is
not so, because as p 12 tends to unity,

is obviously asymmetric.
It is clear
(3-34)
-* 0, <p" - 90
<p'
that the solution found by (3-34)
is
is
and the stop-band
compatible with (3-33a).
we find by similar goniometry the condition

on the left-hand side. This means that the stop-band
obtained by mirroring the stop-band about n/3 with respect
Considering (3-32ab),
(3-34) with cos <p/2
about
2jt/3 is
to the line
<p
jt/2.
So far we may say that the cardinal points of the stop-bands were
found by solving the equation
(p t
which worked for
<jp
(1
and
that (3-33b) degenerates to
being latent.
2.
(c
Trying
1) 
accompanied by
(3-35)
all
n,
we
see
the layers
3 does not lead to a stop-band.
The condition
not give
c) (p
(3-35)
is
rise to latent layers.
therefore valid with the provision that
it
does
102
An
equivalent statement of (3-35)
of the basic unit equals

(iii)
As a
third
is
that the total optical thickness
example we take [(3H) L] k or [(3L) H] k with
3.
We
then have by (3-35)

as the cardinal points of the stop-bands. The widths of these are now computed from a more involved goniometric equation, which will not be solved
here.
The cases (i)-(iii) are illustrated by Fig. 3-11.

The smooth curves outside the stop-bands define the limits within
which the subsidiary maxima can oscillate. Their shape depends on all the
Fig. 3-11
Symmetry and
periodicity of simply detuned periodic stacks
(schematic).

indices n
nG
nH
103
n h and on the detuning factor
c.
depends on the number of periods used. (See Sect.
when
In the case
The
density of fill-up
6.3).
additional correcting layers are attached to the
periodic structure, the limiting curves are affected, but the stop-band remains
unchanged.
The number and
determine generally. For
computed with
maxima are difficult to

may of course have them
location of the subsidiary
examples one
specific
arbitrary accuracy
and
at the
same time obtain the stop-band
widths, without solving the pertinent goniometric equations.
In the special case of a tuned multilayer, the number of subsidiary
maxima
is
An
For
follows a rule indicated in 3.2.2.
number of
proportional to the
important practical remark
convergence
q -
and using nH
2.3,
e(n/2)
nL
is
we
only state that
it
slower. E.g. for the systems
1H(3L) 4
1(H2L) 4 G,
maximum
1.38, the
0.96,
that with increased detuning c the
is
within the stop-band
1(HL) 4 G,
periods.
g(jc/3)
0.92,
reflectivities are
e(it/4)
0.86
respectively.
Also, with increasing
the band-widths for a given n H / L
decrease.
3.2.7
Symmetry and
The
basic 1/4 system has been found to be symmetric with respect to

q>
sin
<p,
the values
of cos
q>,
periodicity
n/2,
it,
3rc/2
This follows from the fact that the squares
which only appear
about these points. This
is
symmetric
in the energy coefficients, are
obviously true of any system, not only alternating
systems.
The same property
is
preserved with rationally detuned systems,
because a doubled or trebled A/4 layer
may
be regarded as two or three
adjacent layers of the same index of refraction and the proof follows from
the last remark. It
is
only necessary to rewrite systems like
0.5
as
2:1:2.
Since
the
bands
no other symmetry may
will
be symmetrical about
we may infer, for example, for

maximum in the ir/3 and 2n/3 stop-
exist,
2 case of the last section that no

itself,
but, rather, that the
two stop-bands
104
accomodate maxima being mutually symmetrical about cp = n/2. This

maxima is then mirrored about = n is a point of symmetry.
will
pair of
q>
On the other hand, in the
some maxima happen to fall within

maxima at ji/4
3 case
region and are therefore symmetrical. The fellow
the
7t/2
and
3 jc/4
must be asymmetrical. All the three are then mirrored to the next
Owing to the internal symmetry about n/2, this mirroring
of course equivalent to shifting by jr.
The period of a g(<p)-curve will be recognized as the smallest increment
period
is
(it, 2it).
to the unit phase angle
<P
by an
integral multiple
all
the squared cosines
3/2
In the
:
and
l2
3.
we
.
2 and
which causes
<p,
each, v
/v tc
and
all
3 cases the period
these circumstances
is
obviously
it.
Having a detuning
$ = lt n, 3/2 d> = /2 with integral

 to increase
1, 2, ...
is
lx
7t
2,
When there are more detuning factors c in a system, we check each c v

separately and then take the least common multiple of these partial periods.
l2
Notes:
(i)
odd
were analysed by Kard
alternating layers
in [18].
Even systems follow as
a special case when amalgamating one of the outer layers with the adjacent
embedding. This paper uses another method of raising a matrix to a power.
(ii)
odd systems are more common as
representatives of interference mirrors,
because they converge faster to high
reflectivity, see tab. 3-3.
coverage of different levels n semireflection
is
Where a good
concerned, both types of systems
are of interest.
(iii)
another important version of
s.c
p-band theory
will
be presented in Sect.
6.3.
3.2.8 Oblique incidence

In oblique incidence, the effective optical thicknesses are v /i v cos
where
cos
^/(l
nln~
sin
O)
so
n v h v cos
This has a two-fold
6> v
effect:
h y x/(v
(i) all
o sin
O)
(3-36)
the optical thicknesses are smaller
(which causes an overall shift of the A-diagram towards smaller wavelengths)
(ii)
the relative tuning of the layer changes (which causes
deformation in the
<p-
and A-diagrams).
some
105
design taking account of oblique incidence must pre-set the optical

-1
choice of possible values in
v
thicknesses proportionally to cos

different situations is given in
Table
3-4.
Table 3-4
Matching factors for 45 incidence.

Incidence at 45 from the
"F
COS
sec
air.
1.38
1.49
1.75
2.00
2.22
2.35
0.8552
0.8802
0.9147
0.9354
0.9479
0.9537
1.169
1.136
1.093
1.069
1.055
1.049
Incidence at 45 from glass 1.52.
1.38
1.49
1.75
2.00
2.22
2.35
cos
0.6272
0.6926
0.7892
0.8433
0.8750
0.8893
sec
1.594
1.444
1.267
1.185
1.143
1.125
Oblique incidence also
A split-up into q p and g

simple systems at two
affects the Fresnel coefficients at the boundaries.
occurs, always with Q s > q

Fig. 3.12
p
different angles of incidence.
s
By using pre-setting according to Tab.

back to the symmetrical position about
more
reflecting (securing
maximum
<p
shows some
we could shift the diagrams

Jt/2 and make them slightly
3-4,
constructive interference in all the
but the split-up between e and g s would remain, see Fig. 3- 12b.
p
Controlling the difference g s g represents a difficult design problem
p
where semireflectors are concerned, see 8.5.
layers),
The problem
of
many
Qs
QP
is
less severe
with highly-reflecting systems consisting
periods, because both q

p
is
sma H compared with
The stop-band
and gs converge to unity.

the average level q*.
for s-polarization
is
The
difference
enlarged, that for p-polarization
reduced as compared with normal incidence. This may be accounted for

by the changes in the optical admittances which now determine p l2 in the
is
conditions (3-31), (3-34)
etc.
106
30
60
90
120
130
180
oo
an
so
120
vm
wo
a>
match at
Fig. 3-12
ISO
120
Behaviour of an alternating A/4 stack

(2.3
1.36
p 2/o
match at 60
$5'
30
b)
210
ip'
(HL) 3
HG
1.52) at oblique incidence.
incidence 45 and 60 without matching,

with matching; (owing to restored symmetry
(a)
(b)
about
180
= 90 only halves of the graphs are plotted).

In the interval
common
107
to both stop-bands g #
with zero degree
of polarization.
The angular variation of the spectral properties of multilayers, though

normally a disadvantage, can be made use of in providing valuable
documents with difficult to counterfeit authenticity features, [59], which
either consist of a specific colour
test is
made by superposing
scheme in variable
the tested piece
tilt or a more severe

on a complementary master
transmittance curve.
3.2.9
tion,
Phase dispersion
We shall make a brief first mention here of the phase shift upon refleci.e. the quantity
R We consider tuned systems only.
<5
While
g(<p) is
symmetrical in the cardinal points
<p
antisymmetrical there and has a positive or negative slope

(5(71/2) being 0 or 180.
HLHL...G
LHLH...
Ik/2, 5(<p) is
d(5/d<p,
the value
S-w
the positive contributions

prcfo///ng
to
Fig. 3-13 Determination of
alternating stack
phase
4 " 0'
shift
from the simple
d on a tuned
reflections.
For alternating systems it is relatively easy to guess the value <5(7t/2)

from the design, adding up the phase shifts of simply reflected rays, Fig. 3-13.
(See also Problem 3-4).
The
slope
is
negative in both cases.
Generally, the value of f(;t/2)
The
criterion for the slope
is decided by y ^ Y?
K Eq. (3-19).
depends on more complicated functions of the u
,
(see 9.6).
study of two alternating stacks
is
shown
in Fig. 3-14.
108
100
IS
25
SO
30
and phase-dispersion graphs of two

4
1.36
(HL) 3 H G; (b) 1 (LH) G (2.3
Fig. 3-14 Reflectivity

(a)
y>'
SO*
alternating stacks:
1.52).
109
3.3 Broad-band antireflection by discrete points
3.3.1
The
antireflection
problem
Before embarking on the main subject of this section,

the antireflection problem
Fresnel reflection
on
more
air-glass
tion layer. Its theory
is
generally.
The natural
boundaries gave
let
us outline
loss of light
rise to the
due to
simple antireflec-
completely covered by the material presented in
Sect. 3.1.3.
Technological difficulties in strictly satisfying Strong's amplitude

condition for crown glasses called for the extension of antireflecting techni-
ques to multilayer systems.
The
first
idea at
hand was
to use several quarterwave layers at a time.
Referring to the formula (3-23)
we then have
the following amplitude
conditions for zero reflections:
n t n3
n 2 n4
13
These should be easier to

E.g. with
satisfy
owing to the wider choice of materials.
= 2andg == 1.52 one can combine the individually inadaequate

= 1-38) with MgO( 2 = 1,71) to obtain a virtually zero minimum.
A:
g F 2("i
However, the selectivity of such a layer is greater than that of a single layer
of MgF 2 its values outside of the pass-band even exceeding the blank
,
glass reflection (curves (D
and
(2>
in Fig. 3-15).
Note: In view of the theory to be outlined in

paragraph will be x 2q>.
3.3.2, the
independent variable in the
figures of this
Keeping the ratio n 1 ln 1 constant, but using higher indices of refraction

would even deteriorate this situation. The curve (D of Fig. 3-15 is therefore
the optimum that can be achieved in practice. The importance of such
a two-layer
Let us
is
therefore limited.
now take the three-layer and
stipulate again n t
.38.
Then
1.38
"2
= -f= n 3
V"g
and we have,
1.8
for example, for n

g
1.61; 1.91
1.7; 2.1
1.52 the following n 2 - n 3 pairs:

2; 2.35 - 2.1. From the reflect-
1.88; 2.22
110
ance curves shown in Fig. 3-16 that corresponding to the third combination
has
maximum
analysis
secures g
flatness considered as a local
would discover
at
more
its
system
x =
at
180. Closer
index combination {n 1 ,n 2 ,n 3 } not only
180, but also d g/dx
tically fulfilled since the
in the cardinal point
that
minimum
is
0,
dg/dx
being automa-
tuned. This condition for a
180, originally
due to Pohlack,
flat
extreme
discussed in
is
general terms in Sect. 9.3.4.
However, the
flatness of curve (D in Fig. 3-16
is
not pronounced
enough to be of practical importance. (One would also note that the cases
and (2>, although numerically worse in some insignificant decimals in the
range 8090 of q> are better in the broader range 20 90.)
A substantially flatter curve would call for more layers. We quote
from W. Gejfcken's patent [19] a four- layer combination 1/1.23 - 1.975
2.41 1.84/1.5 whose curve is shown as in Fig. 3-16. No doubt the
small value of the
first
index helps in the flatness.
These inherent limitations of the one-point antireflection occasioned,

in the late 1940's and later, further research into the possibilities of obtaining
low
reflectivity in
a broad spectral region. Such more or
antireflection coatings
applied also to
less nonselective
were once called achromatic, a term which
semireflectors
is
and interference mirrors exhibiting
now
flat
reflectance curves over an important part of the spectrum. The theoretical

process of obtaining such curves is then called achromatization.
an
any design problem). The general
Different approaches are possible to the problem of achromatizing

antireflection coating (and in fact to
dividing line runs between tuned
210
Fig. 3-15
and detuned systems.
x"
A A/4A/4 two-layer with zero
Fig. 3-16
one point: 1/1.38

1.7/1.52
curve Qi, compared with a single MgF 2
reflection at
A/4A/4A/4
antireflection
three-layers with varying flatness at
curve
films
G>
n
(3)
180. Basic design
1/1.38
2
n n
2.1/1.88;
3 /l. 52.
@ 1.9/1.7;
@ 2.22/2.0; 2.35/2.1.
1.8/n 3
1.61;
The former method

layers.
uses layer thicknesses in small rational ratios
and
performed through the choice of the refractive indices of the

The latter relies on two technologically convenient indices and exerts
the design
is
on the curve forms through variations of the optical thicknesses.

Both approaches may be effected with various degrees of sophistication.
influence
In the subsequent section
on the
we expound
the principles of a
method based
postulate of several discrete points of zero reflectivity, which leads to
the condition of tuned multilayers and to the variation of indices at the
design process.
Relatively simple mathematics yields a
number of
useful results.
In a later section (9.2) reflectivity of a tuned system will be continuously

controlled over a broad spectral region and a much more advanced
formalism will be needed for the extraction of the refractive indices.

Variation of thicknesses will be illustrated in Sect. 3.4 in several examples,
some of them being antireflection layers.
conceivable to use a combination of both approaches and carry
out variations of both refractive indices and optical thicknesses. This can
only be done with large computer programs within an automatic correcting
It is
process.
The
methods
strategy of these
is
3.3.2 Principles of achromatization
As mentioned above, one of the

reflection-reducing multilayers
at several discrete points
outside the scope of this book.
by
discrete points
possible approaches to the design of
the idea of annulling the reflectivity

q(x)
of the x-axis in the hope of being able to describe
is
by some reasonably simple conditions. These should enable extraction of

is similar to exact synthesis. However, we
must bear in mind that reflectivity is controlled only in discrete points and
one must add the hope that for reasons of continuity the reflectivity will not
it
design data so that the process
rise
unduly inbetween the control points. This
is
what we understand by
achromatization by discrete points.
The
limitation to isolated points
would not by itself suffice to develop

must be had to the approximation
the theory in any generality. Recourse
by simple
r
reflections in the
reJ*
rx
r2 e
form
_Jxl
'
xv
which was discussed in
2.6.3.
r3
e~ Hxi+X2 >
r4
e~ j(;" +JC2+X3)
...,
4nX~ n v h v
(3-37)
112
This expansion
is
a good approximation to r for the reflection reduc-
ing case.
may be
Since the expression (3-37)
closing the
Argand diagram
problem assumes a geometric nature: annulling q

ixi
vectors r t r 2 e~
... are then the
in the Gaussian plane, the
means
interpreted as the
Argand diagram. The
sides of a polygon. Further: annulling q in several discrete points of the

<p-axis means finding several closed polygons with the same side-lengths
whose angles are compatible in the optical sense.

To show what we mean let us consider a two-layer with a monotonic
and construct the corsequence n < n^ < n 2 < g so that r u r 2 r 3 <
responding triangle starting "upwards". A remark on the construction
itself is perhaps useful: the angles x t ,x t + x 2 ... are laid off the +Ox
rt
,r 2 ,r 3
...
axis in the negative sense.
advisable to
negative r
draw the pure sums Sxu
leaving a dashed line behind (see
Now
it
is
equivalent to adding
correctly
and
but
it is
by
angles y l5 y 2
We
Fig. 3-17).
instructive to introduce the internal
is
re,
indicate reversion
obviously have in the lower triangle
xi-n-Yi,
x'2
=n-y
(3-38a)
where the dash indicates that the values are connected with some wavelength
A'.
From
the purely geometrical point of view
same r t ,r 2 r 3 and other Xi = x'2 x 2

shown above in Fig. 3-17. It follows that
triangle with the

triangle
*2=* +
the phase angles corresponding
To
obvious that the only
it is
4=Jc +
yi>
now
to
x"2
is
the congruent
(3-38b)
y2
some other
A".
be quite exact, these equations each hold (modulo
2rc), still satis-
fying the condition for a closed triangle.
Coming now to the interpretation of these results as Argand diagrams

thickfor a two-layer, we must observe the fact that, with the given optical
any
at
x
ratio
the
=
determines
/A
c
A
2
/*i
ratio
their
nesses A lf A 2
t
2
,
wavelength.
It
follows that
x2
x\
From
k - y2 _
~ *-yi
+ y 2 + m 2% _
n + yi + 12*
tc
c(/
x'[
we obtain y 2 = (1 equation, we obtain
the left-hand equation
inserting this into the right-hand
x"2_
1) 2tc
(m
1)
2k
c)
cy t and
(3-39)
= m = 0, c =
m = 0, c = 0.5 etc.)
(e.g.: /
This
1
is
0.5
1; /
m =
0,
113
1,
only possible with an integral

is
equivalent to 2
c,
2;
0,
m =
or a rational
c.
so that a rational factor
1,
2, c
3;
1,
Obviously a ratio
is
as
good as an
integral one.
An
integral optical thickness ratio
is
the inevitable condition for the
by closed polygons. The
discrete achromatization
free design
parameters
are then the refractive indices of the films.
Fig. 3-17
Argand diagrams
for a
Argand diagram for

a two-layer with r t , r2 negative,
r 3 positive. Tuning ratio 1 2 anticipated.
Fig. 3-18 Closed
two-layer closed at two wavelengths;

r l ,r2
r 3 negative.
So far we have considered the case of a monotonic sequence of indices.

we had, for example, n < n t < n 2 > n making r 3 > 0, we could
g
draw a similar triangle as before, but we would have to interpret x'2 difIf
ferently: x'2
2%
y2
(Fig. 3-18).
By analysing more
changes sign after r _ l
we would discover the rule that any time an r

xv - x =2n, - internal angle. When there is no
cases
,
change, the internal angle
In every case
is
subtracted from
we would prove
it.
the necessity of integral ratios.
114
The possibility of achromatizing antireflection films by toppling over the

closed polygons was firstreported in 1949 by Turner, [20], but other authors
contributed to the subject almost simultaneously Muchmore, [21],
Blaisse, [22], Vasicek, [23] using more or less different approaches.
We shall adhere essentially to VaSicek's ideas, but some improvements
will
be added.
place we shall cease to explicitly rely on the internal angles

They have served the purpose of proving the rule of integral
ratios, but in the general case of more layers they are not suitable for
preparing the computations in a form suitable for programming.
Further we shall formulate the problem for an arbitrary (though
perhaps small) number of films and use r^ (instead of n,) as the unknown
quantity. We thus avoid the necessity of setting up the coefficients of algebraic
equations in n x of different orders and simply solve a regular pattern of
linear factors by iteration.
In the
first
of the polygon.
Thirdly, any integral ratio c x
much dependence on
intuitively
c2
c3
...
will
be admitted, without
drawn Argand diagrams. In
fact,
we
shall
abolish the geometrical approach and formulate the conditions of zero

reflection purely analytically.
Finally,
some
We now
method will be discussed.

x and the relative thicknesses
generalizations of the present
define a reference phase angle
The various values of x which correspond to a closed polygon

will be denoted by x', x", x'", ... the corresponding wavelengths being
Then we state the zero conditions (dropping the minus sign
A', A", A'",
ci
>
c2
>
with the sines)

rt
+ r2 cos (xc ) + r 3 cos [x(c i + c 2 )] +

+ rk+1 cos [x(c x + c 2 + ... + ck)] =
+
(3-40a, b)
r 2 sin (xc t )
r 3 sin [x(c t
rk+1 sin [x(c t
c2
+ c 2 )] +
+ ... ck ) =
where the c are known and x is yet to be chosen.

Every time we choose a value of x, we obtain two equations of the
type (3-40a, b), provided x does not equal a multiple of n. In the latter case
only the equation (3-40a)
is
added, having coefficients
with the
/.
The unknown quantities are the Fresnel coefficients r. However, we

must not set up as many equations as there are unknowns. One reason is
purely algebraic: a complete system of linear equations with zero right-hand
115
sides has only the trivial solution r = r = ... r = 0. One might generalize
t
2
k
the conditions (3-40a, b) in that the right-hand sides are small quantities.
Then the algebraic limitation would fall, but there is always another
practical aspect
which must be respected. This
best seen
is
by developing the
following pattern:
n_,
*=
Multiplying
all
nv
"^-r-fw,-,
=>
(3-41)
the equations after the implication sign yields the relation
*+!
* +1
1 - r.
= n-n-ro
"g
(3-42)
This means that any set
must
{/} found as a solution of the algebraic equations

inbetween the given outer indices n
n g by Eq. (3-42).
way of securing this is to have at least one equation less than there
fit
are unknowns. Clearly, for an even
number of
layers k,
we have
of equations of the type (3-40a,
b), for
k odd we take
it/2 pairs
pairs of this
type plus one equation of the type
fi
r2
r 3 ...
rk+l =
where the signs are determined by factors cos (n!c B ).
Each
time, there are
ratios of the r v
may be
unknowns
k equations and only the
for
determined.
Let us therefore choose, for example, r l as the reference quantity and

define
Pv
= -J-,
1,2,3,
...,fe
(3-43)
'v
It is then a straightforward matter to solve the algebraic system by

Cramer's rule for p 2 p 3 ..., p k+1 (p x being by definition unity).
E.g. for k = 3 we have
,
rx
+ r 3 cos (c x + c 2 ) x' + r4 cos (c + c 2 + c 3 ) x' =

r 2 sin c x' + r 3 sin (c t + c 2 ) x' + r sin (c + c 2 + c ) x' =
4
3
+ r2 cos c^n + r 3 cos (c + c 2 ) + r4 cos (c + c 2 + c 3 ) =
r2
cos c^x'
rt
jt
ti
(3-44)
116
the solutions being
+ c 2 )x',
+ c 2 ) x',
+ c 2 )k,
-cosc^', cos(c t
P2
-sinc^', sin(c t
cosCiit,
and
1,
cos (c x
0,
sin (c t
1,
cos(c!
similarly for p 3
Given now
all
p4
all
+
+
+
We do
by a
sin (c t
c 2 )ti,
cos(c x
c2
c2
c2
c2
+
+
+
c 3 )x'
c 3 ) x'
c3)
Jt
c 3 ) *'
c 3 ) x'
c 3 )ir
1,2,3,
we
...,fc
from
extract
(3-43)
(3-45)
'-l
these equations one obtains
(3-45')
it
rt
normal form, because

method in the interval
into
trial-and-error
an algebraic equation of (k
Having thus found
by
c2
for r B (3-41),
-i>
essentially
not put
+
+
+
c 2 ) x',
is
+
+
+
c 2 ) x', cos (c t
and writing
This
cos(c!
sin (c t
c2
the p
Pv
Multiplying
cos(c t
+
+
+
cosCCi
r lt all the
(3-45), the condition n k+l
nv
it
may
<
rx
l)-th order for r t
conveiently be solved
|
1, 2, ...,
<
1.
computed
are
n g being automatically secured.
remains to say some more on the choice of the x. The trigonometric

coefficients in equations (3-40a, b) are symmetrical about the value n. If,
It
with some positive

values used to set
y'
>
y"
>
0,
x'
y'
and x"
it
four equations of the type (3-40a, b) for a four-layer
up
system, then these will automatically also be satisfied, with the

the symmetrical values x"
<
x"
<
x. This
is
=n +
y",
y',
rc
-y
y'
it
x'
same
<
x"
rv
<
for
<
Argand diagram.
holds that
A'
>
A"
>
(3-46)
A"
This shows that with a four-layer
to (3-46).
where
the algebra of toppling over the
Denoting the corresponding wavelengths accordingly,

> A > I" > A' and further
in the q(x) diagram,
two
y" are
Jt
y"
we may have
Aq
tc
-y
four discrete zero points
which are distributed in the optical spectrum according
The
distribution of the zero points in the phase diagram
in Fig. 3-19. (Since the phase
as examples of
computed
shown
is
diagrams of tuned multilayers are of necessity
symmetrical about the value x
117
be shown
n, the actual reflection curves to
results will
be drawn only in the interval
it.)
The
central point
x = n
is
not automatically a point of zero
reflection.
numbers of layers. If we have five

layers then the system of equations (3-40a, b) must be augmented by one
which is only possible by choosing x" = jt. The centre n is then a zero point.
Proceeding to six layers, we cannot choose Jt a second time, so we must
abolish the centre and choose x'" n y'", having then six zero points at
This
is
typical for all cases with even
We
have thus developed
all
the facts necessary to have the design
To summarize:
procedure programmed for an automatic computer.
The input data are the number of layers k, the integral ratios c 1 ,c 2 ...,
c k and the values of the phase angles x',x" ... in the unit layer. For a
,
. .
given set {c}, the
x',
x"
...
may
of course be distributed differently in
various ways.
The computer
side of (3-45').
By
function the value
up the
iteration the value
njn
set {c u } several distributions
solution {n l ,n 2
logical point of
e,
<
rv
<
is
found, giving this
computed by
(3-45).
conduct the study systematically, inserting for a given

x',x"
...,
for several substrate indices (e.g. w

g
interval (x'
rational function
Finally the refractive indices are

It is possible to
Each
and uses
on the right-hand
solves algebraic systems of the kind (3-40a, b)
the values of p obtained to set
...,
nk }
and to repeat the whole procedure

1.4
is liable
1.8).
to assessment from the techno-
view and to a spectral check by computing q(x) in a larger

x'
e)
in order to see the continuous shape of a curve
which was synthetized by discrete points. (It was stated in the introduction
we risk undue oscillations between the zero-points.)
that
Note: In using the geometric interpretation, we have regarded
x = xy
as the unit phase angle. This has facilitated the drawing of particular situations. In the analytical design we
proceed quite formally and guide the choice
Fig. 3-19 Typical distribution of zero
points with a four-layer.
118
simply by spectral demands according to
of the
x',
(3-46).
When drawing the Argand diagram for any
x"
...
in the unit layer
of the solutions obtained,
we compute the rv from the n v and for the closed conditions lay off the angles
xv = c v x', c vx" etc., v = 1, 2, ..., k.
The theory of discrete achromatization may also be exploited in its
general terms to achieve an important picture of a class of tuned anti-
be developed in the next paragraphs.
reflection systems. This will
3.3.3
Examples of use
Double-layer combinations
We
of discrete achromatization in the simple case
shall start the study
of a two-layer tuned in the ratio 1:1.
c2
1,
and
We
then have in (3-40a, b) c t
easily find
rjr 2
The closed Argand diagram
therefore
is
rjr 3
2cosx
an
(3-47a, b)
isosceles triangle with r y
r3
This equality implies in (3-41) that
n t n2
n ng
This condition secures two zero minima at
and
Note: The condition (3-48)
tion in
(3-47a),
where
rx
stringent in the visible spectrum, because
is
one of the
number of other
in detail various analyses,
Since the point
check
its
results to follow. Besides,
which sometimes lead to
is
This value will be zero
h +
n\ h )
if
nl
(n
same accuracy
as the geometric
2-
also instructive to carry out
this two-layer design,
The
(n
,A
we
Using (3-19) and (3-48) we have
2
3
= [ (".M'-KK)'2 ) = ( nt-n n g
2
\(i/"2) + (o/ g ) /
V t + 0g
found to equal
+ V n g)
it is
unrealistic indices of refraction.
not under control in
value in terms of n t
e(w)
(V n o
x given by
must be smaller than the hardly attainable \]n% n There is more scope for exploitathe infrared, where substrate indices with n = 4.0 or more appear. The same
g
applies to a
shall
x',
determined by the choice of n x , n 2
r 2 are
indices
(3-48)
= tj(n%n%). The
+ nj 4) 2 which
,
is
ratio (3-47a)
is
that x'
may
then be
identical to 1/2 to the
mean ^/(n ng) is equal to
practical inference
the
harmonic mean
in (3-47a), so that
119
two zeros coalesce into one located at the centre of the phase diagram.
ir is computed as curve (D in Fig. 3-20.
With t increasing the central hill grows and soon reaches the value
for a blank substrate. This occurs for n l = n 2 = V(M w o)> when the layer is
g
effectively a single A/2 film. The phase diagram is then periodic in
< x< n
and a zero minimum occurs at x = jc/2, where the film is a quarterwave.
(Curve @ .) An intermediate case of a central maximum accompanied by
intermediate band width is shown as curve (D
the
An
example for the
Fig. 3-20
A/4A/4 achromatic
two-layers
of various bandwidths and ripple on

substrate n
n2
2.83;
4.0.
! =
More
n = 1.413,
1
n2
1.6,
n2
n1
= V"g = 20
= 2.5.
>
interesting results are obtained
when
the ratio
is
considered.
(3-40) has a solution
rjr2
sin2x' _
= -
No
short cut
We
is
r t lr 3
2cosx' =.
2 cos y'
(3-49)
sin3y'
sin3x'
numerically.
sin2y'
possible as with
and
results
reproduce from Vasicek's paper
[23]
have to be solved
a typical table for
light glass. (Table 3-5.)
x = 180, the central maximum is

when applied alone. The dividend of
have two zero minima on both sides of the value
Since the second layer

as good as the
using the double layer
Qo
[("?
is
minimum of
o)
(nl
to
is
latent at
layer t
n )f.
Table 3-5
Refractive indices of a
Kg
2 achromatic two-layer (after VaSilek).
1.6
"l
1.1247
1.1350
1.1500
1.2000
1.2500
1.2649
1.3000
"2
1.4226
1.4097
1.3913
1.3333
1.2800
1.2649
1.2308
x'O
180.00
148.99
133.14
106.97
93.10
90.00
83.88
1.3500
1.1852
77.10
120
Technological considerations raise the question as to what can reason-
1.38 (MgF 2 ). As was first shown by Pohlack,

some tolerance on the index n 2 which may well be lower than
the value required by discrete achromatization. The zero minima are lost
ably be combined with n x
there
[24],
is
without seriously affecting the broad-band antireflection character of the

layer.
It
and
may be
1.85
is
good
same materials
Fig. 3-21
A/4
is
1.7/1.52.
A compromise design for
on
result for
:
of the
A A/4 A/2 two-layer with

= \Av ("g = l-^)> *ê free va u6 of
Fig. 3-22
light
"l
the
1/1.38
1.7/1.52;
(D
same index combination produced in the
1
anything between 1.7
Curve (D in Fig. 3-21 shows the

(For comparison the tuning 1
restated here from Fig. 3-15 as curve (2).)
A/2 achromatic two-layer
glass:
1.65),
for the A/2 layer.
a combination 1/1.38
<
stated that for light glasses (

g
'
n 2 controlling the
minimum
tuning.
at
flatness of the zero
180.
n 2 = 1.661
the
n2 =
obtained by discrete achromatization
maximally
flat case; (J)
3)
1.8;
2.0.
chosen as V(M o" g)> tne two zeros are forced to coalesce
A
A
combination with refractive
to one point at x = n. In fact, any
If the value n t is
indices y/(n n^) n 2 has a zero at
double zero corresponding to a

of discrete achromatization ( 2
makes
the
n (curves
specific value
minimum maximally
1.6.6
for n
flat in
(2)
1.5,
One
little
in Fig. 3-22).
<3)
= landn
the sense that both the
second derivatives vanish (curve ). However,

means of achieving achromatism.
of
and
The
of n 2 obtained by the method
this
is
=1.225),
first
and the
only a moderate
could also contemplate the converse tuning ratio 2:1, but this
interest for the practice. If the residual hill at
is
is
to be small,

the inside A/4 layer
121
must have a low index of
by discrete achromatization
is
<
n2 ,
it
will
refraction. If the n t required
be unrealistic.
If n x
>
n2
we
an air-high-low-glass combination which substantially enhances

reflectivity for phase angles where the outer layer is approximately quarterwave. The value g (n) would be a relative minimum in an overally bad antihave
reflection curve.
Three-layer combinations
Turning
1
1,
now
to the three-layer combinations in the basic tuning
we can compute from
(3-44) after a
moderate
effort
cossin y'/2
3x'
^-=1
(3-50)
sin 3 y'/2
cos
whence
r2
this
=r 3
rx
(3-51)
r4
implying for the refractive indices
l3^=2 ="0g
Fig. 3-23a, b Deltoid
Argand diagrams
(3-52)
for a
three-layer.
Eqs. (3-51)
mean
that the closed
Argand diagram
is
a symmetrical
deltoid.
If the
sequence of refractive indices
r v are negative
internal angle
is
and the
y'
congruent triangle and
is
deltoid has the
monotonically increasing,
form depicted
in
all
the
Fig. 3-23a. Its
x' at all apexes, x' = n + y' would define

x = n yields the third degenerate form of
it.
the
122
If
<
configuration
>
nt
n2
>
n3
<
ng
and
r2
are positive and the basic
r3
may
given by Fig. 3-23b. Even this
is
be regarded as a gene-
ralized deltoid. (In fact, even the isosceles triangle of the
nation
is
The
combi-
a deltoid of a kind.)
idea of deltoids was introduced into the theory of discrete achro-
matization by Vagicek in his treatment of double- and triple-layer antiit may be pursued up to any
1:1:1... tuning and that it can spare us the
of systems formed by the cumulation of (3-40a, b).
reflection coatings. It is
number of films
our aim to show
in the basic
tedious solutions
Fig. 3-24
A/4 A/4
Q> 1.47 2
Achromatic A/4
three-layers
on n
4.0:
1.38 2.0 2.9;

2.0 2.0
(degenerate case).
2.7,
2.0,
(J)
we first computed (3-50) and then arrived at the

and the simple rule (3-52) for the refractive indices.
In the present case

deltoid property (3-51)
It
remains to determine the location x' of the outer zeros.
scheme of the type

we assume the property (3-51) and write first the two
Taking the hint that a deltoid

(3-40a, b) with c
1,
fits
into every
equations of (3-44) as
r t (l
cos
3jc')
r t sin 3x'
r 2 (cos x'
r 2 (sin x'
cos 2x')
sin 2x')
Both these equations represent one and the same

r 1 cos
The angle
It is
x' fitting here is
x
3
r 2 cos
x
1
in
relation
determined by the formula
now clear that choosing the n v by (3-52) we
Argand diagram
two congruent
are in a position to close the
configurations.
The degenerate configuration
123
also secured, because the conditions
is
(3-52) are compatible with the condition for zero reflection of a three-layer
at
x =
Jt
= V(w ow g)-
n 1 n 3 jn 2
Checking the various combinations of refractive indices numerically,
one
is
led to the conclusion that
tonically
clear in
most
it is
the step-up designs proceeding
mono-
from n to n% that behave well between the zeros. (It will become
9.2 that a step-up design imitating an exponential index profile is
effective).
Once again, the conditions (3-52) are stringent for the visible spectrum,
since the same condition is imposed on n 2 as with a single layer. In addition,
either n t or n 3 must be still smaller.
Examples for the ir are computed as cases , (2> in Fig. 3-24. The
subsidiary
maximum
inbetween the zeros
A-layer with a zero
minimum.
Its
n3
2,
phase diagram
is
condensed to the
by the relationship
affected
is
between n 1 and n 3 Taking the drastic example n l
one has a single
0120 and then repeats itself. This gives three zeros at 60, 180
and 300 with subsidiary maxima equal to blank-substrate reflection (case ).
The other extreme is n 1 1, 3 = 4. The system degrades to a single
period
A/4-layer with
The
one zero minimum
at 180 (not shown).
For the intermediate cases the outer zeros lie between 60 and 240.
maxima. In the example (D
closer they are, the smaller the subsidiary
the indices were chosen so as to approximately
fit
onto an exponential
transient curve between the values n Q

4.0.
1 and n
%
The second case of interest with a three-layer is the tuning ratio
The
p are general functions of the x'
and no
simplification
is
1:2:3.
possible.
reproduce the complete Table 3-6 computed by Vagicek.
Table 3-6
Refractive indices of a
ng
3 achromatic three-layer (after Vasicek).
1.6
"l
1.3375
1.3486
1.3728
1.4286
1.6200
"2
2.2512
2.2253
2.1932
2.1840
2.3414
"3
x'
1.6983
170
1.7114
160
1.7407
150
1.8090
140
2.0451
130
We
124
The corresponding
reflectances are
shown
respect.
On
ripple at
the contrary, the
The
in Fig. 3-25.
increases with the band-width, but only the last case
three cases have practically
first
ripple
critical in this
is
no
visible
all.
some tolerance on the refractive indices if the condition

The results presented may guide the development
of convenient practical combinations of about the same performance.
Again, there
of strict zeros
As
is
is
abolished.
we choose
the next item of interest
the ratio
Although
antireflection triple-layers of this type are widely referred to in the literature,
seems to have escaped attention.
their exact characteristic
The
story begins
by solving
(3-44) with c x
c3
1,
c2
2,
when one
obtains
-rjr 2 = rjr 3 =
This means
r2
= r3
rx
r4
rjr*
= -1
(3-54a, b)
2cosx
the implication for the refractive indices
being
g
n3
Obviously the case
1:2:1
considered from the viewpoint of discrete
achromatization degenerates to the following symmetrical scheme of a

3-layer
njri
ri
ri\n
AAA
4
at x'
and
n
180 (seen by amalgamation). To obtain another

one has to use (3-54a) to compute
x",
+ q
,1
E.g. with n
Cases
like
1,52, ri
and
1.7
shown as
this have no
responding curve
having a safe zero at x
two zeros
is
x'
.n.-n'
+ ri
2 -*
ng
135
cos x
we have
ri
1.99.
The
cor-
(D in Fig. 3-26.
practical importance (because
one does not
insert antireflection layers between two identical media), but this does not
mean
is
that the tuning
to adopt
should be completely discarded. The point
a flat curve on a very low level and

an appropriate design approach. The idea is very simple:
to admit small non-zero
minima or
The
180
125
central layer being latent, the condition for
an exact zero at
is
i2
n2 n 3
n_
~~
n3
ljh_
nt
(3-55)
(The system must formally be considered as a four-layer with identical

internal indices.)
With various values of n 2 this zero will remain fixed, but the overall
will change. (A typical reasoning of thin film theory when,
shape of the curve

ever a A/2-layer
is
used to correct the curve of a tuned system, see
3.2.5.)
A/2
Achromatic A/4
3A/4
on n = 1 .6 with different
Fig. 3-25
three-layers
bandwidth and
ripple:
1.349 2.251 1.698,
2.225 1.711;
2.193 1.741,
(3)1.429 2.1641.909,
Vasicek).
D 1.620 2.341 2.045
(2)1.349
(3)1.373
(after
Fig. 3-26
The
A/4
A/2 A/4 case of
achromatized antireflection:
degenerate
achromatization;
out
@ one-point zero
discrete
flattened
by a central A/2 layer
(after
Cox
&
Hass).
126
It is
a simple matter to run, with an automatic computer, a set of values n 2
for various twins i/n 3 obeying (3-55)
& Hass,
approach adopted by Cox
and
see
what happens. This was the
[25].
convenient combination for light glass (1.50) in the visible
example, n x
One does not
1.38,
n3
1.7
and n 2
lying about 2. (curve
<2>
for
obtain true zero side points (which would be in contradiction
to the above), but the flattening effect over the affiliated curve
is
is,
in Fig. 3-26).
<2>
in Fig. 3-15
very pronounced. Designs of this kind are even considered as superior to
the
1:2:3
combinations with true zeros (possible technological problems
with the thick
3 A-layer with no
compensation in a broader minimum).
We shall take a third look at the case 1:2:1
within the framework of
the four-layer.
Four-layer combinations
now
Let us
consider a A/4
A/4
A/4
A/4 layer.
We
shall
have
recourse to the deltoid concept and seek a short-cut solution of the two
on the assumption
pairs of equations (3-40a, b)
rt
rs
r2
r4
r 3 free,
this leading to the conditions
"l4
now
(3-40a, b) are
23
(3-56)
"o g
represented by one equation

2r x cos 2x'
2r 2 cos x'
r3
or
4r t cos 2 x'
which
will
be
2r 2 cos x'
r3
2r t
(3-57)
satisfied if
cos
x'
-r*M +**-+)
4r t
Both values of cos

four zero points
x', x",
Examples for
in Fig. 3-27.
realistic.
The
An
this
Ir
x' are
compatible with the problem so that we have
x" x, as expected with a four-layer.
kind of antireflection are shown as curves
substrate n g
4.0
indices were chosen in accordance with (3-56), the zero points
were found without solving (3-58) by simply computing
(3-57)
q(x). Obviously,
again obtained with a step-up design (case ).

extension
important
of the theory can be made considering that
true antireflection
An
(D
was chosen to make things more
now
is
stands for two equations.
We may
therefore impose a further
127
condition without overdetermining the system of r v
odd
cases) q(k)
The
0.
inference by (3-23)
is
We
choose (as in the
that
n,n
1"3
(3-59)
n-,n
2"4
Combining
If !
with (3-56) leads to the following
this
is
of formulae:
set
make
chosen,
60)
Then
o
n
nt
= V"o
~V n
~ "o"gV w o
V"g + n ogV n o
w iV n g
g
'
w.
Mi
V"o +V"g
'
(3-61)
\
\
V
"\*.
/
/r
9- Vl/'/
VA\/^
w
^
Fig. 3-27 Various deltoid solutions for
Q) 1/1 .65
1.7
.82
Fig. 3-28 Five-point antireflection
by
a four-layer of the deltoid design:
layer:
2.35
2.22
1/1.38 1.82 2.2
0) 1/2.72
(3)
1.77 2.262
1.951 2.05
1/1.413 2 2
<D 1/1.6 2.262 1.757
1.47/4.0,
<D 1/1.25
2.9/4.0,
(2)
2.9/4.0.
1/1-38
3.2/4.0,
2.9/4.0,
2.83/4.0,
(3)
2.5/4.0.
This five-point antireflection by a four-layer of the deltoid design

illustrated
by
x =
180 so that in practice
five,
the central one being broader than usual.
lating
is
The inner zeros converge toward

one has three minima of reflection instead of
several curves in Fig. 3-28.
an exponential
In this respect
it
profile is
most
Of all
the designs, that simu-
efficient (case (D).
isinteresting to try the additional restriction n 2
This effectively leads to a three-layer tuned as

generate in the previous approach.
1,
n3
which proved de-
128
This
is
"1
not the case here. The condition can be met
t/("o"g).
= V("o" g),
This particular choice inside the scheme (3-61) leads to

r3
0,
and
(3-58)
now
yields x'
180, x"
if
tj'(r>o n l)
r1
(3
r2
"
62 )
r4
r5 ;
60.
X
T
A* I
180
120
Fig. 3-29 Five-point antireflection
a four-layer in the
by
tuning
derived from a six-layer deltoid case:
2.35
2.22
2.11
1/1.413
(3)1/1.413 2.11
2.83/4.0,
1/1.413 2.22
1/1.413 2.35
@ 1/1.4132.0 2.0
2.83/4.0,
(D 1/1.413
1.7
1/1.413
1.8
2.83/4.0.
1.9
2.83/4.0,
(2)
(3,
2.83/4.0,
1.9
120
k"
180
<S>
1.8
(g>
1.7
2.83/4.0,
2.83/4.0,
a reference curve from Fig. 3-20,
is
where
The
and
it
was
form of a rhombus with
deltoid assumes the
labelled as
internal angles 120
60.
The
central
minimum
is
a triple zero. Since such a zero cannot be
postulated in the original theory of the three-layer tuned as
1,
the
present three zeros 60, 180, 240 could not be predicted there.
This case
is
exemplified by curve
(3)
in Fig. 3-28.
Only the
ir
application
can be contemplated.
As a final item we shall deduce a certain four-layer combination based

on the postulate of a A/4 six-layer having an additional zero at x = 180
and simultaneously fulfilling the condition n 2 = n 3 4 = n s Then, we
actually have a four-layer in the tuning 1 2 2 1.
Writing for the 6-layer deltoid n t n 6 = n 2 n 5 = 3 4 = n n g and also
,
postulating
"l35
n2 n4 n 6
129
one arrives at the conditions

free;
-^V(o\),
n ng
= v-A/Ov!)
"2
n n n
(3-63)
chosen as ^Jnln g then 2
If j
is
being
free.
Also n.
n-,.
n5
njn 2 n 2
,
still
A series of solutions of this kind is shown in Fig. 3-29a, b. The step-up

medium performance over an extremely broad region;
inverting the inner indices (case (D) yields excellent antireflection over one
octave about x = 180.
design
A/4
the
<3)
gives a
Making n 2 = n 3 = 4 = n s = 2 effectively leads to a three-layer

A A/4. This curve is shown as in Fig. 3-29c. Simultaneously,
curve (D of Fig. 3-20 is again shown (dashed), because the 1 4 1 case
under consideration
may
of the design 1/1.413
that the choice n 2
be regarded as an internal extension by a A-layer
2.83/4.0 in the
2 for the A-layer
is
1
ltuning. Numerical checks show
an optimum where the configuration
:
and height of the maxima of the three-layer are concerned.

The examples shown more or less exhaust the possibilities of this kind
of antireflection. Very little additional material is to be expected from
repeated solutions of the system (3-40a, b) with various tuning ratios, at
least for glass substrates.
Let us give some modest examples:

Table 3-7
Achromatic three-layers with some unorthodox

tuning ratios.
tuning
1:2:2
1:3:1
1:3:3
2:3:1
i "2--3 4
1.330
2.00
1.600
1.8
1.116
1.265
1.433
1.6
1.250
1.520
1.62
1.8
0.868
1.000
1.303
1.7
An unusual tuning, as in the last case, leads to a non-physical

index.
refractive
130
of generalizing the present theory. One is to

of zero reflection in the discrete points.
condition
abolish the stringent
There are two
While there
is
possibilities
only one complex
number
zero, in the
new approach any
result Jgexpid with small q and arbitrary 5 could be the sum of (3-37).
For reasons of continuity, however, one would not obtain anything sub-
from the basic theory.
stantially different
refractivity
from the
On
ideal designs, motivated
the other hand, deviations in
by technological
be numerically checked and assessed in terms of a
reasons,
maximum
may
non-zero q
allowed in the pass-band.
The other approach follows this idea: if experience shows

small, let us fix it by a value 1.38, say, thus also fixing r 1
that n Y
is
too
Let us have, for example, three layers altogether. Fixing
We
rt
makes
must drop one
the system (3-44) overestimated in the optical sense.

equation at the cost of having chosen n^ The only equation to be sacrificed
.
of course the third one because otherwise we would lose two zero points
n y and n + y instead of one.
We of course lose control over reflectivity in the entire interval
achromatization
(n _ y, 7! + y) so that the situation is analogous to discrete
by a two-layer, but we expend three layers for the purpose now, with one
is
index chosen conveniently. There
is
therefore a chance of finding
new
by two discrete points.

Anders,
[26], computed a three-layer in the tuning 1:2:1,
In this way
=
1.39 and putting up with only two zero points. The result
prescribing n t
was n = 2.12, n = 1.63 (with n = 1.52). This is another example of
solutions to achromatization
how
1:2:1 combination may
be
listed
among
succesful antireflection
designs without actually being subjected to the singularity mentioned
on
p. 124.
3.4
Some
detuned multilayers
There being no general theory of detuned multilayers, the classification

of the various systems and methods of approach is difficult. In this section
we make a more or less random selection of interesting systems and methods.
Note:
The index combination obtained
is
very near to the case
shown as curve Q)
Fig. 3-26, but this does not diminish the importance of this generalized
situations.
in
approach for other

3.4.1
The simulated
antireflection bi-Iayer
A double-layer with tuning

is
known
131
and
= ^{n /)
one wavelength. Let us try
refractive indices n 2 \n
x
to posses a zero point of reflection at
to solve the dual
problem of securing one zero point with a given pair of

computed from the zero
refractive indices, the optical thicknesses being
condition.
Following a procedure due to King & Lockhart, [27], we establish

the
formula for the complex reflectivity of a double-layer in terms of
the input
admittance.
Numbering for the moment the layers from the substrate upwards and
considering in general either of the polarizations in oblique incidence,
we have
Y( 3)
(2)
= Y +jy2 tan<? 2
Y2 + jY< 2 tan cp 2
(2)
yp+JMan^
Y + j^tan^
'
>
and
Y< 3 >]
Y2 (Y3 - Y
[Y3
(3 " 64)
Y< 3 >] so that
+ (Y Y 22 - Y3 Y\) tan <Pl tan q> 2 +

+ )[Y2 (Y Y3 - Y\) tan cPl + Y (Y Y3 - Y 22 ) tan + Y (Y Y3 + Y 22 )t<m<p 2
[î
[Y3
7l
The conditions for zero reflectivity are obtained by separately setting

the real and imaginary parts of the numerator equal to zero.
This yields
two conditions for the two quantities tan (p tan cp
l
2
Coming back
to the original
tan,,,
= r3
tanffl!
numbering of media we obtain
(n -
/f
-tan(? 2
W; -
r.r.)
Y^ Y2 ~ Y 7^
Y2 (Y\-Y Y% )
(3-65a) will have a practical meaning, if the square root is real. The implication for normal incidence from the air is that either one or all three
of the
following inequalities must hold:

"i
The
that
> V" g
case "all three"
make
it
>
yfn t
n 2 \ ni
>
yfn t
(3-66a, b, c)
is just in agreement with the technological facts

impossible to obtain a virtual zero in the visible when using A/4
132
or A/4
from
Thus the case under consideration is a
A/4 layers.
suitable expedient
this situation.
Denoting the main solution of (3-65a) with the sign + by q> 2 this angle
and n/2, the minus sign yields <p"2 = tc - <p'2 The corlying between
when
responding solutions of (3-65b) are then <p[ lying between n/2 and n
,
all three inequalities (3-66) are valid,
and
<p"[
<p\
The optical thicknesses corresponding to a given solution (q>i , q> 2 ),

wavelength of
expressed as general multiples of A or A /4, where A is the
zero reflectivity, are
n v fc v
The
first
'
360
(3-67)
l,2
90
of the above solutions therefore leads to a thinner than A/4
other solution.
inner layer and a thicker outer layer, and conversely for the
shows that the latter is more spectrally selective about the zero
Experience
indices for
point and will therefore be discarded (at least with the refractive
the visible region).
The tuning of the individual solutions depends on the substrate index.

Table 3-8 shows computed results for the index combination n x = 1.38,
n2
2.22.
Table 3-8
ratios for the simulated
Tuning
2
2.22
on various
"
Cl
c2
=
=
<pJ90
<p 2 /90
representative curve
1.516
effect
with n l
1.38,
1.626
1.558
1.755
1.288
1.251
1.220
1.143
0.229
0.208
0.206
0.204
is
Evaporating on various
The
bi-layer
glasses.
shown
as
in
Fig. 3-30.
glasses actually calls for fine readjustments.
of keeping one design for various glasses
destroying the zero reflection as in shifting
it
is
not so
much
in
spectrally. This is illustrated
the
by the curves @ - in the same figure. However, one may disregard
the
here
as
good
as
almost
heavy glasses, because a single film with 1.38 is
the
design
for
double layer. For the region 1.5 < n g < 1.65 a compromise
133
may be accepted. While a single-layer antireflection coating

A = A/4 applied to various glasses always reflects the same
central n g
with
a given
hue,
only the saturation increasing with higher n g , the double-layer shifts in hue,
keeping a relatively high saturation.
The energy
detector,
is
effect in
given by
compared with
type of coating
white
1.5 percent for

is
light,
evaluated with respect to the eye as
a typical loss of 0.5 percent per surface of 1.5-glass,

a single
MgF 2
layer.
A disadvantage
of this
a stronger tendency towards cumulative tint in transmitted
light when
more surfaces with the same coating are used in tandem. (See 1 2.4.)
note should now be added on the designation for this layer used in
the caption.
The inner
ferences. Its
layer of this design
function
may
reflection of the glass
index layer
is
is
so thin that
it
does not exhibit inter-
be interpreted as helping to increase the Fresnel
boundary so that the subsequently deposited low-
deceived into thinking that
it is
antireflecting a heavier glass
120
y>
f>
Fig. 3-30 (a)
andn g
150
130
The simulated antireflection bi-layer designed for n i = 1.38, n 2 =

= 1. 52. (b) The effect of using the same design on various glasses.
2.22
134
than there actually
This led H. Osterberg,
is.
which
that simulate monolayers",
to speak of "bi-layers
[28],
we adopted.
fitting characterization
This bi-layer has been given wide attention in the literature and
widely produced. Further details
may
In particular, a class of solutions

inequalities (3-66a, c)
may
is
is
be found in MacLeod's book,
also
[29].
possible in the infra-red where the
be inverted owing to the high value of the n

g
available.
3.4.2 Design of detuned three-layer antireflection coatings

It is difficult
to obtain a general theory of a detuned three-layer coating.
Methods so far published are always devised for a certain purpose and have
some more or less specific features. To illustrate the situation we briefly
mention two methods concerning the analytical design of three-layer antireflection coatings.
The
first
method
is
due to Thetford,
[30],
and
is
based on the idea of
regarding the three-layer as a Fabry-Perot type interference

layer of index n 2 being the spacer layer.
be regarded as subsystems
Denoting accordingly the

r R exp
and
layers w x
the middle
and n 2 may
introduced in Sect. 2.6.1.
II in the sense
by
partial reflection coefficients
Q5 UR) and invoking
in Sect. 6-2, the
The outer
filter,
r, R
exp
(j^
),
the relationships (6-17), (6-19) to be derived
numerator of (2- 29a) may be written as

~J*IR
MR c
"T"
<J*IRr
The conditions
LMR
,J28i
c
]]B
i(iue.-2z)
MIR e
j(<IL+*IIR-2<?2)l
J
for zero reflectance are
MR = ML = MIR
îl
d UR
The internal reflection

beam approximation as
Mi.e
j * ,L
r 21
r 10
2q> 2
I2n,
coefficients are
e" 2j>1
0,
now
M e* R =
1,
(3-68a, b)
...
expressed by the double-
r 23
ê" ^
2
(3-69a, b)
where
v
"
nv
135
numbering of
are the Fresnel amplitudes involved. (The

sign of the phase-shifts S
 3
with (3-69a, b) for a single wavelength,
number of q> 1 and
In fact, there are a large
i.e.
cp 3
for one set

which make
(3-68a) valid. Generally, however, the reflectance does not remain
low over
a broad band of wavelengths. For this reason the analysis was aimed at
obtaining zero reflectance in two wavelengths and, from the
many
existing
solutions to this requirement, to choose those which remain low inbetween.
The point
q>'
q>\,
for A
is
to graphically equate (3-69a) to (3-69b) with such a pair
understood to operate at some A
A',
that the corresponding pair
A":
n
again secures the equality (3-68a). Each time the S are also
<p'
q>2
known and
Since (3-68a) only concerns the moduli r and not the phases
are
the
are determined by (3-68b).
many
One
starting pairs q>\
selection process
within a net of values
q>\,
to simultaneously obtain g(A')
is
(p'
there
refer the reader to [29]
g(A")
A". It remains to discard those cases,
X',
where large intermediate values
We
S,
to choose from.
<p'
<
q(X), X'
and
<
X", occur.
[30] for full details
of the method and
only quote one of the successfull designs:
1/1.38-
2.1
-1.8/1.52
0.22-0.359-0.152 x A
Note: In order to translate the definition of the optical thicknesses to
tion of the phase diagrams,
we
multiply
the thicknesses as multiples of A

(0.88
/4.
all
If these
<p
our organiza-
are considered as relative thicknesses
1.436 0.608) the resulting phase diagram
of the original design at the phase angle
fit
the coefficients by four, thus obtaining
rr/2.
g((p)
has the reference value g(A
(See Fig. 3-31.)
Another method of designing a three-layer
antireflection coating with
et at., [31]. The aim

was to obtain a small total optical thickness of the three layers so that there
would be relatively thin physical thicknesses involved when designing for
detuned optical thicknesses was described by Kard
the infra-red.
136
we may
Referring to Problem 2-6,
write the interference matrix of
dielectric stack as
fill
I
\Ji21
J^12\
Hnl^22 +/*i2/*2i
1*22/'
1,
Using (2-27b) with the modified notation for the
Hu +
= 1 and using
some manipulations
Postulating t
("ojii
is
(3-70)
we have
4n n.
= \i?
(n
after
real
n g fi 22 )
(fin
Wo g /*i2)
the unimodularity of (3-70)
- V22) 2 +
G"2i
we obtain
n n g n 12 ) 2
so that the necessary and sufficient conditions for zero reflection (at one
wavelength) are
"o/*ii
g^22
^21
= >W*i2
(3-7 1 a, b)
whatever the index pattern and tuning of the multilayer.
These formulae evidently include as particular cases the conditions

for zero reflection at
q>
nj2 of a tuned stack (see (3-23)).
6
5
4
3
w J
'
90
SiJ
120
<)
5
b)
4
3
2 ~\
1
400
500
600
700
V
Fig. 3-31
A three-layer antireflection
design after Thetford. (a) phase diagram

1
A dOOnm
q(<P), (b) spectral reflectivity
curve g(A)
Kard and
out to solve them for the case of a symme-
set
of general tuning:
trical three-layer
"1
coworkers
his
137
"3
n',
<Pi
<Pi
<?>'>
n",
q> 2
y"
straightforward multiplication of the three matrices (compare also
6.3.1) leads to the
0u =
022
formulae
cos
2<j'
cos
q>"
sin 2q>' sin q>"(n'
n"
2
)
(2n'n")~
(3-72)
M12
' _1
sin 2<p' cos <p"
n' sin
2<jo'
+ (2n'V)
_ *)] sin
2
('
+
H 2l =
_1
[(n'
cos 2q>
+
(3-73)
<p"
n"
9*
+ (In")' [(' 2 +
- (n' - " 2 )] sin <p"
cos
n"
2
)
cos
2<j'
Since the case n
from
(3-7 la)
and
g does not
for antireflection,
call
(3-72) that inevitably n Q
0ii
With equal diagonal terms
fi l2
^22
is
(3-74)
we may
infer
n % and
(3-75)
then the inverse of n 2 i an d
we may
conclude from (3-7 lb)

012
= +(n
g)~
1/2
021
("o" g)
1/2
(3-76a,b)
Eqs. (3-71) (3-76) define the conditions for zero reflectivity in one
Given the refractive indices the tuning may be computed, but one
might also proceed conversely or combine the variations.
point.
In the present case ri and n" will be regarded as given.
The Eqs. (3-72) (3-74) are not independent and we

use only (3-73) and (3-74) to extract the angles
Inserting (3-76a, b) into the left-hand sides of (3-73)
subtracting these
Eliminating
2(p'
and
(3-74)
and
two equations, we obtain
sin cp"
cos
shall actually
tp', q>".
q>"
n"(n'
from
n n g)
(n'
n"
2
)
{n
n tf ' 2
(3-77)
(3-73) or (3-74) leads to a quadratic equation for
with the double root
cos2<p'
(n'
n n g )(n'
n" )(n'
n g)
_1
('
2
n" )~
(3-78)
138
If the resulting optical thicknesses are to
angles
q>',
must
q>"
be as small as possible, both
For
in the first quadrant.
lie
this it is sufficient,
but not
necessary, that
(' 2
(i)
" g)
("'
2
n" )'
>
(3-79)
simultaneously taking the plus sign in (3-77).

(ii)
and
(i)
inequalities for the refractive indices

' 2
They are
first
n',
n ng
(3-78)
<
must be
1.
leads to the following basic
(ii)
n" of this design:
n"
(3-80)
some high g
somewhat stronger
typically to be fulfilled in the infrared with
<
These conditions secure

than at
and
the right-hand sides of (3-77)
Combining the conditions
required, but
it
2q>', <p"
<
n/2 which
is
enables the following useful estimate to be
made: in the expression

q>")
The numerator
is
tan
(2q>'
because with the help
tan
<p") (1
tan
2<p'
x
tan (p")~
now known to be positive. So is

of (3-75) it may be shown to equal
-n") 2
('
(3-81) being thus positive,
of the three-layer
(tan 2<p'
is less
(n'
we may
2
n" )'
A"
is less
the denominator,
>
infer that the total phase thickness
than m/2, which
total optical thickness 2A'
(3-81)
is
than
equivalent to saying that the
Xj4,
which was the goal of the
design.
The authors present
the following example:
1/2.22 (ZnS)
1.4
(MgF 2 ) -
2.22 (ZnS)
0.428
0.131
0.428
4.0 (Ge)
x A
/4
to
00
30
Fig. 3-32
^v
io\
HO
90
60
ISO
p'
A symmetrical detuned three-layer antireflecting germanium

(after
Kard et
al).
IX)
The corresponding
139
curve (Fig. 3-32)
reflectivity
is
practically identical
with that of the single A/4 layer of ZnS. The present design
superior to the single layer. However, there
may
is
not optically
be a substantial technolo-
advantage in replacing a relatively thick A/4 layer in the infra-red
gical
may
with three thinner films of two materials. This
solve problems like
peeling due to unidirectional internal stress in the materials.
The authors
is
bandwidth defined by g > g where g

They obtain rather involved formulae
also analyse the
the reflectivity of the bare substrate.
which we
made by
refrain
from
stating because this a posteriori check can easily be
inspecting the final curve obtained with a computer.
The only thing the designer can do

and n" at the start.
in the
way of the bandwidth
to
is
try various ri
3.4.3
Some
further antireflection multilayers of the detuned
type
A tempting practical problem is to use only two well-behaved materials

to obtain broad-band antireflection. In contrast to the methods discussed
in 3.3 the design
must be made by variation of thicknesses.
minimum number
Experience shows that the

design
is
of layers for an effective
four and that the sequence of refractive indices should start with
the low index next to
air.
The sought design
is
therefore of the type
1(c!L)(c 2 H)(c3L)(c 4 H)G
By extending
his
method described
computer refinement, Thetford arrived

-2.1/1.52 in the tuning
2.12
0.334
in 3.4.2,
and combining
at the design 1/1.38
0.227. It
is
with
restated here in a slightly
different tuning of the third layer (c 3
1.47/2.22 which will be used in several
more examples.
0.4) to
it
2.1 1.38
fit
the index combination

(Fig. 3-33, curve
).
Another approach is to use the results of Sect. 2.6 and manipulate the
Argand diagram so as to yield zero or small reflectivity in at least three
vector configurations,
corresponding to three wavelengths,
A',
A",
A",
conveniently dispersed across the spectrum. Doing this with the above
given index pattern, one inevitably converges to the configuration
{A t
originally
pair
is
(thick);
due to Millendorfer,
shown
as
<2>
in Fig. 3-33.
A 2 A 3 A4
,
[32].
(very thin)}
K typical curve for the adopted index
140
teo
i.
3
2
1:1.7
1 \
no
60
30
ao
fi*
ISO
.?
ao
^
/l
1.8
no p'
Fig. 3-33 (a) antireflection multilayers
H
CD
2.12
0.334
0.227,
on n g
1.52 using
two materials n L
1.47,
2.22 and corrected by detuning:
0.476 0.4 0.2, Q) 1 0.64 0.2 0.75 0.4 0.22,

1
detuned to produce achromatic antireflection:
1.74/1.52 withrelative tuning 1 0.5 : 2 1 curve @,
:
(b) three materials
1.74 2.08
_ _ 2.22 1.71/1.52 with
1/1.38
1/1.38
1.71
relative tuning 0.8
0.5
1curve
141
Manipulating the seven vectors of a six-layer in four properly spaced

wavelengths in the same way the author's laboratory was led to the design
represented-by curve (3) in Fig. 3-33a, with the tuning 1 0.64 0.2 0.75 :
:
0.4
0.22.
spectral widths of these designs
The
ratio of the wavelengths
between which
Ax
reflectivity is
indicated in the figure.
may
be characterized by the
X 2 (or phase angles
lower than
A width of
1.5 is
q> 2
q> t
for that matter)
%. These relative widths are

enough to cover the substantial
part of the spectrum.
The measured eye-matched
integral reflectivity of the designs
shown
between 0.5-0.7 %
bi-layer
is comparable with the integral performance of the simulated
described in 3.4.1. The importance of the extremely flat curves is in reducing
problems of tinted transmission where there are many coated surfaces in
tandem. Also, non-selective radiation detectors may call for broad-band
almost irrespectively of the actual band-width.
is
This
antireflection if
An
low integral
loss is to
be incurred.
objection to these designs could be that
very thin layers of different tuning, but this
is
it is
evaporate
difficult to
only true
when
relying
on
methods alone.
optical monitoring
Rational tuning in a four-layer using three materials was described

in Sect. 3.2.5. We present another case with three materials in a four-layer
combination, which was designed so as to have a simple detuning ratio
1
0.5
1,
[33]. Its
n4
is
characterized by the curve
An improved version is
= 1.71 and c = 0.8, curve .
obtained
3-33b.
performance
when
taking n 3
(3>
in Fig.
2.22, n 2
3.4.4 Beam-splitters corrected
by detuning
simple method of enlarging the reflection level of an alternating

stack (i.e. to achromatize the resulting reflector) is to build up the layers in a
sequence of staggered optical thicknesses. Heavens and Liddell, [34], analysed
the effectivenesss of this approach
on
high-reflectance mirrors.
As many
as 36 layers were used to obtain broad-band reflectors with relative spectral
more and extremely small ripple.

number of layers (having in mind
ripples as large as 5 %) one
admitting
mirrors
and
partially reflecting
neutral tint both in reflection
with
a
semireflectors
may obtain fairly good
and transmission.
widths
2.0 or
Trying the same principle on a small
142
Thus, for example, the system
1/0.5H-0.7L-0.8H-1.1L-1.3H/1.52
=
=
nL
yields
92
<
a half-mirror
<
q>
152,
The deviation
is
oscillating
i.e.
2.22
1.47
between 44 and 54 percent in the interval
in a spectral interval
1.65 (curve
Fig. 3-34).
from the arithmetic progression of the c v

a correction ensuring a balance between the short-wave and long-wave
in the central layer
lobes of the central trough.
Another useful combination may be extracted from the paper
[35],
presenting designs obtained with the aid of an analog digital computer.
Taking the 2.35/1.38 index pair in the tuning

1/1.34H
0.97L
0.61H
0.98L
0.434H/G
one obtains the curve
As a
third
<2> in Fig. 3-34 oscillating between 42 and 46 percent.

example we present a detuned 7-layer obtained by the
iso
f'160
t?
50
iO
3050
60
70
80
SO
no
110
ISO
130 iff 140
by detuning: @
a seven-layer (for the designs see main
Fig. 3-34 Beam-splitters corrected
Q)
five layers,
text).
143
graphical method using the Argand diagram

The detuning is
1/H (0.5L)
with H
2.22, n L
1.47,
[36],
(1.27L) (1.45H) (1.47L) (1.7H)/G
ng
1.62 (curve G) Fig. 3-34).
more pay
Finally let us once
mentioned
attention to the achromatic cube-reflector
has too high a
in 3.2.5. It
as an approximation to g/r.
reflectivity for
a semireflector. Clapham,
introduced a detuning of the central period
LH
such that
its
The modified design 1/LH
optical thickness remained the same.
total
(0.67L)
(1.33H) L (2H)/G then oscillated about the value 50 percent. This reduction
of the reflection
level
in a tuned stack
was
by somewhat impairing the constructive interference

seems to be no general theory or
called spoiling. There
experience with the behaviour of this kind of detuning in various situations,
but this
is
tionone has to invent, even by trial

and store the succesful ones up one's
designers
life
sleeve for other occasions. Part of the
inevitably has to run this way.
3.4.5 Detuning as a
work described in this secand error, various ad hoc procedures
quite in conformity with the style of
means of
interpolating reflection levels
current practical requirement
of specified
reflectivity for
is
to
one wavelength
produce an interference mirror

(e.g. in laser light
experiments,
holography).
Taking the
partial results in
a discrete set of values

ant values
(see, for
is
3-3), in
n/2 yields
which some import-
inevitably led to detuning.
important practical requirement
maximum or minimum in
reached as a
it is
example, Table
<p
may be absent. Trying to interpolate these without having recourse
to further materials, one
An
a quarter-wave system at
only then that the value
Even with
sensitive to
is less
this restriction there are
because one essentially maps
e(<j)
...(c v _
that the given value q
is
a detuned-system curve
many
o((p),
be
because
production errors.
solutions to a given problem,
for systems like
H)(c v L)(c v _ 1 H)...
where most of the c v are unity, some
differ
from unity and one
c v is variable.
g(<p) corresponding to a variable c v displays a number of

If o(<p ) is a convenient maximum
different maxima q at different values <p
value, it is spectrally located by setting the unit optical thickness equal to
The
set
of curves
<jo
360" i X
(Sometimes a minimum
will
do
as well.)
144
More
sets
of interpolating
maximum
values g((Po) are found by taking
further basic systems of different detuning.
Let us, for example, take some interference reflectors for the 10 fim
region supposing the use of germanium as the high-index material ( H
= 3.95) and ZnS (n L = 2.22) as the low-index material. The substrate
=
is
massive germanium.
The tuned system
1 ...
LHL Ge
the following set of levels
yields
(proceeding in the order of evaporation)
36
1.3
73
Values outside of
this
20.5
62
91
97... percent
sequence can be interpolated by the above
mentioned method.
Thus the 50
level
may be

1(0.3H)(l.5L)Ge
<p
Coming
levels
we
find, for
Ge
cp
65 %: 1(1.5H) (0.5L)
Ge
<p
%r1(0.44H)LHL Ge
<p
must
to lower reflectivities one
22 %:
142.5
90
95
example,
by having very few quarterwave
It is
=
=
=
40 %: 1L[0.5 (HL)]
85
ference
by any of the following designs
Ge
1(0.19H) L
For further
realized
1H[0.25 (LHL)]
=
=
=
43
100
85
spoil the constructive inter-
layers, for
Ge
<p
example,
37.5
a simple matter to carry out interpolations of
this
kind with the
help of an automatic computer.
3.4.6
The
sloping edge
As examples of
interference
filters
rather unorthodox detuned designs
The point is to obtain a mild

between the low and high reflectivity
slope long
the interval
levels,
*)
present two
and
enough to span
say 10 and 90 %*.)
cut-off edges, [37].
like 1
we
exhibiting particularly low steepness in the cut-on
60%, then already the simple systems
If the reflectivity interval is small, e.g. 10
HLG,
HLHG
offer
moderate slopes.

First
we
145
whose phase diagram is shown

composed of 13 layers with indices H = 2.35, L
1.52 and having the following optical thicknesses:
describe the design
Fig. 3-35. It is
on
glass G
1/(1.24H) (2.49L) (1.15H) L (1.26H) 1.06(LH) (1.08L)
in the
1.38
(1.07L) (0.84H)
(1.14L)(0.39H)/G
The design has been obtained by automatic refinement of a manually

precorrected system, whose starting design
1/[2(HL)](0.5L)(HL) 5 (0.5H)/G
tOOr
30
Fig. 3-35
90
SO
13-layer detuned to display
150
120
180
an upward edge of mild slope
across a large range of reflectivities.
proved good only because

variation
on the
first
two
it
had
failed to serve a different goal.
1/(1.5H)(2L)(HL) 5 (0.5H)/G
with the reflection curve
simple
layers yielded
(3-82)
in Fig. 3-36. This already resembles a sloping
edge. Further variations were effected to straighten

in Fig. 3-35. This blunt statement
is
it
out to the state shown
the only methodic
comment
the author
can make here.

In the region 20
to a straight line.
<
<p
<
80 the design
The edge may extend over
is
a good approximation
the whole visible spectrum, the
transmission being a slowly increasing function of X.
146
Having
this
This time
we
shall
happens to be
filter, one may develop the

where x(X) would be a slowly decreasing function.
kind of degenerate high pass
desire for a dual design
proceed methodically, trying to
We intuitively suppose the dual system to

other side of what
(p
make
the best of what
at hand.
have the sloping edge on the
of the stop-band in the Fig. 3-35 and choose

90 as a line of symmetry.
Further
we
is left
tentatively
in the present design
We
shall
and
now make
of the functions cos
choose
q>"
<p y ,
<p'
60 as the central working point
120 as that of the sought dual slope.
use of the symmetry and periodicity properties

sin
<p v
taking into consideration that
intervening in the interference matrices,
it is
essentially their absolute values obtained
through squaring and mutual multiplying that determine the energy coefficient.
To make
the reasoning
more
lucid,
of the imperfect but simpler design
we
shall set out to find the dual
(3-82), envisaging its
subsequent cor-
rection.
In the tuning (3-82), the working point 60 implies the following phase
angles in the system
1/90
120
60
30/G
These are visualized as the four vectors

@ in Fig. 3-37a.
The phase angle q>' = 60 in the unit layer of the first design (vector Q>)
30
60
Fig. 3-36 Starting design for the

starting design for the
upward slope
(J), the mirrored
downwards slope
@.
180
b Transposing the working angles between the upward and
Fig. 3-37a,
downward
is
by
slope designs.
definition transferred to the value <p"
dual design, vector

If
120 in the unit layer of the
<D' in Fig. 3-37b.
increasing, the absolute values of cos
<p' is
the same
manner
as
contributes in the
to a
147
downward
when
first
q>"
in the dual design
design to an
upward
is
<p'
and
sin
<p'
behave in
decreasing. Hence, if
q>'
should contribute
slope, <p"
slope in the dual design, provided that the other phase
angles are in their turn properly modified.
Obviously, to satisfy the same argument,

position
is
@'
is
to be transposed to the
Considering the phase angle of G)' as unity, the relative tuning of

120 = 1.25.
150
($>'
Analogously (D
270
(3>
at 150.
120
is
transposed to ', obtaining the relative thickness
2.25.
Finally @' will cooperate properly

The new system therefore reads
at
240 keeping
its
original tuning 2.
1/(2.25H) (2L) (HL) 5 (1.25H)/G
Curve
<2>
in Fig. 3-36 confirms the expectations:
we have obtained
a kind of mirror image of the original curve .
refinement process subsequently led to the design

1/(2.27H) (2L) H[0.87(LH)] (1.02L) [0.9(HL)]
[0.98(HL) 2 ](1.23H)/G
whose
*)
reflectance curve
The author
Messrs.
AGA,
program.
is
shown
(3-83)
in Fig. 3-38.*)
gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of Dr. Roland Jacobsson of

Sweden, who subjected the rough designs to refinement by his computer
148
These sloping filters may serve as a basis for moderate colour conversion
or for the construction of all-dielectric variable beam-splitters. The latter
problem is discussed in [38], where a more sophisticated sloping edge of
exponential upward profile, based on the use of three materials,
is
also
presented.
SO
60
Fig. 3-38
120
The
13-layer
ISO
downward
1BC
210
slope.
3.5 Applications of periodic structures
3.5.1 Interference mirrors.
Low-pass and high-pass
filters
We
have already become acquainted with the basic properties of the

(Sect. 3.2.2 and 3.2.6). In a certain sense it may replace the metallic
stack
A/4
mirror: not only can its reflectivity attain values that are higher than the
best metallic reflections (e.g. 92
falls
short of 100
This property
mirrors
is
is
is
made with
for silver), but the value
by which
it
almost fully available in transmitted light.

typically exploited in laser resonators.
as large a
number
One of
the
of layers as technologically feasible
(e.g. 99.3 %). In the visible region

accomplished with a layer number not substantially in excess
of 20. Adding more layers would only increase scattered light with no
mark.
measurable convergence to the 100
to attain a reflectivity greater than 99

this is usually
The other end of the resonator is provided with a slightly less reflecting
mirror, the transparency of which depends on the type of generation inside
>
149
the resonator. Anything between one and three, or possibly a
percent
may be
required.
The
Great technological care
layer
is
number then goes down
little
more
to 15 or so.*)
required to keep scattering losses (equival-
ent to absorption) below 0.5 %. (See also 5.5.2 and 12.2.)

Since a laser usually generates light at one wavelength at a time, these
interference mirrors are exploited only in a very
narrow part of their stop-
bands.
If the interference mirror
is
called
upon
to replace metallic reflection
over a broader spectral interval, such as the visible region,
width
will
become evident
its
limited band-
in that the reflected light is not exactly neutral,
at least not in series production. Slight yellow or greenish-blue tints are
a frequent occurrence, which degrades the mirror in visual use.
By means of
width of the high
6
15
and
are 10
ities
These
A'
and
the formula (3-31) one can easily compute the relative
For the 2.35/1.38 index pair it yields

For the pair 2.22/1.47 the analogous quant-
reflectivity region.
A"
1.27.
1.4.
relative intervals are not sufficient to cover
more than the central

mind that with
part of the visible spectrum. In addition, one must bear in
numbers of layers the reflecting curves have a convex shape only

partly filling up the theoretical stop-band. This only increases the sensitivity
finite
to tint.
An
expedient from this situation
different tuning deposited
or
less
overlap or they
may be
when
to use
two quarterwave stacks of
contiguous.
In certain kinds of illumination
incoherent coupling
is
onto the same substrate. The stop-bands more
it is
conceivable to think in terms of
the two stacks are deposited onto the opposite
An optically superior solution, free from double images,

two stacks successively onto one face of the substrate.
The coupling between the stack is then coherent and one may wonder
what will be the effect of the two superposed interferences depicted in
Fig. 3-39. Invoking a theorem due to Lord Rayleigh (see also 7.1) that a
thin film on a perfect mirror does not exhibit interferences, one may conclude
that the subsidiary ripple of each component mirror will interact with the
high-reflectivity zone of the other mirror. The chances of unwanted ripple
in the enlarged stopband will be the smaller the more perfect mirrors the
component stacks are. A sufficiently high layer-number should remedy
faces of a substrate.
is
to deposit the
the situation.
*)
We
About
have the
ten layers in each stack are the necessary
visible applications
such as with
HeNe
lasers in
mind.
minimum
V
150
in
the visible
90
spectrum to secure a
than
less
ripple
on the
level.
The enlargement of
maximum when
the stop-band will be
the partial
stop-bands are brought into contact. Let us for simplicity consider two
even alternating stacks

Cl (HL)
where c t and
c 2 (HL)
k>
c 2 represent their relative tuning for the q(<p)
question as to which of these will be deposited

left
diagram. (The
for the
first is
moment
open.)
To make two
stacks of this kind contiguous
we may proceed in various,
though equivalent, ways.
Take
for example c t
If 90
stopband
(90
e)
limits
:
c2
is
and
>
c2
1.
the stop-band in the basic tuning with c x
of the second stack
will
with the centre lying to the
at 90
left
c2
Contact between the stop-bands will be

the c 2 -block will reach the value 90 s.
This establishes for the detuning the condition
Conversely,
shift to the right
90
e.
is
90
90
-s
the
the right end of
were supposed to be less than unity its stack would

of the basic stack and (90 - e): c 2 would have to equal
if c 2
This yields
c,
which
1,
secured, if
c,
obviously occur at the values
90
-e
90
the inverse of the above value.
"1
1
c,>1>ct
WfcA/ita JbO&tew
o
(90-t)
Fig. 3-39
c,
Two
90
(me)
c,
contiguous stacks.
f* no
y
For reasons of symmetry we
151
shall agree to distribute the
between both stacks in such a way as to make

(It is in this
way
Assuming
that Fig. 3-39
90
which
>
90
-a =
+ _L.,
c2
we
require
9q0
latter
expression
is
= l-
c2
'
90
90
'
width
is
90
+
-
the relative width of the basic stack.
e)
c t to (90
e)
c2
therefore
90
= (jEt\ ^
ci
90
Two
90
>
c2
The enlarged stop-band extends from (90

Its relative
the
>
yields
The
detuning
90 the point of contact.
drawn.)
is
above stated stacks c t
in the
<p
\cj
/90
^90
+ e\ 2
- a)
contigunous stacks have a relative width which
is
the square of
component width.
If A is the central wavelength
achieved,
we then
deposit c t
of a region where high
A/4 and c 2
Their order in the actual design
is
reflectivity is to
be
A/4 stacks.
a free option. If k t and k 2 are
sufficiently large
1/ Cl (HL)
k'
1/c 2 (HL)
k2
c 2 (HL) '/G
and
Cl (HL)
k2
/G
good in the stop-band. In fact, even the dual designs with H

an L interchanged could be considered.
However, if the layer number has to be kept on an economic level,
one of the options may prove better. Individual corrections inside the stacks
are equally
may
then improve residual ripple or at least
shift it to regions
of
less
im-
portance.
From a more general point of view it is evident that k t and k 2 need

not be exactly equal and that the parity of the two stacks need not be the
same. These circumstances represent manoeuvring space for the designer.
We
shall
shall come back to broad-band reflectors a little later, when we

have explained the concept of low-pass and high-pass filters. The
common designation
for these
is
edge filters.
152
Idealized curves of these types are
shown
in the Fig.
Since
3-40.
nothing but essentially quarter-wave stacks are available to produce regions

of high reflectivity, it is evident that the prototype curves cannot be fully
realized. Referring to the Fig. 3-8, the high reflectivity region
simple case at a
transmission this
maximum
is
high
niters
may
in this
working in
the rejection zone, for the dual use in reflected light
the admission zone.
we proceed to
equal one stop-band. For
The zone of contrary
effect
it is
now depends on whether
higher or lower wavelengths as referred to the position of the
reflectivity zone.
-r
or
sptctra/
sptctra/
variobk
rariablt
Fig. 3-40 Prototype curves for high-pass
and low-pass
filters.
Going to lower wavelengths and considering the transmission filter,

the admission zone extends from 90 + e to 270 - s. The dividing line
between rejection and admission lies at 90 + e and is referred to as the
cut-on edge for the lower wavelengths or, alternatively, as the cut-off edge
for the higher wavelengths, whichever of the regions
It is to
be noted that
all
is
used for reference.
when the indeMost of our graphs
these definitions are inverted
is the wave number or the frequency.

shown as functions of the phase angle q> which is proportional to the
latter two quantities. However, our terminology will be based on the envisag-
pendent variable
are
ed transformation of these curves into spectral diagrams with 1 as the independent variable.
The secondary maxima of the orthodox quarterwave stack shown in

Fig. 3-8 would of course seriously impair the function in a real admission
zone a smooth transmission curve on a high level. Outer extensions of odd
alternations
by A/8 low-index
layers are a well-known expedient
A full theory of these extensions is given in Sect. 6.3.

A typical use of a thus corrected transmission
low-pass
a design
k
1/(0.5L)
(HL) H/G
3,4 or
more
from
this.
filter
with
/
153
where the cut-off edge between visible light and

the adjacent heat radiation is placed somewhere about 7000 A. The rejection
zone extends from 0.7 to 1.1 \an and thus covers the near infra-red region,
which is critical for heat protection with most practical light sources.
is
the heat-reflecting
Nonetheless
filter,
it is finite
and the
sense of the word, because
it
filter is
of the low-pass type only in the limited
actually passes radiation
300
above
TOO
1.1
/im as well.
Anm BOO
%*10 3 cm
Fig. 3-41 Dichroic mirror reflecting the red light. Experimental curve,
45 incidence.
On the other hand it starts to reject at about one third of the wavelengths
contained in the 0.7
<p
1.1
fim region, because the other stop-band at
270 of the periodic phase diagram
q(<p)
now comes
into operation.
This ultraviolet rejection band (with dubious properties with respect to

dispersion and absorption of
many orthodox
"visible" materials there)
of no importance for the given application and we

definition that the
is
may accept a compromise
is a low-pass filter for the visible and

hand there may be other applications
cells from longer- wavelength radiation,
above stated design
near infrared regions.
On
the other
such as the protection of solar
with an extremely long pass-band extending into the ultraviolet. This required
V
154
the design of special stacks with

as described by Thelen,
Placing the
periods
HL
filter
some higher-order
central
maxima
missing,
[39].
edge of the same design (but perhaps with more
to increase edge steepness) at a value around 5850 A, one
obtains the red-reflecting element of the family of dichroic (i.e. colourdividing) filters. It is normally produced in 45 incidence matching, Fig, 3-41.
It reflects
the red part of the spectrum at a right angle to the optical axis
and transmits the green and blue
parts along the optical axis, Fig. 3-42.

obvious that in this instance the finite widths of the pass and stop-bands
are not felt to be a limitation at all.
It is
rmf
wNteHghf
Mm rtfkdor
rtd rtfkctor
'
Fig. 3-42. Schematic
"
mirror)
(metallic
diagram of a colour-dividing
set
of dichroic mirrors.
Returning to the basic stop-band in the Fig. 3-8 and proceeding to

higher wavelengths without limitation, one runs through the phase angles
from 90 + e down to zero.
In transmitted light the design

infinitely
may
thus serve as a cut-on
filter
for
an
long pass-band of wavelengths, the rejection zone remaining
confined to the stop-band of the stack. Again (see Sect. 6.3) outer extensions
are needed to flatten out the transmission in the pass-band. This time
the A/8 layers of the high-index material added
on both
sides
it is
which cause
the desired effect.
Thus the
blue-reflection dichroic mirror

k
1/(0.5H)(LH) L(0.5H)/G
may have
k
a design
6 or more
with the edge located at about 4850 A.

Placing such a
red-reflecting
filter,
and
filter (Fig.
3-43) in tandem,
we obtain
the second element in the color dividing
in parallel, with the
system shown schematically*) in Fig. 3-42.

*)
Additional correcting
the energy distribution
filters
among
are as a rule inserted behind each reflection to improve
the three channels in accordance with the requirements
of true colour rendition. These are not shown in the figure.
155
The green light behind the two elements is evidently the result of the
two superposed pass-bands. By means of two dichroic interference reflectors
it is therefore possible to split up white light into its three basic components.
it
Colour television cameras are the most important users of this system.
A number of variations are possible, including the use of prism systems.
One of the critical problems is the dependence of the edges on the working
angle of incidence in the various zones of the mirrors,
oo
600
500
[40].
700 A/im
80
TV.
90
80
m
so
50
>
30
20
10
20
22
Unto3 cm 1
IS
Fig. 3-43. Dichroic mirror reflecting the blue light. Experimental curve,
45 incidence.
Independently of
reflection filtering.
this,
green light can be produced directly by a single
Although being too narrow for a neutrally white mirror,

is not narrow enough to serve as a reflector over the
the simple A/4 stack
width 800 1000

of
of green
light.
Recourse
is
had to higher odd multiples
A/4.
If all the layers
of the stack are 3 A/4, the mirror works over the relative
+ e) which
ed above with the central value 90
width (270
s)
(270
istic
values for the
is
definitely less than the results obtain-
1.12 and
two index combinations.)
.
(1
1.08 are
now character-
156
Intermediate widths can be obtained by choosing only part of
th^
layers as 3 A/4.
Advanced designs of such narrow-band
reflectors serving to reject
limited protions of the spectrum by normal-incidence filtering (so called
minus
filters) provide for the suppression of secondary ripple on both sides

of the stop-band, [43, 44]. Their systematic use in the design of unorthodox
spectral filtering curves by incoherent coupling of several such filters in

tandem is described in references [4, 5], Ch. 11.*)
The blue, green and red dichroic reflectors, when used singly in normal
incidence, form a set of subtractive colour niters, each eliminating one of the
basic colours of the spectrum.
subtractive set
'
400
500
600
700400
500
600
700400
500
700
600
additive set
Ired
i
400
TOO
^'
>
600
700400
500
600
700400
500
600
Fig. 3-44 Transmission characteristics for a subtractive
of colour
700
and an additive
set
filters.
The dual set of additive niters must yield curves which are obtained
by exchanging the rejection and admission zones, still counting transmitted
light.
The pattern curves are shown in Fig. 3-44.

The green filter is of the broad-band type.
in the
*)
form of a multiple-half-wave interference
It is
It
may
be produced either
filter (to
be described in a
important to note the following: for a given edge-filter design matched for 45
incidence the steepness of the edge for unpolarized light
is to a certain degree less than

due to the narrowing of the stopband for the
p-component, as observable in Fig. 3-14 and to the subsequent averaging of the s- and
p-edges. This cannot be effectively counteracted by simply increasing the layer numbers.
The paper [60] is concerned with this problem.
is
attainable in
normal incidence. This
is
157
subsequent section) or as an incoherent superposition of two edge-filters

evaporated onto the opposite sides of a glass support.
The red and blue mirror
may
be used for
this,
designs of the above discussed dichroic set
provided that the two edges are adequately shifted

(More design work would be needed
in the proper directions. (Fig. 3-45).

to perform the
same thing with coherent coupling, when both systems are
evaporated onto the same
side, [41]).
SW Knm
It.
Fig. 3-45
Broad-band
filters.
800
M3 ah-'
filter formed by incoherent coupling of two edge

Experimental curve, normal incidence.
The blue additive filter calls for an interference reflector with an enlarged
stop-band covering the green and red regions, corrected so as to have a flat
transmission curve in the short-wavelength pass-band.
Conversely, the red additive
filter
requires a
broadband
reflector
with
a smooth long-wavelength pass-band.
As mentioned above, a method for enlarging the stop-band is to use

two contiguous stacks. In the present case we have the additional problem
that the short-wave or the long-wave pass-bands of the combined system
must be corrected for secondary maxima. One therefore combines simple
158
periodic structures such as described above in reference to the red
and blue
dichroic reflectors, which allow of an explicit correction in either of the

side-bands. There
is
a chance that two corrected side-bands
will
combine
into one corrected side-band of the enlarged stack. Problems associated
with the combination of such structures are thoroughly discussed in

Practical examples of these systems are
shown
in the Figures 3-46
and
7110/Um
Fig. 3-46
tOO
A low-pass filter with extended rejection band acting as additive

blue
filter.
Experimental curve, 45 incidence.
If the red additive filter

its
[42].
3-47.
of
this corrected type is shifted to the right so
cut-on edge for red light becomes a cut-off edge for the infrared,
obtain a prototype of what

reflection filter
visible light,
it
but
is
behaves as a
silver
or aluminium mirror as regards the
rejects the entire infrared
dielectric, it transmits the
we
commercially dubbed a cold mirror. Used as a
by
non-reflection. Being all-
heat radiation onto the opposite side of the protect-
it is dissipated in the lamp house.

number of projecting and other systems are nowadays heat-protected
in this way. The amount of heat stress is lowered by about 50 % (considering
that the wanted light also contributes by its share of energy). The credit
for the idea of the cold mirror based on interference goes to H. Schroeder
[45], and A. F. Turner [46], with a number of other subsequent contributions
of technical and theoretical nature.
ed space with the optical elements, where
159
700
Off
Aim
too
* K> 3 on'
Fig. 3-47
A high-pass filter with extended rejection

red
3.5.2
The
filter.
band acting as additive
Experimental curve, 45 incidence.
single-half-wave monochromatic
filter
Let us consider the periodic structures
G...LH(LL)H L...G
G...
HL(HH)LH...G
These are A/2 layers of high or low refractive index embedded between
whose phase angles will be denoted by ^ R These
alternating A/4 layers
A/4-stacks act as interference mirrors over the interval of their stop-bands,

hence the A/2 layers are essentially working in the conditions analysed in
3.2.4 and should display sharp transmission peaks. It is immaterial whether
the reflectors consist of an even or
are identical, the transmissivity at
Denoting the transfer

<Jq exp
(jS) (the latter seen
function
is
coefficients
2q> R is the
+e 2
layers.
Provided they
nj2 equals 100 percent.
of the component reflectors'as
t,
inside of the A/2 layer), the transmission
by (2-29b)
J.
<p s
<p R
from the
&=
where
odd number of
-2ecos(2<ps -2S)
phase angle in the spacer
layer.
160
Since q
may be
the formula
1,
$=
put into the form*)
1
1
+^sin
$F
2
((p s
4o
-S)
(i-e)
(3-85)
where the coefficient #" determines the sharpness of the transmission peak
[compare (3-13, 14)].
The composite transmission 3~ assumes a maximum of 100 percent
whenever
q> s
0,
2ic.
it,
(HH)
If the spacer layer is
8=0, for (LL) this is

at q> s = In, I integer.
Obviously the points
which are not of
(p R
7i
it,
accomodate 100 percent maxima
2it
We
do not act as
must therefore discard the even multiples
in the condition for
^s
The 100 percent peaks must be expected

q> s
i.e.
as
maxima occur
interest for us, because the outer systems
reflectors in these conditions.
of
the adjacent reflectors have a phase shift
equal to n. In any case, therefore, the
2<j R
at
= odd multiple of
at the centres of the stop-bands
y.-j-
it
f the embeddin S
was to be expected from the general layout.

In studying the profile of the peak in the immediate
reflectors,
vicinity
of the
point K
"fj*
*-(d<p R ,L/2
n and S is normally a negative number. Further let us

where m is the order of the filter (number of J./2 thicktake cp s
nesses in the spacer layer) and denote )
*)
Trying to make this analysis self-consistent we inevitably repeat some of the steps
undertaken in 3.1.4 with the single layer. A similar excuse is offered to the reader for
Sect. 7.1.3 when the object of analysis is a metallic FabryPerot type filter.
The form of
the peak
terms of the function

values at which &~ =
a sharp parabola. Defining the half-width in
is
as
^"((?> R )
Wv
<p'
<p'
R,
where
<p'
<
q> R
are the
we obtain
1/2,
Wv =
filter
161
2m
-i-Z-?-
-8
(3-86)
y/j
The sharpness of the peak therefore increases with the order of the
and is additionally supported by the negative slope of the phase disper-
sion 6(q> R ) in the vicinity of
This
is
<p R
by no means a
ji/2.
negligible effect. E.g. in a
7-
based on ZnS and MgF 2 the first-order half-width without dispersion

would amount to just over 100 A, while the actual value is 50 A. For higher
filter
orders
this effect is less
pronounced.
Extremely high phase dispersion

mission maxima. These can occur
higher multiples of
may
when
also bring about spurious trans-
8(<p R )
changes by at least jc or
within the stop-hand region of the reflectors. This
it
change then prevails over the moderate detuning of <p s
2mcp R and another
fringe appears.
This is never the case with strictly tuned reflectors, but the effect has
been observed and interpreted in the mentioned way by Baumeister and
was embedded between irregularly detuned

whose phase dispersion happened to be about 15 times
Stone, [47]. Their spacer layer
broadband
reflectors
greater than
usual with orthodox A/4 stacks.
is
Conversely, by designing reflectors with a positive slope of the
8((p R )
curve, one could push the single-half-wave system to the broad-band type
of
filter.
A
filter is
This possibility
typical
is
mentioned in
[48].
transmission curve for an all-dielectric monochromatic
seen in Fig. 3-48.
width of the reflectors

with the metallic
is
filters
to handle this situation.

glass filters, recourse
is
The
loss
of suppression due to the limited band-
a typical shortcoming of these
of the same type.
Owing
had to
More
filters
blocking
to a certain shortage
as
filters
among
compared
are needed
the absorption
interference blocking filters (edge or broad-
band), with correspondingly increased cost for the complete system.
Like
all
interference
monochromatic
systems, the
filter is liable
ADI
(all-dielectric interference)
to obliquity effects
and
to problems of light
collimation, [49], [50].
*)
For a
9 and fVx see Problem 3-11.
relationship between fV
162
Spurious absorption due to scattering and other effects, as well as

due to manufacture, cause the theoretically predicted
fall
to values between 60 and 80 percent, depending on the
maximum to
errors of symetry
materials
and technology. The
of weak absorption in
effect
dielectric
systems will be studied in Sect. 12.2.
Further aspects of the single-half-wave (SHW) monochromator will be

discussed in connection with the metallic Fabry-Perot type filter (Sect. 7.1.3).
Also, references [32-34] in Ch. 12 are
y.
drawn
to readers'" attention
now.
WO]
<9
90
60
/>
Fig. 3-48 Transmission curve
LH) 7 G
G (HL) 7 H (LL) H O-H)
Fix) of an
(a)
ADI
single-half-wave
filter
overall shape, (b)

(b; detailed study of the
peak for the two lowest orders.
3.5.3
The double-half-wave monochromatic
The transmission of the Fabry-Perot type

exhibiting impressive sharpness,
still
rl
interference
filter,
although
leaves something to be desired as
nominal wavelength. In fact,

causes half of the total energy to be trans-
regards the energy efficiency of the
the parabolic shape of the line
filter
filter
at the
ri
o)
b)
Fig. 3-49 Defining the square-topped
transmission curve: (a)

(b)
physically
ideal,
realizable.
163
mitted outside the half-width. The proper shape for an efficient

monochromatic filter should be rectangular, as ideally shown in Fig.
3-49a. This
pattern is physically approximated by a curve of the type shown in
Fig. 3-49b.
We then speak of square-topped filters. The optical means of obtaining
transmission curves of this kind
type
is
to extend the concept of the Fabry-Perot
and use two spacer layers instead of one, adding a further

as well. For reasons of symmetry we then have a pattern
filter
reflector
GRYmAWmi-W
where
R',
R" stand for reflecting systems and
This pattern
is
called the double-half-wave
is
the order of the
(DHW-)
filter.
commercial designation
is resonance interference filter,

parallel-edged transmission curve with a little through on
the resonance curve of two coupled oscillating systems.
sense the transmission peak of a single-half-wave filter is
An
[51],
filter.
alternate
because
its
the top resembles
However, in
this
nothing else than
the resonance curve of a single oscillating system, so the above

mentioned
is actually not very fitting.
term
The
Our
reflectors R', R"
present goal
is
may
again be regarded as metallic or dielectric.
to discuss the
The reflectors then
ADI
are A/4 layers
filter.
and the design of the
filter
must go by
the following scheme
GHLH
...
LH(LL)
HLH
...
H(LL)
HLH
...
LHG
(3-87)
or by analogous schemes to be discussed subsequently.

The idea of these (and of the multiple-half-wave, see below) filters goes
back to A. F. Turner (1952), possibly also to Ch. Dufour, [52], where
metallic
DHW
are concerned.
design theory for all-dielectric
filters was
published in 1958 by S. D. Smith, [53], using what was later
called
the split-filter technique (compare Sect. 2.6.1). The paper
was aimed at
filters
first
infrared applications where the high refractive index of

germanium film
offers the possibility of obtaining high reflections in the R',
R" with few
layers. The ir designs cannot be simply imitated in the
visible region. This
lead, in 1963, the author
Fig. 3-50
A DHW-filter pattern.
of the present book to a new approach to this
J64
problem, described in sources of lower circulation, [54], [55]. We therefore

filters at full length.
present this theory of
combination according to Fig. 3-50.
Let us consider a cemented
phase
respective reflector systems will be denoted as I, II, III, the
DHW
DHW
The
angles in the
two
layers as
<p
2JLT
(normal incidence considered
only).
Carrying out recursion from the
left,
the formulae of multiple refactions
yield
*ir*iir*hir
(3-88)
We
now
shall
write out in full the amplitude coefficients, respecting

reflector R"
filter and in particular that of the central
the symmetry of the

r IL
Vtf' e
r HlR
ja '
r IIR
l^Y
r IIL
'""
V(?" e"
= V?C ""
-i^y
n s stands for the
refractive index of the spacer layers.
common
The system being dielectric, the bracketed expression in the denominator

of (3-88)
& +
sr
p"
is
Eq. 6-44). Denoting 8' + S" - 2</> =

v, the composite transmission is given by the formula
equal to exp
2<p
2j3' (see
u,
t'V
=
1
'2
4q'q"
4(1
q') sIq'q"
further simplification
is
cos u
2q' cos 2r
4q' \/q'q" cos (2r
possible here due to a theorem
on
u)
dielectric
layers stating that generally
2d
SK
-n
(The corresponding proof is to be found in Sect. 6.2).

Since we have R = S'i = 5', we may write 2d" - S"
2v
2v
2h
= k +
*" and
With
formula assumes the
this the
iT
final
form
t'V
=
1
As
165
4q'q"
4(1
in the case of the simple
_=
(3-89)
q') s/q'q^cos
filter,
ii
the quantities
2g' cos 2
t', x", q',
may
g"
regarded as constants in a certain vicinity of the cental point and
&
be
is
a function of u only.
To
investigate the extremes of
y (w)
derivative of the denominator, D(),
4(1
it is
sufficient to concentrate
on the
which equals
e')vVe"sin
4e'sin2
dii
It will
be zero in two cases:

sin
cos (8'
The
if
first
=> 2)
8"
i- ^-*1
condition always has a solution.
the combination
fails
bottom of a through
if
In,
(1
It
filter is
(3-90a)
+ g')
(3-90b)
defines the top of a peak,
to produce a rectangular
the
integer
maximum, or
it is
the
of the square-top type. In other words,
(3-90a) defines the inevitable extremes at the cardinal points of a tuned

multilayer.
This will become clear
if
we
spacer layers are (LL) and 8'
if the
take into consideration, that 8' = 8" = n

= 8" = if they are (HH), (see discussion
of the sign of the reflection coefficient in Fig. 3-14).

In any case, the condition (3-90a) eventually
is
known
to be
The independent
(3-90a)
is fulfilled
by
(p
is
sin 2q>
of
Since
0.
assuming the values
mit.
variable in the phase diagram of the pattern (3-87)
should of course be referred to the phase angles of the
These are equal to
q>
layers.
so the central extreme by (3-90a) occurs at a value
this variable, as expected.
DHW
HLH
For convenience we
shall treat the reflectors
and the complete

system in terms of the phase angle x = AnX' 1 A R ,
where A R is the reflector optical thickness. For a first-order filter A s = 2A R
and x = <p.
166
The value of the
central extreme can be
found by the method of suc-
cesive elimination of -^- layers as they appear in the system starting with
the spacer layers (see 3.2.4). Obviously there must be a certain balance
between the layer numbers in the outer

kind of symmetry involved in a
this simplest
and 15
system to be
reflectors
DHW system with
GHG
and that of the inner
be the simplest system possible. The
reflectors for the irreducible rest to
GLG. The
or
three reflectors implies

residual reflectivities 1.2
percent, respectively, determine the depths of the possible troughs
in transmission.
Now,
clear
it is
by inspection that the following systems reduce to
GLG:
scheme
of reflectors
0-1-0
G(HH)L(HH)G
GH(LL) HLH(LL)
1-3-1
HG
2-5-2
3-7-3
4-9-4
GHL(HH) LHLHL(HH) LHG

GHLH(LL) HLHLHLH(LL) HLHG
GHLHL(HH) LHLHLHLHL(HH) LHLHG
We
shall
Further,
if
denote these combinations as

it is
GLG 373
clear that the remaining reflectivity will
the above systems are outer-extended by an
layer
etc.
remain unchanged
on each end,
e.g.
GLHL(HH) LHLHL(HH) LHLG
G 35-3.
H in all the above combinations we obtain dual sets
This system will be denoted by G(3L)
Exchanging
which reduce to
for
GHG,
or possibly to G(3H) G. Thus
GHG
1-3-1
= GLHHLHLHHLG
G(3H)G 2-3-2= GHLHHLHLHHLHG

The
will help
possibility
first
place
This occurs
when
In the
all.
of using either a
extreme
GXG
is
G3XG
system
it is
clear that (3-90b)
the right
hand
side
need not have a real solution at

greater than unity.
a real solution, the central extreme should be a
the vicinity of which there appear two

present.
is
The
central
then a peak.
If there is
is
or an extended
us in finding solutions of the second extremal condition (3-90b).
maxima a
minimum in
through-like square top
167
In order to see this more exactly,
&r
D2
da
dV
dD
x'x"
'
In the point u
= mln
(
e ')vV<?"
of (3-90b)
(3-92)
smaller than unity, then (3-92)
is
is
This confirms the existence of a trough with
positive.
is
4(1
mn.
no
(3-90b) has
solution, (3-91) is negative thus signifying
a peak.
When
solving (3-90b) for
one must also consider that
q>
functions of x. In fact, this dependence
but for our purposes
it
is
may be approximated by
S'
and S" are
very strong in the vicinity of x
7t,
a linear relationship
Ax
where
-;
rflX
ô
at
it
and
Ax = X
7t
Denoting the right-hand side of (3-90b) by Q, we

cos
0o +
81
(d'
d'o)
Ax -
In view of the particular values of S'
S'^
2(rc
may
Ax)]
write
= Q
mentioned above
this
equation
has a solution
Ax
arccos
=
2
The solution of
So
(3-93)
So
(3-93) therefore requires
knowledge of the phase
dispersions dSjdx at the central extreme. Although there exist explicit
formulae for the computation of these as far as tuned multilayers are
168
concerned (see
9.6),
obtained from
in the present analysis they were
numerical calculations for the 5(x) functions of the two types of reflectors
involved in the
filter.
The same
applies to the values
q" at
q',
x =
it
inter-
vening in Q.
We have already sorted out
some convenient layer combinations securx = n. These combinations must
ing the simplest possible residual system at
now be
scrutinized in view of the condition (3-90b), the goal being
Taking the definition of
Q we may
2
4fl g'
0+e')
Q <
express
= %')
1,-7-1/
0.9
63LG
0.8
G3H6
07 *~GLG252
a 6H6 2S2
6
q
5 1-GHG373
OA
02
Fig. 3-51 Graphical solution of the condition for
a through-like peak.
This function
Fig. 3-51.
We now
is
graphically displayed
numerically for the potential
Those points which
It
lie
DHW
below the curve labelled as
turns out that all the
in
Q =
evidently yield
for the index combination

sensitive to small deviations
GLG and GHG combinations must be discarded,

above the curve
combinations of the G(3L) G, G(3H)
points from both groups are
We now
will
values.)
their characteristic points lying

all
Og QJ
computed
combinations evolved on p. 166.
Q < 1, thus securing a trough. (We specify

H = 2.3 and n L = 1.36, but the results are not
from these
for various
insert into this figurethe set of points (q", q') as
come
shown
Q =
On
the other
hand
type are good. (Only few typical
in the figure 3-51.)
to the computation of the
filter
widths. Although these
be somewhat larger than the spacing of the subsidiary maxima, we
169
Table 3-9
Some
design parameters of square-topped
G3LG
b'
232
353
7_4
4
595
0.549
0.857
1.076
1.222
1.025
1.297
1.412
1.444
G3HG
8'
d"
232
353
474
595
0.588
0.884
1.094
1.223
1.025
1.297
1.404
1.444
6"
DHW
filters.
2 d' 8"
Ax
Ax/180
3.575
0.952
4.995
4.154
0.983
2.543
4.487
0.994
1.393
4.667
0.998
0.794
5.55%
2.85%
4.55%
0.88%
26' d"
Ax"
Ax/m
9.10%
4.71%
2.58%
1.48%
3.614
0.870
8.173
4.181
0.953
4.221
4.499
0.983
2.328
4.667
0.994
1.333
2-3-1
90
ISO
ISO
180
210
2W
k'STO
10
Fig. 3-52 (a) Transmission curves 3~(x) for the
120
ISO
180
210
22S
jc'
270
G 3L G and (b) G 3H G DHW niters
with a square top.
170
confine ourselves to the
latter,
evaluating (3-93) with the numerically de-
termined values of the phase dispersions.
The
summarized in Table 3-9. All the angles and their

computed from finite differences of 5 for x = 180 and
In the last column the relative width is shown as a percentage of the
results are
derivatives were
172,5.
central wavelength.
The final check is made by computing &~(x) diagrams for the two sets
of solutions. These are shown in Figure 3-52 in the interval 135 < x <
<
225 approximately. Outside of this interval transmission side-bands
occur for the same reason as with the single-half-wave
The systems G(3H) G, although reduced

layers,
have a
significant
filters
filter.
minimum of non-latent
trough of 15 percent which
demonstration purposes when studying these
G(3L)
to a
is
quite
welcome
for
experimentally, but the
G systems must be preferred in practical use.
The
layer combination 2-3-2 has
and must be discarded

ceptable set of
DHW
filters
G(3L)
where v
3, 4, 5
poor monochromaticity and blocking

As a final result we have as an ac-
in both types.
(v)
has so far been
(2v
verified.
1)
For A
(3-94)
(v)
5500
tions should have first-order band- widths about 300, 100
A these combinaand 50 A, respect-
ively.
The scheme (3-94)
retains its validity even for larger v and, for example,
the 6-11-6, 7-13-17 combinations
may be checked on
the computer to be of
the square-top type as well.
100
179
180
181
182
38
06
\r&
7^\
too
38
[06
Fig. 3-53
6-11-6
A tolerance study on a G3LG
filter
concerning errors in the spacer
layers. Relative spacer thicknesses:
2.01 2.01, 2.02 2.02,

@) 2.02 1.98.
2.01
(2)
1.99,
171
DHW
filters can be manufactured with the inevitable limitation by

The
spurious absorption, which reduces the ^"max values. It can be shown,
DHW
however [56], that a given degree of absorption causes less damage to a

than to a SHW filter. Production errors may also cause a decrease of ^"max
and some asymmetry between the side peaks, but the main feature of the
square-topped filter, viz. the steep band edges, remain preserved.
Fig. 3-53
shows a
partial tolerance study
on a G(3L)G 6-11-6
filter
provided that the reflectors are properly tuned, but the half-wave layers are
off-set in
a symmetrical or an asymmetrical way. Obviously the
leads to a heavy penalty in the
Two
maximum
latter error
transmission.
experimental curves for the 4-7-4 combinations are shown in
Fig. 3-54a, b.
Note: So far
we have
left
unmentioned the interesting
fact that the
produced on the two sides of a trough attain the values

100 percent. This is by no -means evident from the analysis presented
theoretical peaks
because the existence of a zero derivative d^"/d in the vicinity of x
6 /um
Fig. 3-54 Experimental
(a)
DHW
filters
made
with
ZnS and MgF2
G 3L G 4 7 4; (b) G 3H G 4 7 4.
172
does no automatically entail &~
system
is
system
II.
To
we must resort
Here a G3LG 3-5-3
decomposed into a simple reflector I and an essentially SHW
The corresponding reflectivities seen from the inside of the first
1
at this point.
to the split-filter method, as suggested
layer are
shown
are simultaneously
in the figure. In
shown
for the
by
see this
Fig. 3-55.
dashed
lines the
analogous functions
GLG 2-5-2 filter which was found
not to
be of the square-top kind.
The
criterion for the existence of a trough
is
the intersection of the
corresponding curves: Recalling, for example, Eq. (3-68) we
Fig. 3-55
Analyzing a
lines
split-filter
technique:
G 3LG 3 5 3 system,
2. Intersection of IL and HR signals trough.
(b)phase dispersions for the G 3L G system.
internal
G L G 2 5
(a) solid lines
dashed
DHW system by the
may
reflectivities for
then
173
infer that at the point of intersection the equal internal reflectivities
lead to zero composite reflecion

(3-68)
tom
is
The
also met.
to 5"
(i.e.
1) if
pertinent phase dispersions are
shown
in the bot-
part of the figure.
Taking the point of intersection at x
S lL
can
the phase condition
The value
2.4.
dition 8 lL
S UR
of Eq. (3-68b)
2q> 2
2x
0,
2tc
is
...
is
we have 8 IlK =
182.6,
here 2x
fulfilled
7.2
365.2, so the con-
with an error of -0.4.
small enough to produce unit transmission in the given point.

However, it is evident that the unit value of the outside maxima is only
This
is
a practical fact, not an inherent necessity. It is conceivable to think in

terms of specially designed reflectors as regards the phase dispersions
filters with markedly less-than-unity
make up
*il> *hr> which would
DHW
subsidiary maxima.
The
sensibility to
asymmetric
the phase condition
is
also exemplified
by the
cases in the tolerance study in Fig. 3-53.
problems associated with the phase condition substantially

filters if the goal is a "resonance"
complicate the design of metallic
Finally,
DHW
curve.
3.5.4 Notes
on multiple cavity
The idea of
filters
alternately placing
more half-wave
layers
and
reflecting
stacks in series leads to the expectation that the square-top property will
become more pronounced, provided the dimensions of the reflector stacks
are properly chosen. Observing the principle of symmetry
to triple-half-wave
we
are thus led
filters
GR'yR"yR"yR'G
quadruple-half-wave
filters
GR'Ar"Ar'"Ar"Ar'g
which are generally called multiple cavity filters.
The theory of these filters does not seem to be definitely elaborated.
However, many a useful result may be obtained by a trial-and-error ap-
etc.,
proach.
Referring to the method of the proceeding paragraph, there seems to
be no simple way of extending it to multiple cavity systems. We at least
174
take note of the fact that at one stage of the analysis we had to try out which
of the reasonable combinations obeyed the condition (3-90b). This was
actually a kind of trial-and-error approach although, let us be allowed to
say, in
a correctly analysed mathematical context. As a result
we have found
the right proportions between the inner and outer reflectors. Being able
to disregard the problem of mathematical labour thanks to the automatic
computer, there seems to be no obstacle to running the &~(x) curves direcly

with differently dimensioned reflectors and sorting out at will.
This approach is particularly simple with triple-half-wave filters, as we
have only two variable systems R' and R" (each of course in the
or
LHL
This
is
. . .
versions). In addition there is
true of all
odd multiple
HLH
...
n.
a safe 100 percent peak at
jc
cavity systems as contrasted to the even-type
systems, which require a starting analysis of the kind
shown with
the
DHW
filter.
Trying various layer numbers in the R' and R", we discover the various
at x = % to be simple peaks or Chebyshev-like triple peaks which
maxima
are separated by deep or shallow valleys.
The
figures below). In this straightforward analysis
obtaining maximally
case
when
everything
there are
is
flat
filter
cavities
(see
point of
than three (owing to symmetry about %
equiripple in the triple cavity
theory,
our goal
solutions or anything like an equiripple peak in the
more
pulation of the refractive indices.
wave
latter are
we do not make a
An
filter).
attempt at
was presented by Baumeister,
7-15-IS-7
This would require manithis,

[57].
derived from micro-
We
present four classes of solutions, distinguished by the parity of
the layer numbers in the reflectors.
and
175
MgF2
The
refractive indices are those of
ZnS
The odd-odd type
(HL) m
rn
ms
Ins
08
at
offers solutions
n
(LL) (HL)
(LL)
(LH) (LL)
(LH) m
(3-95)
ISO
no
~ ~
ms
r-K-te-7
178
180 182
186
6-13- tt-6
Fig. 3-56-61 Triple-half-wave filters with a flat top or with
moderate
ripple.
176
with the exponents (m,
only
ri)
forming pairs
The
(1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7).
ripple*)
is
percent, the band- widths range from 3 to 0.5 percent of the central
wavelength. Simplified phase diagrams 9~{x) are shown in Fig. 3-56.
The dual design with
and L exchanged requires exponent pairs
order to be square-topped, but the troughs are 6 percent
(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6) in
deep.
The odd-even type
(LH) m L(HH) (LH) n (LL) (HL) n (HH) L (HL) m
G
with (m,
(3-95)
ri)
and
(3-96)
the ripple being less than 0.5 percent
(1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7),
The
(Fig. 3-57).
has a good sequence in
class
relationship to the preceeding class
is
to take the dual of
delete the central A/2 layer.
This time, the dual to (3-96) has a
favourable ripple of 8 percent
less
or so.
Another useful
with (m,
while
its
ri)
set in the
(HL) m
(1, 4),
dual
is
(LL) (HL)
(2, 6),
ri)
(2, 4,
and
its
G
with (m,
ri)
ri)
(3, 8),
which
is
(LL)
(LH) m
maximally
(3-97)
(Fig. 3-58),
flat*)
we
find
(3, 6),
(4, 8)
(3-98)
to have a ripple less than 0.25 percent
dual
(HL) m (HH) (LH) n (LL) (HL) n (HH) (LH) m
(1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7)
Finally, the
with (m,
(HH) (LH) n
(LH) m (LL) (HL) n (HH) (LH) n (LL) (HL) m
G
with (m,
is
peaky.
In the even-even class
(Fig. 3-59)
odd-even class
(3-99)
to be maximally flat (Fig. 3-60).
even-odd class has the following
yield:
(HL) m (HH) (LH) n L (HH) L (HL) n (HH) (LH) m
(1,2),
(Fig. 3-61), while
its
(2,4),
(3-1C0)
(3,6), the ripple being just over
dual with (m,
ri)
(1, 1),
(2, 3),
(3, 5)
percent
has a ripple
of 6 percent.
*)
By ripple we understand here the
of oscillations about a mean value.
*)
This
is
total
a rough characteristic of what
this solution exactly fulfils the
mathematical
change between two
we
levels,
see in the graphs.
criteria
of
maximum
We
not the amplitude
do not claim
flatness.
that
There may be
a large tolerance on violating these without destroying the practical flatness of graphs
drawn on a reasonable
scale.
177
Combinations with even numbers in the inside
reflectors obviously
alternate the materials of their spacer layers. Baumeister calls these diverse
raciry filters as contrasted to the homologous cavity filters, where only one
material
is
We
present in the A/2 layers.
shall not enter into the details of
the relative merits of these classes.
Again, production errors may cause distortions in the computed forms

of the maxima. Fig. 3-62 shows how a maximally flat design may become
asymmetrically indented or peaky owing to small disproportions in the
truly realistic tolerance study must consider more different
spacers.
deviations in randomly chosen layers.

interference filters were introduced
sidered
good when reasonably
Such
by
statistical studies
Seeley, [58].
insensible to
design
of multilayer
is
then con-
randomly cumulated
errors.
Fig. 3-62 A tolerance study on the

GHL...LHG 3-8-8-3 THW filter:
(D basic curve,
(2)
thicknesses 2.02
(3)
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
2.02
2.02,
relative spacer
2
@> 2 1.98
1.98,
2.
H. Schroder, Optik 3, 499 (1948).

A. VaSicek, see ref. 13b) in Ch. 1.
a) Proc. Symp. on Ellipsometry of Surfaces and Films Nat. Bur. Stand. Misc. Publ.
256 (1964),
b) Proc.
Symp. on Recent Developments
in Ellipsometry, special issue
of Surface
Science, 16, (1969).

[4]
F. Abeles, in: Progress in Optics, Vol.
II,
Ed. E. Wolf, North Holland, Amsterdam,
1963.
[5]
F. Abeles, These, Paris, 1948, (see
[7]
W. Traub and H.
M. Hacskaylo, J.
[8]
O.
[6]
[9] S.
S.
Ch.
1.)
Opt. Soc. Am., 54, 198 (1964).
Heavens and M.
Liddell, Appl. Opt., 4,
Tolansky, Multiple
[10] S. Methfessel,
ref. 8. in
Osterberg, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 47, 62 (1957).
Dunne
Beam
Interferometry
Schichten, Halle, 1953.
629
(2) (1965).
of Surfaces and
Films, Oxford, 1948.
178
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
H. Mayer, see ref. 11. in Ch. 1.

G. V. Rozenberg, see ref. 1. in Ch. 2.
O. S. Heavens, Measurement of Optical Constants of Thin Films, in: Physics of Thin
Films, Ed. G. Hass and E. E. Thun, Vol. 2, Academic Press, 1964.
K. H. Behrndt, Film-Thickness and Deposition-Rate Monitoring Devices and Techniques for Producing Films of Uniform Thickness, in: Physics of Thin Films, Ed. G. Hass
and R. E. Thun, Vol. 3, Academic Press, 1966.
Miyake, Journ. de Phys., 25, 255 (1964).
[15]
K.
[16]
a private communication cited by
P.
J.
T.
Cox and G. Hass,
for Optical and Infrared Optical Materials,
and R. E. Thun, Vol.

inCh.9.
2,
Academic
in:
Antireflection Coatings
Physics of Thin Films, Ed. G. Hass
press, 1964.
[17] see ref. 12.
[18] P.
G. Kard, Trudy
Inst. Fiz. Astr.
German
[19]
W.
[20]
A. F. Turner, Journ. de Phys.
[21]
R. B. Muchmore,
Geffcken,
Ak. N.
Est.
SSR, No.
5,
Tartu 1957.
Patent 759767 (1944).

et Rod., 11,
444 (1950).
Opt. Soc. Am., 38, 20 (1948).
J.
Ned. T. Natuurk., 14, 317 (1948).

A. VaSicek, Opt. Acta, 8, special ICO issue, 20 (1961).
[22] B. S. Blaisse,
[23]
[31]
H. Pohlack, Jenaer Jahrbuch 1951, 144.

T. Cox, G. Hass and A. Thelen, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 52, 965 (1962).
H. Anders, book, see ref. 7. in Ch. 2.
P. King and L. B. Lockhart, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 37, 689 (1947).
H. Osterberg et al., /. Opt. Soc. Am., 42, 291 (1952).
H. A. Macleod, Thin-Film Optical Filters, Adam Hilger, 1969; p. 42.
A. Thetford, Opt. Acta, 16, 37 (1969).
P. G. Kard et al., Izv. Ak. N. Est. SSR, t. XVIII, No 2, 186 (1969).
[32]
A. Millendorfer, Austrian Patent 221835
[24]
[25] J.
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[33] Z. Knittl,
(1962).
Cz. Patent 121729 (1967).
Heavens and M.
Liddell, Appl. Opt., S, 373 (1966).
[34]
O.
[35]
R. Badoual and P. Giacomo, Appl. Opt., 5, 63 (1966).

P. B. Clapham, Opt. Acta, 18, 563 (1971).
[36]
S.
Jemna mechanika a optika, 20, 12, (1975).

A. Dobrowolski, Appl. Opt. 7, 1981 (1968).
A. Thelen, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 63, 65 (1973).
H. de Lang and G. Bouwhuis, Philips' Techn. Rundschau, 24, 282 (1963).
[37] Z. Knittl,
[38] J.
[39]
[40]
[41] L. I. Epstein, /.
[42]
[43] L.
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47]
[48]
[49]
Opt. Soc. Am., 42, 806 (1952).
A. F. Turner and
Young, Appl.
P.
W.
Baumeister, Appl. Opt., 5, 69 (1966).
Opt., 6, 297 (1967).
/. Opt. Soc. Am., 41, 365 (1971).

H. Schroder, Photo-Kino-Technik 8, 186 (1949).
A. F. Turner, Journ. de Phys. et Rad., 11, special issue (1950).
P. W. Baumeister and J. M. Stone, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 46, 228 (1956).
A. F. Turner, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 42, 878 A (1952).
P. H. Lissberger and J. Wilcock, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 49, 126 (1956).
A. Thelen,
[50] see ref. 29., p. 261.

[51]
H. Gunzler, Feingeratetechnik
[52]
Ch. Dufour, Journ. de Phys.
11, 539 (1962).
et Rad., 11,
413 (1950).

[53] S.
D. Smith, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 48, 43

Jemnd mechanika a optika,
[54] Z. Knittl,
[55] Z. Knittl, Proc. Coll. Thin. Films,

[56]
L. Young, see
[57] P.
W.
6 in Ch.
ref.
Baumeister, Sect.
179
(1958).
8, (1963).
Budapest 1965, 153.
5.
IX
in:
Lecture Course on Optical Interference Coatings,
Rochester 1971.
[58] J. S. Seeley, see ref. 31, in
Ch.
12.
[60]
A. Dobrowolski et al., Opt. Acta, 20, 925 (1973).

K. Rabinovitch and A. Pagis, Opt. Acta, 21, 963 (1974).
[61]
R. M. A.
[59] J.
Azzam
et al., Appl. Opt., 14,
1652 (1975).
Problems
3-1
Putting
Y = Y
Y = Y2
t
in (3-6a)
one obtains the Fresnel amplitude
and
between the media
coefficient
the result
is
2,
but the sign
why
normal. Explain
the
is
first
reflection
negative.
For
result is also
correct.
3-2
Make
and
Note the importance of the
and the complete breakdown of a possible
the thickness of the single layer in (3- la) converge to zero
find the resulting Fresnel coefficient.
denominator
+ rj 2
approximation by simple
3-3
3-4
reflections.
two delimiting curves @qb> ob m Fig- 3-2b pass

through the n and g levels with the same abscissa (equal to the
Brewster angle between n and n g).
Explain
why
the
Inserting (3-1 8a, b) into (2-27b) derive the amplitude transmission
formulae for
(-lr^-co,,
f(rt/2):
-^-j, k odd;
y
(-l)\
+ Y*t
^k
y
k even
Extracting the phase information, verify the rule that
dR
3-5
As an extension of Problem
(i)
the last,
(ii)
coherence of
3-6
If
yeff
^>
n%
the
first,
-fcjt/2
3-1 take (3-19) for
any k and amalgamate:
layers with the adjacent outer media. Verify
results.
in (3-19),
show
T
that approximately
= 4yFe2
ff
180
3-7
Referring to Fig. 3-13,
show by
inspection that any multiply reflected
ray with however bizarre a pattern of zig-zag traversals will be in
phase with the second simply reflected ray.

3-8
Derive the conditions for the detuning
make them
periodic stacks such as to
3-9
>
Cj
c2
>
c 3 of three
contiguous.
Consider a 2 1 stack with its two stop-bands about jt/3 and 2rc/3.
Using Eqn. (3-31) and (3-34) find the conditions for VS12 which would
secure that the gap about <p = rc/2 in Fig. 3-1 1 b is just filled up by the
:
stop band of a tuned A/4-stack. Which is the necessary ratio n H jn L to

be used ? Compute the width of the enlarged stop band.
3-10 Compute the tuning ratios for two contiguous stacks at 45 incidence
from the
air,
considering separately the p- and s-components.
3-11 Find the relationship between the half-width of a monochromatic

filter
of order
when expressed
3-12 Having a sequence {n
for the incidence angle
boundaries
in terms of
"""^
H
>
fr example, for n L
1.38,
nH
2.35
that the device in the cemented condition n
Note
A(WA).
(W^) and
is
n*sin
Compute

has a tendency to highly
and
reflect the
45.
seen at the
s-component
and highly transmit the p-component.
Maximum
This
is
efficiency will
of course be achieved in the tuned condition.
the polarizing beamsplitter after Banning.
Investigate the residual reflectance q p at the design wavelength for
odd or even number of
alternating layers.
3-13 Recast the formula (3-19) into the form
where
_ Y - ix
Yo + p
an
may be
3-14
Show
boundary
y/Yt for k even or odd.
interpreted as the effective input admittance at the
Note the
Compare 7.3.1.
n ln x
181
different terminations in
that the conditions for zero reflectance g n/2 of a single layer in
oblique incidence
tan
sin
may be
also expressed as
= tan
t
26>j
sin
20 o
tan
sin
20 2
p-c&se
s-c&se
4
Optics of metals
lic
From the point of view of macroscopic electromagnetic theory, a metalmedium is characterized by its complex index of refraction n jx.
r\
This formal change (substantiated by the analysis of the wave equations in

metals, see 1.4) has severe consequences not only in the quantitative, but
still more in the qualitative behaviour of the waves, particularly in refraction,
when studying the wave inside the metal. We arrive at such new concepts as
inhomogeneous waves, the generalized

energy which give
rise to
interesting, situations
advanced design
(e.g
Snell law
and interference
flux
of
mathematically involved, but physically rather
Although some of the
results find application in
induced transmission problems),
it
may
be admitted
minimum.
It is
methodically expedient to draw a line between problems of the outer
field
that they
do
not constitute a vital part of the practicionists
when studying the wave in the embedding media (here the computations
become more involved only formally -having more complex numbers than
with dielectrics but not conceptually) and between problems of the
internal field, with all their
new features. Thus,
for example, the Airy
summa-
what they were in dielectrics,

owing to the insertion
complex
only the Fresnel coefficients f, i are now
=
q>'
jcp" is complex yielding
of a complex n 1 and for the same reason <p
exp (-j<p) = exp(-<p") exp ( j<p'), where exp (-(?") is the amplitude
damping factor in metals. One does not have to ask about the physical
meaning of, for example, ? 1R which part of the refracted wave is here
related to the incident wave (for the answer see 4.3). However, for oblique
incidence, one must first learn to understand the concept of a complex angle
of refraction before being able to generalize the Airy summation. Thus the
tion formulae for a metallic film look exactly
introductory sections of this chapter are necessary even for a later concentration
on the outer field problems.
OPTICS OF METALS
183
4.1 Generalizing the Snell law.
We
(n l
Wl
a boundary between a dielectric (n
shall consider
The inhomogeneous wave
but mostly dropping the subscript
jxj),
1.
and a metal
The consequences
of a complex n t are most easily analysed by starting with the Snell law of
refraction. Writing n
sin
sin
0, one
sees that, inevitably,
0=0 and correspondingly a complex
assume a complex
sin
one must
0.
Let us write
find
from the
Snell
In the following
we
(4-1)
js"
law
n sin
== s'
sin
shall also
cos
If,
n sin
O
2
n
n'
6>
(4-2a, b)
*r
x-
need
c'
)c"
V(l
sin
0)
(4-3)
The components of this complex number can be found
to be
(4-4a, b)
where
[for
s'
s"
-2s's"
c'
2c'
c"
(4-5a)
c"
(4-5b)
a commentary on the negative sign in (4-4b) see below].
The complex angle of
refraction
0'
j0" may be determined
from the relations

s'
js"
sin (0'
j0")
sin
0'
cosh 0"
+ j cos
0'
sinh
0"
(4-6a)
c'
}c"
cos (0'
j0")
cos 0'
cosh 0"
-j
sin
0'
sinh
0"
(4-6b)
from which
184
cosh 2
0" =
c'
s'
a'
sinh
0"
c"
s"
a"
(4-7a, b)
2
cos 20'
c'
2
c'
-s'
s"
s"
s'
-c"
+ c" 2
2
c'
c"
2
s'
having introduced in (4-7a, b) some useful short notations
Owing
s"
(4-8)
a', a".
to (4-5a), the expressions (4-7a,-b) satisfy the necessary condi-
tions for the hyperbolic functions
cosh
0" -
sinh
0" =
a'
a"
(4-9)
and any of them uniquely determines the absolute value 0"

and cosh 0" is always positive. Therefore,
According to (4-2a) s' :>
and n. We choose < 0' <
in the real part of (4-6a), 0' must lie between
< n/2, corresponding to actual refraction. Then cos 0' > and the sign
\.
of the imaginary part of (4-6a)

s"
>
by
determined by the sign of 0". Since
is
must be
(4^2b), this sign
positive,
which determines 0" to be
positive.
With
these choices made, c" as the imaginary part of (4-6b)
negative. This explains the
minus sign with the square root in
Let us try to form the generalized scalar product x sin

appearing
which
now
in the analytical expression for the plane wave:
x(s'
+ js") +
may
z(c'
jc")
(xs'
zc')
j(xs"
must be
(4-4b).
z cos
zc")
be written as the scalar product of the position vector

ix
kz
with the expression
s=a' + ja"
where the
real vectors
a'
a'a'
is'
kc',
I. It
symbols
a',
a"
a"a"
Is'
kc"
(4-lla, b)
and imaginary vector parts of what is called the complex

regarded as the complex wave normal. The use of the
a" for its components is justified by (4-7a, b), those values a', a"
represent the real
vector
(4-10)
may be
being just the absolute values of
a', a".
OPTICS OF METALS
Making
185
and
the scalar product of a'
a',
we
by
find
(4-5b) that
it
is
equal to zero. The two vectors are therefore orthogonal. Restating (4-9),
they have the properties
a'
-a" 2 =
(o'.a")=0
l,
(4-12a, b)
which leads to the following property for the wave normal:

(s)
=($.!)=
a'
The complex wave normal has a
+ 2jaV =
a"
unit square.
In the real domain, the unit square
is
the
same as
the unit modulus,
since
(s)
For our complex vector
is
different
make no
= a' 2 -
shall
a"
a'
a'
(4-13)
from
(I)
We
|s|
holds that
it
which
*=(s.s)
effort
a"
a"
towards normalizing the modulus of $ in order to
adhere to dielectric stereotypes.
On
the contrary,
we
shall see that every-
thing that results from a systematic (and cautious) generalization in the

optics of metals gives logical, though sometimes surprising answers.
The generalized
Snell
law
is illustrated
by
Fig. 4-1.
Let us proceed to form the product which
is
sometimes called the
vector of refraction:
fa
(i/
- jx) (a' + jo*) = N - jK
(4-14)
where
N = i/o' +
K=xa' -
Fig. 4-1
xa"
i(t]s'
i/o"
i{xs'
Components of the complex

wave normal.
+
-
xs")
i\s")
+ k(i/c' +
+ k(xc' -
xc")
(4-1 5a)
i/c")
(4- 15b)
186
The time-space
factor of the refracted
wave may now be written
as
(with r denoting the position vector)
exp {Root
exp
n(sr)]}
Kt) exp
k (N
k Nr],
exp {][wt
[jcat
- jK) *]} =
= 27tA _1
This describes the inhomogeneous wave, whose planes of equal amplitude
and equal phase follow two different normals N and K, respectively. (In
metals for normal incidence, for that matter, there is a common normal to both planes.)
The quantities N, K are not unit vectors, which does not prevent us
from using them properly. The formulae for their squared moduli may be
found to be
dielectrics, or in
N2 = y
2
{(ri
2
)
sin
<9
+ V'[V* +
0?
o sin
2
<9 ) ]}
(4-1 6a)
X2 =
Y {-(r,
2
)
nl sin
V[Vx 2 +
<9
2
(r,
n% sin
O ) ]}
(4-16b)
The orientation of N in the Oxz plane is given by the angle / measured

from the z-axis. It may be computed by a formula strongly reminiscent
of the
classical Snell
law
smx =
but substantially differing from
it
sin@
(4-17)
jj
in that
N depends
on
It is
therefore
not a true optical constant.

Defining the unit vector of the phase normal
to the planes of constant phase) as n
now
sin x
(i.e.
k cos
of the vector normal

x,
we
write
N=
JVn.
x-component of the vector K with respect to (4-2),

thus making K normal to the boundary.
found
to
vanish,
is
The analytical expression for the electromagnetic wave after refraction
By
this
inspecting the
has the form
A exp
where the amplitude
is
r-
Kz
exp
< j
\cot
yet to be determined.
JV(nr)
(4-18)
OPTICS OF METALS
187
appears here as the orthodox extinction coefficient, but, again,
it
depends on the angle of incidence. Nevertheless, one finds comfort in

having the wave described in formally the same way as before.
orientation of the vectors N, K behind a boundary is shown in
The formation of an inhomogeneous wave with K normal to the
boundary is quite natural, considering that equal damping may be incurred
only on the equal paths 1 - V, 2 2', 3 3', covered in the direction N.
In computing the s-admittances or the phase shift in oblique incidence,
one has to deal with the now complex expression
The
Fig. 4-2.
n
This
may
cos
(r\
jx) (c' +
{t]c'
xc")
j(xc'
rjc")
obviously be written as
n.cos =
The normal
be seen
jc")
projection
of
- jK = Ncosx- )K
is
of use in
many
(4-19)
other situations, as will
later.
/
Fig. 4-2
The inhomogeneous wave and

its
4.2
The
one
(NK)
quantities
and multiplying
subtracting (4-16a, b)
easily obtains
recalling
The
hi.
invariants and Ketteler's relations
By mutually
vely,
vector of refraction.
- K1 =
2
rj
= NK cos x =
- K2
(4-15a, b), respecti-
(4-5a) in the second case
x2
NK=
Z
= 2(NK)
t\x
(4-20a)
yB
are called the
(4-20b)
first
and second
invariants, respectively; their relations (4-20a, b) to the optical constants
of the metal are named after Ketteler,
[1].
188
It is
easy to verify
N = N\l 2
Denning in addition a
=
we may
x2
sin
= A - jB
2}rix
)=N
(4-22)
6>
(4-23)
third invariant
= N 2 - K 2 = JV 2 cos 2 x- K 2 =
- K 2 -n% sin 2 O = A - n% sin 2
write
Nz2
=Uc +
2
yJ(B
C 2 )-]
X 2 = y [ - C + V(8 2 +
(4-24b)
is
another version of
want to compute
It is
n% sin
(4-21)
2
C 2)]
(4-24b)
(4- 16b). (4-24a) replaces (4- 16a), if
we
instead of JV (see, for example, the formulae (4-29)).
interesting to note that the projection
the sign with n% sin
(4-24a)
obtained by simply changing
2 is
O in front of the square root for
2
.
So far we have only worked from the true optical constants t], x (and
to the parameters of oblique incidence N,
O)
K. In interpreting measure-
ments we need to proceed in the reverse direction: photometric or ellipsometric measurements on a massive metal yield the parameters JV*Z and K
[see (4-30)] and we want to find r\, x. Ketteler's relations yield two biquadratic equations for r\ and x, respectively:
u*T
where for u = r\ we take
and solve for x.
From
A and
-i-B 2 =
solve for
r\,
the algebraically possible solutions
Measurements of
example,
A 2
[2], [3], [4].
Q = -L-
(4-25)
while for u
we
x we take
+A
take the following
2
V[ + A + V(A +
B 2 )]
(4-26)
optical constants of metals are discussed in, for
OPTICS OF METALS
189
4.3 Orientation of the vectors E and
after refraction
Knowing the complex wave normal s = a' + ja", we now require the
E and H to be orthogonal with it. This is a consequential generalizaof the situation which we know to exist in the homogeneous waves.
vectors
tion
Orthogonality will again be defined by the zero value of the scalar product
of the two vectors in question.

Let us
consider the s-polarization. 1R
first
plane of incidence, and so

real
is
by symmetry
E'1R
and imaginary components in that plane,
it
is
at right angles with the
Since s
with both
lies
holds that E^ R
(a'
its
+ ja") =
0.
The vectors H 1R and H'1R he in the plane of incidence. H 1R could not

be simultaneously orthogonal with two other vectors a', o" in the same plane
unless we admit it is complex in the same sense of the word as the wavenormal.
form
Its
for a complex
H=
[in the last
most easily found by generalizing the formula (1-21)

and s (and writing jSy for the s-polarized E-vector):
is
(=
ft
y/e)
x jy)
($
member
= nSy (-a'a" + jaV) = (N - jK)
use was
made of (4-14),
in the middle
x \Sy
one
(4-27a)
Fig. 4-1
is
of
help].
We
then have
i
H~
[i
= (a' + ja") (-a'a" + jaV) =

= - ja'a" + ja =
j]
as postulated.
The
refracted magnetic vector in s-polarization
is
therefore a
complex
vector in the plane of incidence with a rather complicated structure by

(4-27a). It is of course orthogonal with E'1R .
For the
it is the H-vector which remains simple

complex by the formula following from (1-21):
/-polarization
refraction, while
is
- [>f j x s]
y
again ensuring s
The
are
E =
(4-27b)
\n\
0.
vectors (4-27a, b) are essentially given by {a'a"
ja"o').
Looking
we find that they are not orthogonal with N-the true wave normal.
thus lead to the conclusion that the electromagnetic wave is no
at Fig. 4-2
We
= -?
3ry (a'<L - jaV)
z
after
19o
longer
and that one of
strictly transverse
vectors (according to the
its
polarization) oscillates both transversally and longitudinally. Since these

oscillations are
state
may
be
coherent obeying the same rotating vectors
classified as elliptical polarization.
The
$ or Jf their
ellipse lies in the
plane
of incidence.
Having found the complex nature of some refracted vectors, we must

now investigate the manner in which they are projected into the boundary.
According to Fig. 4-1 anything in the o'-direction is projected by
sin ', while the o"-direction
(4-27a)
has the factor cos 0'. Taking, for example,
we have
= ny (-a'
(H)tan
cos 0'
ja" sin 0')
-J3f cos
where an abridged notation Jf was introduced for

of (4-6b), (4-7) in the interpretation
and use was made
of the brackets.
Similarly for (4-27b)
()
('
cos 0'
ja" sin 0')
= $ cos &
We may
among
infer that the
boundary conditions
are essentially relations
the rotating complex amplitudes, which are formally projected by
the complex angle of refraction. For the dielectric/metal boundary so far
considered
we have on
.
5-polanzation
r
f...
<
[...
the metal side
=S\u*
= -nS 1R cos0
the input sides being orthodox. Obviously, the

as before
/>-polanzation
by introducing complex admittances.
f...
<
.{...
=
=
(T'irCOS!
_ ,
tiîr
two cases may be
unified
Coefficients of the Fresnel
type deduced from these equations will therefore indicate the ratios of the
rotating
complex amplitudes,
the complex structure of
their interpetation
some of the physical
remaining unaffected by
vectors.
4.4 Fresnel's formulae on a dielectric/metal boundary
With reference to 4.3 Fresnel's formulae will be obtained by inserting

complex admittances for the second medium. Recalling Sect.
into (2-4)
4.1
we have
OPTICS OF METALS
- F s - Y's + \Yl =
n
iy" =
y
*"
"
y
1 p =
P
J * d
P
= Nz - jK;
A-jB
n cos
(4-28a, b)
N,-jK
ncos0
number of various algebraic versions of the Fresnel coefficients may be

found in the literature, including approximations for weak absorption.
We
one of the exact versions making use of the
shall present here
invariants.
It
holds that
or fp
may be computed
P
way
A cos
via fs
O)
(4-29a)
(4-29b)
by the relation
- ^ Nz ~
(Nz +
In the normal
A cos
(n
Nz + }K
+ iVz jA'
- j(n K ~ B cos <9 )
- }(n K + B cos O )
n cos 6>
N Nz +
(n
cos
" Sin
n sin
6>
'
tan
tan
<9 )
~ ]K
- }K
(4-29c)
r*
computed
the energetic reflectivities are
as
fp>s
2
.
|
Fresnel's coefficients at oblique incidence in metals using the angle

as parameter were discussed in
[5].
important to know- the^ relation of these quantities to ellipsometric

jA
measurements. Denoting the amplitude ratio in (4-29c) as tan
e
where
It is
A=
J>
<5
<5
and tan
Nz =
|*
fjfs
it
n sin
|,
o tan
may be shown
_
cos2d>
Kv = n
sin
tan
and
K are processed as in 4.1
This
is
(4-30a)
cos
(4-30b)
to yields, x.
the principle of determining the optical constants of metals
ellipsometric measurements
We
2t|>
Q
1
A
sin 2d sin A
sin 2*J> cos A
;
sin
that*)
leave
it
by
on a massive metal.
to the reader to insert (4-28a, b) into (2-4c) in order to
obtain transmission coefficients (needed for computations with thin films).

*)
The angles
i|*
and
computed from the measured orientation and oblateness

The formulae (4-30) are written for the simplest case
polarization has an azimuth of 45. For other azimuths a correc-
of the reflected polarization

that the incident linear
tion factor
is
are
ellipse.
introduced into the relation tg
r
I
//-
192
4.5 Poynting's vector in the refracted wave

Let us suppose a plane-polarized wave of arbitrary azimuth to be
incident at an oblique angle on the dielectric metal boundary. Then the
s~ and/>~ components obey the Snell law jointly and the boundary conditions separately. The simultaneous existence of both basic polarizations
now
causes both
E and
With
to be of complex nature after refraction.
reference to Sect. 4.3 the complex Poynting vector for the total field
4- WaV - Xa') +
gj\ x {) nS v + s*,(-aV + jaV)]*

.
is
(4-31)
4jc
Multiplying out,
n*
*,
we
(a'
obtain three terms
+ jo"), *K,l 2 ('-JO,
where use was made of Fig. 4-1 and the

a" x j
= a', i'xj=
real part of the
<0 a'a'j
(4-32)
relations
-a", a
The time average of the energy
2j*(<? P
'.
a"
= j,
flux is obtained
complex Poynting vector
(4-31),
x j
by taking
the
whose components are
(4-32).
The
first
two may be treated according to the formula
Re
{fi*(a'
jo")}
=r\a'
xa"
so that the energy fluxes carried by the two polarization components

separately are
by magnitude and
^|*
2
s
(a'
direction
xa")
= -rNKJ 2 n,
(4-33a,b)
~N
This means that the formal proportionality of dielelectrics: energy

times squared modulus of amplitude is preserved. Things are "normal"
x
^ *-~
.7
Fig. 4-3 Directions of propagation of the

s- and p-components
an inhomogeneous wave.
energy fluxes for the
in
OPTICS OF METALS
193
with the s-component even as regards the direction of the
flux. It
goes along
the wave normal.
new
situation has arisen with the />-component.
energy propagates along a direction
&
a'
with
a" being orthogonal
we may
a",
infer
from
& in the negative
and
n',
which
is
The corresponding
deviated from n.
from n only by the sign

from a' by the angle
deviated by the same amount
n' differing
Fig. 4-3 thattt' is deviated
direction, while
N is
in the positive direction..
In normal incidence
=tfk and the energy flux
5T*l'l
It is
as
--*. I'l
is
given by
therefore proportional to the real part of the refractive index

(just
N was the real part of the complex vector of refraction in oblique incid-
ence).
It
remains to pay attention to the third term in (4-32).
It is
remarkable
for being oriented at right angles to the plane of incidence
and being the

result of an interaction between the s-and ^-components. It is a
kind of
interference flux of energy -a term which we shall encounter in the
optics
of metals on several occasions. Since its direction is parallel with the boundary, it makes no contribution to the energy balance and only represents
an
irrelevant shift
4.6
The
of energy in the
is
extending space.
single metallic film
Let the metallic
from the
infinitely
right
a metallic
medium of
the present situation Wo/t^ be
by another boundary njn 2 with a
bounded
dielectric, so that there
film.
Writing the generalized Snell law
n sin
one can
@ =
sin
n 2 sin
wave emerging into the back medium will be homohas a real angle of refraction
2 (This assumption is of
course justified only on the condition that the layer is plane-parallel
and
that the inhomogeneity of the wave inside the layer is not caused
by any
other means than by a complex refraction of a homogeneous wave on
infer that the
geneous, since
it
the
boundary n
jn.)
194
one can therefore neglect the existence

and use the formulae
and <p complex there.
making
n
for
dielectrics
by
originally developed
involved,
as we have already
more
much
Studying the internal field is
Dealing with outer
fields only,
situations inside the layer,
of some complicated
seen in 4.2 and 4.4. However,

insight into the
if
one wants to obtain an
macroscopic formalism of absorption and to develop design
tools for multilayers
We
of importance
it is
combined from dielectrics and metals.

between these two aspects as mentioned
shall distinguish
in the
introduction to this chapter.
Before proceeding any further,
let
us briefly analyse the situation on
the second boudary. Introducing again the subscripts
and L, one can
generalize the reflection law

L
By
7t
R =>
we come
analysing (4-6a, b),
'
01= -01
0'
R,
to the results
4 = 4, 4 = -4, 4
= -4,
4 = -4
so
a'L
is'R
kc'R ,
a'i
= hR -
kc'R
Putting formally for the L-direction
4=4 + K.
we
see
N^=r,al +
xal,
KL = x< -
by the change of all the k-components that the vectors
are mirror images of their R-counterparts. This again

generalization of what
we
is
K
$L ,
NL and
fCL
a consequential
are used to in dielectrics.
Finally, as regards the tangential projections onto the second
boundary
obviously the same holds as was stated at the end of Sect. 4.3.
The phase angle of the
metallic film
becomes complex
in the following
way
,,'- fr-
= ^-nhcos0 = ^- (Nz - sK)
(4-34)
so
exp(-j^)
exp
(~^-Kh\ exp(-j^Nz h) -VtT*

.
(4-35)
where
%=
is
e"**
the amplitude attenuation factor.

(4-35)
may be
introduced into the Airy summation formulae.
(4-36)
OPTICS OF METALS
195
For the interference matrix we need the expressions

cos
(<p'
sin
(<p'
- j(p")
where the damping
4.6.1
=
=
j>")
cos
sin
<p'
<p'
cosh
cosh
<p"
<p"
+ j sin <p'
- j cos <p'
sinh
q>
sinh
q>
(4-37a, b)
.
essentially involved in the hyperbolic functions.
is
Computing the outer
field
Airy summation formulae

Generalizing as mentioned above,
rR
where
all
tR
T +Va * e -**
=
ry
'
TTTê^
(4 ' 38a ' b)
R in the Fresnel coefficients were dropped.
the subscripts
Writing f v
we obtain
e*\
iv
*v
ja
",
1, 2,
the energy coefficients are
obtained in the form
.2
ji+î + M^r^ cos(2tp' +
+*
+ 2^
r?r*
r,r 2 cos(2<p'
"2
<5
5,
- 52)
- d2)
'
,2,2,,,,2
a
-lfi*
'2
TR_r
where
2
<2r
may be
.^ ,2
|tRl
Tame as above"
may be
and
2 ,2,2
'
^
taken to use
(l
2 ,2
_
"'
2
escape
-^' 1=
as
"
we introduced the two Fresnel energy

as we were able to do in (3-3a,
+
*
JJ
(4-40)
transmission coefb).
Care had to be
N (or q in normal incidence) as the proportionality factor for
the Poynting vector. However,

(4-40b) as Tj
interpreted as g y , r
same way
ficients in the
4 " 39b )
interpreted as the energy attenuation factor.
Throughout these formulae
In this equation
<
t2
we need not
By formally computing the
interpret the
numerator of
left-hand side of (4-40),
we
the peculiarities of the internal field, in particular

that of the
energy balance on the second boundary. Since the reader
might already at
this point run into troubles by simply checking
the recommended way
all
of
generalizing the Fresnel coefficients,
we
shall briefly outline the
problem,
196
although the
answer can only be given

normal incidence.
later (p. 204).
final
fine ourselves to
Taking n x to be complex, n t =tf l

2
Qui
jx x
(n
(o
We shall
we have for the first boundary

2
>h)
2
h)
+ x\
+ *?
(4-41)
PlR
Tin
2n
fi
("o
We take the energy balance
con-
fi)
T 1R
1>
(4-42)
fc?
an obvious necessity,
no path is
boundary
since during reflection and refraction at a simple
covered and no energy loss should be incurred. The same goes for the
second boundary considered isolated and the light coming out of the metal.
Let us see what
62R
we
side as
obtain:
nl
on the right-hand
n2
-jx
(li
(fi
~
+
2
+*
n 2 f + x]
W2)
(4-41')
Qik
T 2R
n2
- jx )
+ "2 - Jî
2(h
i
+ 4n 2 x
+ n 2 )2 +
4H2I/!
(li
t 2R
>
2
1 lri 1
(4-42')
The energy balance (set up in the way so far usual for us) is violated in that
the sum of the two Fresnel energy coefficients is greater than unity by a
surplus term
2
4n 2 x Ah
W=
(/i
However,
this
n2
f+
(4-43)
x\
we have wrongly generalized the Fresnel

metal-to-dielectric transition. The correct interpretation
does not
coefficients for the
mean
of the apparent discrepancy
that
lies
in the detailed study of energy fluxes in a
metallic medium, where there simultaneously exist right- and left-going

waves. This will be undertaken shortly. (The reader is also reminded of
Sect. 1.6.)
Let us return to the formulae (4-39a, b) and (4-41). For highly refleand already the first reflection
cting metals (Ag, Al, Au) x t >i/ t , n
coefficient g t R is near unity. (In addition 8 1 R a: n.) Under these circumstances
is
(4-1 9a) is almost constant and nearly unity. Very little real inferference
involved here: either the film is exceedingly thin (say h = 300 A) in order
OPTICS OF METALS
197
to be transparent, but then
spectrum; or h
with
X,
is
changes
<p'
little
as X runs through the visible
greater, so that cos (2<p' ...)
might change appreciably
but then the attenuation factor swamps this term so that
it is
with respect to # 1R If there are appreciable changes of q k with

more due to the dispersion of the optical constants: r\(X), x(X).
.
Of course
as attenuation
of dispersion,
there
do
exist intermediate cases,
negligible
X,
they are
where interference as well
affecting the g R function. In order to eliminate the influence
is
let
us choose as the independent variable the geometric
thickness h, with X fixed. This corresponds to the practical situation
the film
being evaporated onto a blank glass and
is
transmissivity are monitored in
and
monochromatic
light.
when
and
With h changing, q>'
reflectivity
its
change proportionally.
<p"
75
aC
/"
MqFi/Qt/gfoss
'\c(
50
25
X-4300A
IV
^^
\\
500
Fig. 4-4 q, x
hi
1300
1000
and a
in
dependence of the geometric thickness of
a germanium layer in two substantially different regions of absorption.
Fig. 4-4 illustrates
germanium on
glass at
two
= 4300 A the optical constants were taken

= 6500 A = 4.98, x = 0.92. We thus have
For X
for X
r\
acts as a strongly
respectively.
(For other reasons the input medium
see that with slackening attenuation
are displayed, until for x -+
maxima would then occur

h
3.73,
x.
= 2.30,
is
more
situations,
MgF 2
.)
interference oscillations
complete periodicity would be attained. The
at the thicknesses
*ii
and analogously
r\
two
where
and an intermediately absorbing metal,
germanium
We
different wavelengths.
as
for the minima.
odd, X fixed
198
Absorption in a metallic film
Attenuation of amplitude brings about attenuation of energy. The
sum of
The
the normal coefficients for the outer field
r
is
is
smaller than unity.
positive quantity
Qr.
9r
interpreted as absorption.
This
If there are interference oscillations in

q r and # R , a R must also oscillate.
is clearly seen from Fig. 4-4. Already this should suffice to declare
absorption an interference quantity. However,
we
shall find
more substan-
tiation for this in the further course of this discussion.
Let us open a different approach to absorption by starting with the

transformation
WnE 2s + w 12 H2s
m 2l E 2s + m 22 H 2s
E is =
=
H is
where
this
all
the matrix elements are
now complex by
(4-28a, b), (4-37a, b).
We now take the complex conjugate of the second equation and multiply
by the first equation. Owing to the orthogonality of and H this
corresponds to forming the normal component of the complex Poynting

vector of the total
The time average
field.
ClS/norm
-jSn
**
11 "1
=
*
1
is
then
"g
ê {EisH] S } =
E2S
|2
+ m w|2 (E 2S H|s ) +
t i
Considering that the second boundary
+ ^12^*2
H 2S 2 +
I
m, 2 iî(Ejs H2S )}
is
the
(4-44)
we have
last,
H 2S 2 = H 2R 2 = n\ E 2R
E sH2S = E 2R H2R = "2(E 2RE 2R = E 2S H 2S = n 2 E 2R
I
E 2S
= E 2R
|
the right-hand side of (4-44)
we can
C*2R)norm
which
is
On
is
no L-wave
flux.
2
|
therefore factor out
"gT" n 2
E 2R
the normal flux of energy carried by the
the layer. There
R-wave when leaving
OPTICS OF METALS
Contrary to
right
and
this (Pi S) norm is the net difference
the input boundary (for
left at
We may now
normal
199
compute
more
r-(rr lR
.
Wuw|i +
Rel
/norm
#R
of net
referred to the flux
and output boundaries,
fluxes at the input
flowing
is
detail see Fig. 4-6).
relative absorption as the difference
of the incident wave (Pi R ) no rm
between what
n 2 fn 12 mt 2
fnnfnt 2
fn 12 fn\ x
(4-45)
The absorption
is
formally proportional to (normal) transmission of
the layer, the "proportionality factor" being a certain combination of the
matrix elements fn i} and the substrate index of refraction n 2

After insertion from (4-28a, b), (4-37a, b) a R may be put in the form
.
<*R
= l{l(y'sinh2<
^)" +
v
?
2 |n 2
-1
y/2
.
From
this
ferentially as
formula
it is
9 R does, but
explicitly containing
,
y//2
q>',
it
<p".
(7
v
"2
Y 2 + Y" 2
(Y'sihhlcp"
Y"sm2<p')}+
'
'
Y"sin2<p')
^
'
sinh
<p"
Y"
sin
(4-46)
cp')
seen that not only absorption changes inter-
has an interference factor (4-46) of
its
own,
Also, the explicit appearance of n 2 , but not
in this factor is typical.
Although 9 R and the factor (4-46) are interdependent, we state the

following: absorption in a metallic film is a relative quantity in the sense
that for a given # R
it
may have
different values according to the value of
the right-hand side of (4-46).
We
shall
come back
to this subject later.
200
4.6.2
Computing the inner
field
Poynting's vector of two encountering waves in metals
We have seen in the introductory Sect. 1.6 that two encountering

waves in a metallic medium give rise to an interference flax of energy which
must be considered along with the orthodox fluxes carrie J by the two travellThe key to a correct analysis of any situation involving
two coherent waves is to add up field intensities first and form their
ing waves separately.

at least
Q
vector product -5
Re
[E s x He] second.
The new thing we are now going to do in comparison with 1.6 is to

take two encountering inhomogeneous waves forming inside a metallic
layer in oblique incidence.
Consider the 5-polarization. The total
J(^r
electric field is
+ A),
with reference to (4-27a) and Sect. 4.6 the total magnetic
may be
field
expressed as
n y S R (-a'<
where
in the
ja"a'L
+ jaX) +
nîa'n'i
ja"<)
a'a'l
a mirror image of s R in both
its
second term use was made of the relation
following from the fact that s L
is
$L
components.
Inserting into the Poynting vector
J X
we
S=
-r.
x r
r,
and using the
a'i
= a'L
relations
j
<
-<
obtain after some arrangement
PS = JVtR + P Ln L +
-^ Re {n*[L
K - }<) + <^ K R
JOl)]}
(4-47)
As
expected, the total-field flux of energy
is
the vector
sum of
the
by the R-and L-travelling waves, plus a third vector whose

existence depends on the simultaneous presence of the two waves in the
medium. This interference Poynting vector is associated with the existence
of the standing wave in the metal and its physical role will be duly interpreted
fluxes carried
in a subsequent section.
We shall decompose Ps into
the normal
and
and
wave by
tangential directions
express everything in terms of the parameters of the right-going

OPTICS OF METALS
201
applying proper reflections at the second boundary and corresponding
phase
shifts.
The computation
directly, referred to
behind the
first
any
rather laborious
is
and we give the
parallel plane in the metal at
boundary.
It is
expedient to use
from the second boundary) as the independent
'
results
a distance z
'
backward distance
(the
variable.
Writing
xfr
we have
(4-48)
for the s-polarization
normal
in the
= ^-Nco*x-C
direction:
PSz(C') =
Pr(C')
U - r|e
cos z
- r 2R sin
(i^
<5
2R )
(4-49a)
in the tangential direction:
Ps,(C)
Pr(C')
sin
X <1
r 2K
e~T K + e~^ KC
'
'
2r 2R cos ty
<5
2R )>
(4-49b)
P R (C)
is
the non-projected flux of the
the inhomogeneous
wave
is
R-wave
in the given plane. Since
attenuated in the normal direction,
P R(C) does
not depend on any other coordinate.
Analogously we have for the p-polarization
Ps,(O
.
r2 R e
-
k
normal direction
in the
= PR(Ocos(20'-*)x
2Kcos26>
2Xcos20'
'
-%-kc
k
.
JVcos(20'
,.
r 2R sin
(^
<5
2R )
x)
(4-50a)
in the tangential direction
Psi(O
x <1
The
energy.
r 2K
= PR(C')-sin(20'-
e~T KC '
e~~^
Ki '
.
Z )x
2r 2R cos
(ip
<5 2R)
>
(4-50b)
third terms in the brackets represent the interference fluxes of
It is interesting
to note that they oscillate harmonically with
'
202
[starting with a
phase (-<5 2R ) for
and that the amplitude of these
xj/
'
at the second boundary]
oscillations is constant:
PR(C')exp (-*)The
first
2R
terms are simply the net sums, or differences, of the travelling
fluxes.
The normal
with K.
On
interference flux can only exist in metals, since
it
vanishes
the other hand, the tangential interference flux exists indepen-
dently of this even in dielectrics.
With
two-beam
K=
and
(4- 50b) represent the
orthodox
interference as with the Lloyd's mirror experiment.
Looking
the brackets in (4-49b)
along the Ox-axis there exist interference fringes parallel with the boundary
and having a width A/2w t cos Q x

Dwelling for a while on this diversion to dielectrics, let us decide
whether the fringe system is anchored in the boundary by a dark or a bright
.
band.
Considering the angle of incidence '
x (i
now
being real) in the
neighbourhood of grazing incidence, we may take (f2 ) p = + 1, (f2 ) s

[follows from (2-4a) making <9 V _! = rc/2] and we have in both cases
<1
giving a dark fringe for
larized light,
which
is
ty
+ r\
0.
2r 2
cos^> p
The same
will therefore
hold for unpo-
used in most experiments.
The corresponding
orientation of the electric vectors
is
shown
Fig. 4-5.
Fig. 4-5
Determining the phase

polarizations.
dR
two
shifts
at nearly grazing incidence for the
in
OPTICS OF METALS
The
real) r
/>-case is interesting because
it
203
of the fact that with a positive (and

of incidence, while
yields destructive interference for large angles
with the same r

p
it
would give
constructive interference in the
neighbourhood
of normal incidence.
If the plane polarization
had a general azimuth, a still more complicated

would combine the results of this section and of Sect. 4.5. There
would again be some tangential components at right angles to the plane
analysis
of incidence.
Fig. 4-6 illustrates the results of this section for normal incidence on a
numerical example chosen so as to make the observation of the typical
features easy.
Pr
describe
boundary
layer.
Pl
all
it
is
the net difference of the travelling fluxes, but this does not
the energy shifts inside the layer. In particular,
does not equal
Similarly there
qr
where q r
on the
first
the reflectivity of the whole
is
would be a discrepancy on the second boundary
when comparing with t r Superposing the interference flux w(Q onto the
P R - PL establishes the correct energy balance at the boundaries.
.
difference
In addition, the interference flux takes part in the energy balance for the
dissipation of energy inside the layer, as will soon be shown.
The energy balance on a
We
are
now
metal/dielectric
boundary
in a position to account for the discrepancy with the
metal-to-dielectric energy balance outlined

is
that writing intuitively
g 2R
on
we
t 2R ,
p. 196.
The
critical
7 -40, k-0.5
* -
1/t ,
h-0.0665u
'
rio-ng-f
n
'2
^f^W-^
n.
600
500
*-*
/?,
300
200
Fig. 4-6 Superposition of the transport
and
point
disregard the interaction of
m
m
*
100
nm
interference fluxes of
energy across a metal layer in dielectric embedding.
204
the incident and reflected waves resulting in the interference Poynting

vector.
Confining ourselves again to normal incidence, we obtain the actual

=
net flux impinging on the metal face by using (4-49a) or (4- 50a) with 0'
and
C =
0:
2R \ 1
r\*
x
2 -^ r 2 R sin 5 2tL
n
must equal the R-wave
continuity of the boundary conditions this
By
energy transport on the dielectric face.
P2 r ~
1i
^2R
we may
Knowing
that
<f 2R
i29
&2
v.
an<*
write
P2R =
Comparing
(4-51a)
2
I
?2R
P 2r =
t 2R P 2R
(4-51b)
(4-5 la, b) leads to the equation
+ ^12=
QiK
(4-52)
t 2R
where
W 12 = -2^-r 2R sin5 2R =
Although the interference
-2-î-Im(f2R)
flux
1v
KO = P R i~ r
2
is
an
since
sin (*
oscillating function across the layer, w(0)

<5
2R
<
0.
Actually
it
(4-53)
(4-54)
^2r)
W12
is
always positive
equals the surplus term established on p. 196.*)
*)
In connection with equation (4-52) we may tentatively state the following: if we
could directly measure the energy fluxes inside metallic media, we would have to conclude
that the total energy incident on boundary 2 is proportional to 1 + w 2 and we might
define locally true energy coefficients of reflection
e 2R
(1
+ w2v),
r 2R
and transmission as
:
(1
+ w2R)
We could
not, however, find any reasonable complex quantities of which the new coeffiwere the squared magnitudes and which could reasonably be used for the amplitude
description of the electromagnetic wave. This is still secured by the orthodox Fresnel
cients
The fact that g 2R and t 2r do not retain their usual meaning is

f 2R
sometimes regarded as a breakdown of the concept of energy coefficient. Obviously it is
a harmless breakdown in a situation when such a coefficient is never needed. Moreover,
coefficients f 2R ,
OPTICS OF METALS
205
Computing absorption from the inner
field
This operation consists of setting up the energy balance for the normal
components of the total-field

two boundaries, i.e.
_ / Pis ~
^2s \
*1R
measured at the internal faces of the
fluxes,
or
/norm
We have dashed the P ls in order to stress the point of the method.

The normal components of
the fluxes P'1S
and P 2S are special values

= h and respectively
of the expressions (4-49a), (4-50a) for PSr(0> putting '
We
obtain after arrangements
s-polarization
aR
x/(l
_
-
cosx
Toi
-coT07
2
+ W 2 r 2R
) + -l^-^r^sin-jo'cos^'
U ){\
2R )\
(4-55a)
/>-polarization
_
aR_To1
x /(l
<*
2
) (1
r 2K )
cos(20'-x)
x
coi;
4Kcos20
Ncos(2& -
'
^2
sin
cos {(p
\
I
x)
(4-55b)
where (with regard to
2.6.6)
N
l
"o
is
^ 2 e-
f,Rf2R
2j "'
the internal coefficient of transmission
metallic face of the
we
'1R
oi
first
or
(4-56)
from the input medium to the
boundary.
shall subsequently see that everything that
accompanies
this proves indispensable for
the logic of the energy balance of the thin metallic film as a whole.
The energy balance on a metal/dielectric boundary was set forth as a problem in 191
[6], later by Salzberg, [7], and Vasicek [8]. The interpretations
of this chapter are based on the papers [9] and [10].
by Born and Ladenburg,
206
In particular for normal incidence
(1
aR
= JL
- ^ 2 ) (1 +
rl K )
2
f 1R
"
rfR sin
<p'
cos
(<p'
<5
2R )
!L_
2
<2f
r R r| R
^ + 2r 1R r 2K <%
cos
(2ep'
<5
1R
2R )
(4-55c)
where the denominator of (4-56) has been fully developed.

We have thus derived new explicit formulae for absorption, which
are in their numerators (but not the denominators) quite different from
what we obtain in taking 1 - q r - 9 R The contribution of attenuation by
.
transport
is
from the more variable contribution of the
clearly separated
interference fluxes.
It is
evident from this
method of derivation
that the external environ-
ment of the
We
metallic film could have consisted of further interference films.

should again arrive at the formulae (4-55a, b) or (4-55c), provided that
t 01
and r2R exp Q8 2R ) are properly interpreted as the
transfer coefficients
of the external interference systems.
Forming the
factor
ratio a R /S R ,
f2R
we should
obtain (apart from a constant
complementing (4-56) to 9 R
the brackets in (4-55a, b)
or the numerator of (4-55c), respectively. Manipulating r

2R exp(jS 2R ) by
proper design of the additional backing layers in such a way as to give
sin
<p'
cos
(q>'
<5
2R ) a
maximum
negative value,
we minimize absorption
relative to transmission. This is the starting point
of a design procedure
leading to the so called induced transmission.
To complete it we shall first

need to derive a theorem concerning the addition of layers on the input
side (see 6.4.1.).
The Joule heat of dissipation

The standing wave and
in
a metallic film
the interference flux of energy
The time-average of the heat
dissipated per second in unit
Q =
In normal incidence
P = Ps
k, so
-div P
volume
is
(4-57)
OPTICS OF METALS
div
P =
dP
-rr1-
dz
207
where P,
be taken from (4-49a) in the form
will
ft'
g
PS (D = Pa(Oe-^"
'
(Jr* - 4e"T^' + 2 ^sin(^< -
<5
2R
))
P2R
We then
have
= ^-xP 2R /e^-* + rê ^*' +

5'
Q(C)
2r 2R cos(4p-i,{'
<5
2R
)
(4-58)
For a
later
purpose we denote the brackets as a function
now
Considering
P 2R = -r
that
r\
<f 2R
2
|
F(').
factoring
? 2R
into
the brackets, further verifying that

2
l*2Rl
e^'=
|/(OI
'r(0'2(0 =
K2R|
2
2 R|
e"^'=|/ L (ni
(^ xC '"H
r 2R e
and using the well-known material relation r\x. = c/v (a ... conductivity,
frequency of the monochromatic wave), we may write (4-58) as
v
. .
Q=
Now
all
{y
**(C)
2
I
2
I
'l(C')
the three terms in the brackets
may
averages, totalling the time average of [EK (t)
y Re
[<f R (C) <?(')]
be interpreted as some time-
+ EL(t)] 2 =
|(t), if
E is
the
absulute value of E.
We
thus have Poynting's theorem (4-57) in the form of
Q(C)
The
= aEl&t)
(4-59)
rate of energy dissipation across the layer
buted according to the function
Ohm's law
Fiji').
is
nonuniformly
distri-
This does not depend on the input
embedding and on the thickness of the layer. It is defined for all ' ^ 0, i.e.
in the whole half-space in front of the second boundary.
For a layer of specific thickness the definition of F(C) is of course
limited to the interval <0, h}. The specification of h (withf/, xn ,n g and 6>
given beforehand) determines also
P 2R which
,
is
proportional to the trans-
208
mittance of the layer as a whole.
t- x ?2r to indicate
(?(') for
The function
F(') is scaled
by the factor
that layer. Fig. 4-7 illustrates this in a specific
example.
Owing to the damping factors in (4-58) we may only speak of relative

maxima and minima of Q('). These occur for those ', which statisfy the
conditions
4jt
lC
"d
/I2n
-<(2/-l)K
The same conditions hold

vector
h-(C'),
maxima
minima
,. , n
<**>
b)
for the zeros of the interference Poynting
given by (4-54).
x10S
W/cm 3
Fig. 4-7 Distribution of energy dissipation along the
layer normal.
Drawing
we
this function into the
same diagram with Q(C),
Fig. 4-8,
find the following correlation: the interference flux of energy changes
sign in such a
g(C)
way
to regions of a
One
as to cause energy shifts from places of a
minimum
maximum
Q(C).
must bear in mind that the interference flux
fluxes of the travelling
waves so that
its
is
superposed on the
local negative value does not
mean
a negative net flux coexisting with a positive incident flux. The net flux
is always positive, as can be seen from Fig. 4-6. The role of the oscillating
term w(Q consists of modifying the distribution of the net flux in such a way
as to fit the needs of the outer field (g R t r ) as well as to cover the loss
,
unevenly distributed throughout the
layer.
remains to find the outer reasons for
this kind of distribution. This

has to do with the standing wave inside the metal. Referring everything
It
OPTICS OF METALS
209
boundary and using the
to the second
01,' axis,
ference of two encountering waves by the
which for x
and r2R
r 2R
With
,<ot
cos
and f2R < 1, the interference in the

not be completely destructive. Nevertheless the standing wave
the attenuation present
will
inter-
leads to the well-known pattern of a standing
wave
nodes
one can describe the
sum
does exist in a form schematically shown at the bottom of Fig.
We may
4-8.
modulus of the complex amplitude C(C)

to be exactly equal to the brackets in (4-58). This means that the maxima
and minima of Q(C') follow the antinodes and the nodes of the standing
find the squared
wave.
This makes the picture of the energy situation complete.
Notes:
(i)
Throughout the analysis of the inner field we have considered

two encountering waves to be irrelevant. For a theoretical
the origin of the
medium to be an
and the incident wave just to exist. With respect to the
results of Sect. 2.6.6 on the internal transfer coefficients and in particular
to Eq. (2-40a), it would have been allowable in the computations to interpret
<^ R as belonging to a wave inside a layer, which has built up through multiple
analysis
it is
of course possible to assume the metallic
infinite half-space
As a matter of fact, we have already extrapolated the results

by commenting on the function F(') and showing Fig. 4-7.
The optical properties ofj metallic films are surveyed in a recent
reflection?.
to a layer
(ii)
article
by Abeles,
Fig. 4-8
[11].
The standing wave and the
distribution of the interference flux
of energy with respect to the distribution

of energy dissipation.
44
210
(iii)
purposeful manipulation of the standing wave locating
its
antinodes outside of the metallic layer so as to minimize absorption is

actually involved in the design procedure leading to induced transmission
(Ch.
5.)
A more explicit application of this viewpoint has recently led to the
development of an unorthodox high-reflectance multilayer for the vacuum

ultraviolet by Spiller, [12]. The usual HLH... scheme is replaced by sandwiching the transparent
layers inbetween properly dimensioned ultrathin
metallic layers that simulate the required Fresnel reflection with tolerable
absorption loss for the whole system.
References
[1]
E. Ketteler, Theoretische Optik, Braunschweig, 1885, p. 126.
[2]
O.
[3]
S. Heavens, see ref. 13, in Ch. 3.

A. Va&cek, Tables for the Determination of the Optical Constants of Metals, Prague,
[4]
A. P. Prishivalko, Reflection of Light from Absorbing Media,
1964.
(in Russian),
Minsk
1963.
[5]
A.
I.
Mahan,
J.
Opt. Soc. Am., 46, 913 (1956).
[7]
M. Born and R. Ladenburg, Phys.

B. Salzberg, Am. J. Phys., 16, 444
[8]
A. VaSf&k, Z. Phys., 161, 26 (1961).
[9]
C.
[6]
v. Fragstein,
Ann. Phys.,
7,
Z., XII, 198 (1911).

(1948).
63 (1950).
Z. Knittl, Czech. J. Phys. 9, 133 (1959).

[11] F. Abeles, Optical Properties of Metallic films, in: Physics of Thin Films, Ed.
Francombe and D. W. Hoffman Vol. 6, Academic Press, 1971.
[10]
Space Optics
[12] E. Spiller,
ISBN
M. H.
0-409-02144-8, Nat. Ac. Sci., Washington, D. C.
(1974).
Problems
4-1
Smith chart for determining the Fresnel reflecan air/metal boundary considering r\ ]x as the
input admittance, r\, x positive. Reconsider the Opq system of Sect. 2.7
and the orientation of the complex vector f in it. Check the angle-ofreflection scale of your chart for the correct optical meaning, eg.
for r\ = x = 1 it should indicate the angle of the vector p = -0.2,
q = 0.4. Note the interplay of r\ and x in the formation of r and 5.
Practise the use of the
tion coefficient f at
Which
values?
is
the admissible range of d, if x must be confined to positive
OPTICS OF METALS
4-2
211
By analysing the complex
Fresnel coefficient f on an air/metal boundary
x] of constant p = ? 2 and of constant 5. Draw

the corresponding graphs and note their relationship. If one
wants to
obtain g nearly unity, what are the requisite trends for x if rj
is
find the loci
{i\,
fixed
and for*;
4-3
Some
What are the accompanying trends of the angle 5 ?
if x is fixed ?
authors describe the waves by exponentials of the type

exp
i
+ a>t)], which again represent the right- and left-going
\}(2nX~ nz
A dissipative medium must then be described by

a complex refractive index of the form// + jx, r\, x positive. Check
this
and the signs of the angles b and d in Fresnel coefficients. What do the
terms phase advance and phase retardation mean in either
of the
waves, respectively.
What are the new phase matrices?

Treat (4-24a, b) on the assumption that x p r\, which
descriptions?
4-4
metals.
You
N2
4-5
is
true of
many
should obtain
=ri
N =
n\ sin 2 0,
ij,
K=x
Consider the simplifications for (4-29) and (4-30) and the implication
for the angle x if, in addition, r\ <4 1
The principal angle of incidence for metallic reflection is defined by
the condition
reflected light
A =
<5
<5
n\2. The polarization
ellipse
of the
then erected at right angles to the boundary. Note the

corresponding simplification in the formulae (4-30).
4-6
is
Drawing a parallel between the power flux in an electromagnetic wave

and that in a wire carrying alternating current note that taking Re (ft) =
= /I cosy as the proportionality factor in metals (refer to Sect. 1.6
and 4.5) is analogous to applying the power factor cos e when computing
the time-average of the oscillating
4-7
power
V(atf)
3(cot
e).
Rotate the coordinate system Oxyz about the j>-axis by the angle
x so
as to make the new axis Oz' coincide with the normal
N. Find the
analytical expression for the refracted
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
damping factor along the

determined by K cos %
the
wave
(4-18)
and note that
direction of phase propagation
is
the inhomogeneity of amplitude along the x'-direction is

given by
^Tsin x
introducing the true wavelength of the refracted wave X = XjN,
the absorption coefficient is
cos XjN
(iv)
with respect to the
ous wave n
tj
last
point
- jx =
for the true wavelength X\ n
it is
possible to write for a
- j K) so
is x\r\ = k.
n(\
homogene-
the absorption coefficient
This
is
the notation to be
212
found in some older
literature.
Care must be taken when using
the formulae for the determination of the optical constants in either
of the notations.
4-8
Referring to (4-5 la), consider
its
values for various r 2R and
<5
2R
medium may be backed by a further,

system. r 2R and
2R may now assume more
admitting that the metallic

possibly all-dielectric
<5
varied values than are admissible with Fresnel reflection. In particular
2R may even be positive. The only physical requirement placed on

(4-51a) in these circumstances is that it always indicate a non-negative
<5
flux of energy across 1/2.
securing this.
Note
it is
Find the locus of the vectors
now
r 2R
exp
j<5 2R
be greater than unity

(Such a value has indeed
possible for r 2R to
without violating the energy balance in toto.

been encountered as an intermediate result by Berning during the
design of induced transmission filters, see ref. {6] in Ch. 2 and Fig.6-13).
5
General systems of layers
Having found
all
the implications of the complex refractive index for
the theory of a single metallic film,
we may generalize for an arbitrary layer

we meet a metallic layer, we compute
system in the following way: any time

its
complex phase angle
formally in the same
cp
way
and the complex admittances Yp Fs and proceed

as in Ch. 2 to compute the outer field from the
,
elements of the system transfer matrix.

In the rather exceptional case that the outer media are absorbing, the
concept of energy transmittance
and the concept of energy
is
generalized with respect to Eq. (4-33)
reflectance actually breaks
down, as was shown
in 4.6.2.
As a new
situation we may also have two adjacent metallic layers.

This has no effect on the computation of the outer field; the inner fields in
these layers
may
layer in Ch. 4.
only there
is
be treated in the same way as was established for one

concepts are needed to understand the situation,
No new
a greater variety of possibilities for the interference fluxes to be
way or other.
The same is true for a
oriented this
There
is
encing
now a much
single layer
embedded between
wider scope to manipulate
its
dielectric stacks.
internal field
by
influ-
second reflection factor r2 which was discovered in Ch. 4 to hold

a key position as regards the absorption of the metallic layer. In fact, most
of the new concepts emerging in the theory of general layer systems are
its
concerned with absorption as an interference quantity. These

introduced in the subsequent sections.
Another item
ntially
as
we
still left
open
is
concerns dielectric films, but
will
be
the case of total relaction. This esseit
could not be covered
shall see, total reflection gives rise to
earlier, because,
a complex wave normal after
214
we
refraction, so that
are better equipped to handle
it
after a chapter
on
metallic films.
Total reflection will be treated in Sect. 4 of this chapter. Combining
more
films leads to the further concept of frustrated total reflection,
will also
which
be given some attention.
5.1 Absorption in a layer system
Let there
layers
"be
a general systems of k layers including some absorbing
between the boundaries
absorbing layer altogether) or

lic
m and
m =
/.
In particular cases
and/or
= k +1
= m +
(one
(some of the metal-
films being adjacent to the
In this
way
embedding media).
divided into two non-absorbing parts I & II
which may consist of any combination of metallic
the system
is
and an absorbing part III,

and dielectric films, but definitely
starting with metallic films at
its
outer
sides.
The sequence of metallic films contained between m and
/,
taken in that
order and with the actual geometric thicknesses, will be called the metallic
skeleton of the absorbing stack.
The
dielectric
media in-between may be
regarded as a kind of spacer. They are not part of the skeleton, but
ed, the
subsystem
Denoting by
will
be called the
[fn { ^
core. This is the
if
includ-
system HI in Fig.
the interference matrix of the system
III,
5-1.
we may
up a transformation between the matrices of the total field in the same

way as in 4.6. 1 and obtain an expression for the time average of the net
flux of energy on the w-th boundary, which is identical with (4-44) except
that we write m and / instead of 1 and 2, respectively.
The difference in further manipulations with (4-44) is given by the
fact that the rear boundary of the absorbing system (i.e. the /-th in the whole
system) is no more the last one, so that we must replace the simple relations following (4-44) by more general ones, considering that the net flux
on the /-th boundary is not simply the right-going flux behind it.
set
It is
expedient to introduce the internal reflection coefficient for an
R-going wave behind the

r,'
i.e.
it is
/-th
e- 2J "r DR
boundary, which
is
e^*" 2 ^ =
evidently
the reflection factor of the dieletric system
by a phase shift
2<p t
due
to the fact that
we measure
e*'<
(5-1)
(Fig. 5-2), corrected
the waves at a phase

distance
from the input to
to the left
<p,
215
(without any boundary having
been crossed).
We
have shown in
of reflection on the
Sect. 2.6.6 that coefficients
second boundary of a layer apply to a right-going wave be

a composite sum of multiple
it
simple or
reflections.
We may therefore compute

E =
(s
E,'R (1
r,'
H,s
R ),
H,' R (1
r'/R)
(5-2)
k*1
RT~1
Fig. 5-1
The absorbing core of a
Fig. 5-2 Defining the reflectance
general
metal-dielectric system.
The squared moduli
2
l
= ER
'
2
IS
are
nf
E,'R
of the rear matching stack.
now
{1
2
I
{1
EH* = (E*H1S)* =
'
r( R 2
2
r,'
I
E,'R
2
I
Re
2 Re(i-;R )};
{1
(r'lK)}
2
|
r,'
2j
Im
(r'lR )}
Further write
(^llOnorm
Inserting
now
(Pms)no
"g^"
Ej'R
into the equation of the type (4-44)
(P'm)n mm {A
+ Bq d + 2C ^fc cos 0 +
we have
*,*)}
(?*)
O (5-3)
with the following notations
= Re-} mumti +
n,m 12 ml 2
+ m lt m2 2 + m l2 ni:
'A
216
B = Re<
(.
cos
C sin
/Mnw*!
+ n,m 12 m*2 m vv m%2 m X2 m^
fi
= Re-j wnW*!
ft
Im {fn^fn^ w* 2 /m*i}
It is left
n,m 12 w* 2
quantities A, B, C,
fi
(5-4a, b, c, d)
somewhat laborious proof
to the reader to carry out the
C 2 - AB =
The
that
(5-4e)
are completely determined by the system III
, which may be regarded as the backing

medium for III. The quantities gD and 5'm depend on the system D and
on the /-th layer in accordance with (5-1)
alone and by the index of refraction
Qdr
No
dr
parameter of the system
2
l
I is
s 'm
>
s dk
(5-40
2(Pi
involved.
now compute
Let us
absorption as the difference (PmS

referred to the incident flux (/, 1R ) orm and denote (P) norm = P.
Since everything behind the /-th boundary
of energy ensures a relation

Pm+i.R-
It is
is dielectric,
ls ) orm
the conservation
= P(m+ 1)S where the last net flux is
Pis
essentially
therefore expendient to use the obvious relation
p ls = p;R{i-ir;R
= Pm + i.R
0-5)
and write
PmS
Pis
1R
*U-|r|R
P'ir
where the ratio in front of the brackets

whole system. We therefore have
=T
cos
î
COS
A ~
_ p; + i,r (
l)
+ (*+
is
A
/
the normal transmittance of the
go
1
+ 2CVfocos (n +
S;R )
QD
As a generalization of what we already know about a single layer

we may conclude that the absorption of the system I HI II is proportional
to
its
transmission S, while the proportionality factor
nation of the parameters relating to
system
I are
III
and
involved only in the factor 9.
II alone.
is
given by the combi-
The parameters of
We may infer
the
that the ratio a/9
217
is independent of I and -in addition -for a given III

+ ,, it may be regulated by the choice of D and <p, If we design the backing system in such a way
that a/5 has a minimum value, then we have optimized the conditions
for III
in the following sense: with various preceding systems I the
complete system
may have different q' s and 5' s, i.e. different beam-splitting ratios, but for a
.
given 5 the absorption has always a minimum*) possible value. If the

design were not optimized in this way, then we could say that, for example
for a given q we have less transmitted light than theoretically possible.
The
ratio a/5 has
of Kard's papers,
in his
monograph
been the object of optimization techniques in many
now summarized and developed
in considerable depth
The underlying formalism
rests on the Vlasov-Kard

formulae treating the ratios 1/5, g/5, a/5 directly by recursion. This formalism
is introduced in Chapter 8 of this book. Simultaneously,
the present section
treats a/5 in terms
[1].
of the orthodox interference matrices.
In order clarify the language of confrontation between the approach

through a/5 and that resting on the concept of potential transmittance (to
be introduced in the next section), we venture to propose a terminology

for
the a/5 case, for which there seems to be no precedent in English written
literature so far.
The process of minimizing a/5

a
is
called
by Kard
prosvetlenie,
which
homonym
to the Russian equivalent of antireflection (also "prosvetlenie"). Literal translation of this term would be translumination,
and it
is
would not be homonymous with its English counterpart -antireflection.

Alternatively, English offers the possibility of confronting antireflection
with a symmetric term antiabsorption, or counterabsorption: counterabsorbing a system, or transluminating it, would then mean minimizing its a/5
ratio.
This in its turn deserves a proper name. There is no pattern for it in

Kard's vocabulary, but inevitable absorptance seems to be a convenient
parallel to the existing term potential transmittance. Whereas the latter
indicates the transmittance that could be reached in the absorbing stack
were antireflected to g = 0, the ratio a/5 represents the amount of
if it
absorption as a fraction of the transmitted energy whatever the value of

*)
This statement about a

be explained later.
tion, to
minimum
is
q.
only valid in the sense of external translumina-
218
If this
have
zero, transmittance will be
is
its
fixed share of
The
effect
maximum, but absorption will inevitably
it.
of the counterabsorbing process
a transluminated system,
is
i.e. one with induced transmission. This closes the circle of correlations
between the two possible ways of looking at the problem.
5.2 Potential transmittance and absorptance
Another useful way of looking at absorption is to follow the distribution of net power fluxes across the system. We shall confine this discussion
to normal incidence.
Let us introduce the concept of net power-flow ratio
PBS
PBR
PbL
+ WB
between any two control planes
A and B.
In accordance with the results of the preceding
power-flow
is
written as the algebraic
corresponding interference fluxes,
if
sum of the
chapter, the net
travelling fluxes
and of the
any.
If the control planes are just the left
->
7
(5 7)
ft: "
^"P^-Par-Pal + w.
and right
faces of a simple
boundary
owing to the boundary conditions.

If A and B are the left and right inner surfaces of an individual absorbing layer v of the system, then cr AB = ct v may be computed as (compare the
setting up of Eqs (4-49, 50))
then
ctab
l_
CTv
= *J
*
'
rR
+1 > 2
v+1)
v+1)
sin[-<5 R
+ 2-^rR
]
(
Hi
1
<r
v+
R
1)2
2 -^-
A
2
V+
!)
sin
r>; -
+
d '>]
I*.
Gv
(5-8)
v+1)
where rR
v+1)
v+1)
rR
expj<5 R
the system of boundaries
{v
is
the cumulative reflection coefficient of
1}
and the other notations
are taken over from 4.6.2.

Finally, if
respect to (5-3)
and B are the boundaries

and (5-5)
and
i-KR r
-
mS
of Fig. 5-1 then with
(5-9)
219
It is also possible to express a

m in terms of the interference matrix
between m and / and of the input admittance concerning the backing system.
This will be developed in 6.4.2.
,
Using the net power-flow
we may
ratio systematically across the layer system,
write
Pir
Pil
0-2P2S
=
=
=
CTkPkS
Pis
CT iPis
Multiplying
Pk+i,R/PiR>
we
these
P'is
P2S
Pas
(5-10)
Pk+l,S
Pk+1
and introducing q
equations
= P 1L /P 1R
obtain
(1
0)0-10-2 -..o-k
(5-11)
For the completely loss-less case (a

1, v = 1, 2, ...), the equations
(5-10) state the obvious fact that the net power-flow across the system is
a constant, equal to 1
x.
q
In the presence of absorption, the
initial
gradually reduced to the final output value
net power-flow
is
t.
Berning and Turner have discovered the expression
V=
appearing in
(5-1 1) to
be a very useful concept in the optimization techniques
for the performance of

called
it
combined
potential transmittance,
It is
(5-12)
l-Q
metal-dielectric
systems.
They have
[2].
related to the ratio a/r, introduced earlier,
'"(
t)""
by the formula
(5-13)
Obviously, P obeys the same general rules as oc/t with respect to forward
and backward manipulations (see end of 5.1). In interpreting potential
we may then state the following:

should be considered as a system function rather than a fixed
quantity. It indicates the maximum energy potentially to be transmitted by
an absorbing stack if the net input radiant flux is maximized through
transmittance
220
manipulating q down to zero by forward dielectric extensions. Alternatively

may be said that W represents the energy actually transmitted per unit
it
net flux on the incident side.
For a given absorbing system (or subsystem) the function

maximized by proper matching of the backing subsystem. Then
Y may be
f max is the
maximum of all the potential transmittance maxima T max = W corresponding

to the antireflected stacks. *P
is
of the whole system and by
ratio
of course identical with the net power flow

(5-1 1)
it
equals the product of the net power
flow ratios of the individual layers, which are given by formulae of the type
(5-8).
It is fully justifiable
to also call these potential transmittances (and
denote them by W), although no relation

context. This will
become evident
if
we
like t /(1
q v)
seen in this
is
independent of
realize that (5-8) is
the structure of layers adjacent to the right of the v-th layer and determining
v+1)
( v+1)
expj(5{l
As a function characteristic for the metallic film it has
rR
a definite physical meaning whatever the environment of the layer.

clear that for a simple
will
It is
then
embedding between two half-spaces the same function
be identical with an expression of the type
(5-8). (5-1 1)
may
thus be
replaced by
V = 9 t T2
There
either
By
is
...Vk
(5-14)
dramatic literature on the design procedures controlling
or a/t, [14]; see also references in Ch.
(5-14),
6.
and with respect to some unit values
in the dielectric sub-
systems, the potential transmittance of the complete system
is
the product
of the !P-functions belonging to the individual parts of the metallic skeleton

+
+
computed in the context of the system: the r' 1) and S ^ 1)
on the parts of the design (including spacers and skeleton)
(
in (5-8)
depend
to the right of
the v-th layer.
Obviously, the complete system will attain
component
its
maximum
value
if
the
potential transmittances of the skeleton are in their turn maxi-
a formidable problem, because regard to this internal trans-
mized. This
is
lumination
may
interfere with the usual intentions
of the design which
combines metallic and spacer layers to obtain spectral
filtering effects.
Basic formulae securing internal translumination are presented in the
mentioned monograph by Kard. In all its generality

a routine process leading to practical solutions.
The Fabry-Perot type

layers
is
filter
with
its
this
has not yet become
simple skeleton of two metallic
investigated for induced transmission in 35 of the
same mono-
22 j
graph. Another approach to this problem concerning an uv application of

filter is described in [5].
the
simplified approach to induced transmission is to regard the

absorbing core as a unit, again responding to outer extensions in the two
ways described. In fact, the expressions for the inevitable absorptance (5-6)
and for the potential transmittance
(5-13), are
formulated from this point
maximum of f reached in this way may fall short of

maximum attainable within the given metallic skeleton.
of view. Clearly, the

the actual absolute
We
shall call this external translumination.
only one metallic layer, the difference between the two

We shall mostly confine ourselves to this simpler case.
The corresponding design procedures will be further evolved in Sect. 6.4.*)
If there
is
treatments vanishes.
Absorption defined in the usual way as a fraction of the incident

P 1R can now be expressed as
energy
= l_
_ T= (l_
e )( 1
CTiCj2
(5-15a)
CTk)
or equivalently
t(CTiCT 2 ...
By properly manipulating
alternative
Ok)"
the system
1]
(5-15b)
we may
(5-10),
ways of expressing the contribution xv of the
whole absorption a
a,
= Zav
...
Apart from normal absorption, the quantities
We
*\
o\,
it
as
(5-16b)
1
...o-k )- T
(5-16c)
suggest the definition
coefficient, expressing the loss as
denote
A=
(5-16a)
incident net flux.
three
v-th layer to the
= (1 - Q) cô-2 <* -i(l - o- )

=
- 0(o- v+1 o-v+2 Or)= (1 -e)ofi2 ...o-v _ -(<7v+1 o- v+2
of another absorption
fiid
a fraction of the
and may compute
Ot<J 2
...
ak =
(5-17)
*) It is interesting to note that the ratios (1

g)/r were found of use in disentangling
the formulae for the reflection of light on a metallic layer supported by
a metallic medium.
Computer-aided solutions for rj 1 and x were thus facilitated, [25].
t
222
It is
when
correspondingly called potential absorptance, reaching
V = W ma Some
.
maximizing A, which
is
its
minimum
rejection problems of filtering techniques call for
secured by keeping
if/
low.
The paper
[4]
deals with
this situation.
For a
single
component
layer of the system the potential absorptance
is
PvS
A=
Pv+1
'
,,+1
CTv
vS
+ ^ 2 fiv+1)2) +
(1
-<ar )(l
- <THV+1 +
>
4x v
r
^-
r*
+1
>sinp;cos|>;-# +1) ]
>sin|>;
"v
4V+1) ]
(5-18)
Suppose now that only one layer

is
at a time is
absorbing and that a D
Then absorption in that single

coming into it would be constant
constant for each layer.
terms of the net flux
Av =
On the
1,2, ...k
(5-19)
other hand, the absolute absorption would not be constant because
we must
write
,
where
- a
= a
film, expressed in
= (!- GO
Q' is the reflection coefficient

y
that the v-th layer
We know
is
why
(5-20)
of the whole system with the condition
net-absorbing with a ratio o\
that (5-20) truly determines
structive to see
o)
what
is lost,
but
it is
also in-
(5-19) is not competent. (Although, in a way,
it
may
sound reasonable to state that "what is lost is what actually enters".)

Consider first of all a loss-less system. The equations (5-10) state that
the net flux
is
constant across the system, but this does not
that the net difference

internal fields
is
formed of constant terms.
On
mean
the contrary, the
may vary considerably and we may expect situations according
to Fig. 5-3.
m\
Fig. 5-3 Distribution of the net fluxes
ft
across a layer system.
2 23
In a dissipative system, this scheme

ations, but
it still
may
be distorted by some attenu-
holds that the average levels are varied.
Since by (4-59) the energy dissipated per unit time and volume
portional to
(f i S , it is clear
proportion to the energy

Starting
we may compute
(1
pro-
levels.
from the energy balance between the
j o E 1R
is
that absolute absorption will be distributed in
q)
o- l0 2 ...
1st
and
v-th boundaries:
av _ t = -- n , E;R
|
2
I
the squared modulus of the internal field in the v-th layer
as
l^l
--^^^^-^...^.,
This relates the absolute
contained in
The
and av
it
layer
the internal reflection coefficients
actual computation
transfer coefficient
but
field intensities via
(5-21)
from
is
not simpler than that using the internal
to the v-th
medium
(see subsequent discussion),
gives us straightforward information for the case that only the v-th
absorbing and the absorption
is
(5-21) is roughly constant,
at a2
...
is slight.
o,.,
Then, for any
and G,
v, 1
(v+1)
q in
The
intensity of the internal field is inversely proportional, to the value of

(v+1)
shall correlate this result with some conclusions of the
1
.
e
We
next section.
5.3 Distribution of absorption across a layer system

for tiie case of weakly dissipative media
We
shall
now
continue the discussion in terms of the internal
fields,
using for absorption a formula of the type (4-55c), but written for a general
embedding I
Denoting
II
of the absorbing layer
T Or, fat
v.
*m
"0
where
T| 2
T=l-r, LrIIR^ 2 e- 2j S
= + r*Lr* R<&i - 2rILr IIR * 2 cos (2^ 1
<5
IL
^ IIR)
224
we have
v
*ov,rr|(1
*J)(1
*?-m)
+ -^-^v'-iiRsin^cos^; -
m)l
(5-22)
The bracketed
factor
a combination of the individual and induced
is
capacities of the layer to absorb, given
The
by the
amount of energy absorbed
actual
going flux t 0d RR present at the
left
is
v-
and
II-terms, respectively.
then proportional to the right-
face of the layer.
With the outer embeddings I and II given, a D is strongly dependent on

-2
the term |T|
which has a resonance character: changing the phase
angle <p[ inside the layer may bring about substantial changes in t 0u rr and
thus in a D These changes are more pronounced than those ocurring simult,
aneously in the numerator.

It is
worth remarking, however, that speaking of resonance has
sense with metals having large
*:.
small geometric thicknesses, where very
(compare notes on
slightly
The following
p. 197).
little
These can be kept transparent only with

little
interference
real
occurs
discussion applies therefore to
absorbing metals.
Apart from
electric systems.
we
these,
composition of the layer
phenomena
often meet with
weak absorption
This "spurious" absorption

(e.g.
material. This scattering
is
Absorptions of
attenuation factor
this
either
in purely di-
due to the chemical
imperfectly oxidized metallic films), or to such
as the scattering of light
in collimated interference
is
on the granular
structure of the film
equivalent to the loss of amplitude taking part
summation.
kind manifest themselves mainly through an
slightly less
than unity,
2
<#r
0.99 or more, the
refractive index remaining essentially real.
Interference
phenomena
in such systems are
resembling those for metallic films in that
%<
computed by formulae
1, but having unlike
metals real Fresnel coefficients.

There is no easy way of determining the granularity and computing <$T V
from it. We may of course choose <% v empirically so as to fit measured
results. Many interesting conclusions may be drawn from such numerical
studies.
We
shall continue our general discussion for weak absorptions of this

The formulae then become simpler owing to x = (no interference
fluxes) and, in addition, allow interference to become effective: the phase
kind.
angle 2<^
2<p
in the resonance term
\T\ 2 may now assume a range of
225
values without the attenuation factor
neutralizing the changes of the
<$r v
cosine.
Let us take as an example an
and carry out
We
its
all-dielectric interference filter (Fig. 5-4)
analysis in A mM
= 4AL
4A
then have for the central layer:
= Psji = P9/16'
2<p 8
2it
and
<5,
5 im
it,
g lL
value (1
minimum
attains a
q 8/1 )
for the dielectric system I,
.
Having in view that t 1/8 = 1 - g l/8 - 1 - g 8/1

we can write by (5^22) for the central layer in the resonance condition
suffers from an attenuation factor ^
s
(1
2,
Fig. 5-4
to
08/1
10l1
12
16
15
*LL
An ADI
Coming now
(5-23)
if it
*S)
1Z3t5G78,9
q iir
10
12
11
13
ft
IS
interference filter analysed for spurious absorption.
any of the A/4
layers,
one might be inclined to expect
antiresonance, but owing to a cooperation between the phase changes 8 v/l
and <5 v+ i /16 , which always total n, we still have resonance. Further we find
that g vl
q v+1/16 (everything concerning the 8 and q follows from the
amalgamation rule for A/2 layers, see 2.6.4). The formula (5-23)
valid for any a v v = 1,2,... replacing the index 8.
is
therefore
From the
= ^2
arily different
may
=
is unlikely to ever have %
x
depend on the geometric thicknesses, which are neceswith two adjacent layers. In a tuned alternating system one
experimental point of view one
since the
have
% =
<>U V
<% 5
...
is
<% 3
Since our discussion
and <% 2 <$f4 =

aimed at discovering the
.
absorption with differently positioned layers

the trends of a v with v for a constant <^ v
latent dangers of
to analyse
etc., it is justifiable
<>U.
only in the spacer layer
It is
we adopt for ^ the value <% % = ^r2 (in the first order).
We may now state that for a given <W V = <%, a v varies with the order
number of its layer through the dependence on p v/1 this in its turn is an
that
increasing*) function of v for
*)
Not
8,
while
it
to be confused with the oscillating g-sequence of
taken in reference to
air.
e vl
is
always taken relative to the
again decreases along
HG,
LHG,
HLHG,
medium from which
it is
seen.
226
symmetrical values for v
but this
is
9.
In other words: each layer
is
in resonance,
stronger or weaker.
The inner
layers will thus
have a
tendency to absorb
relatively larger
energy. In particular, the difference between a 8 (the spacer layer absorption)
and, for example, a 6 will essentially be one of position rather than of geometrical path.
and a 8 with
On the other
n 8 = n L may
hand, the difference between a 8 with n s
be determined by the
specific material
nH
con-
ditions.
These tendencies
field intensities as
may be correlated with those for the magnitudes of the
derived from (5-21) or, alternatively, from (4-59): large
amounts of energy are dissipated when intense oscillations are set up.
Let us show a table for a monochromatic system of the ADI type with
the dependence of t and a in the central wavelength on the order number
of a single absorbing layer and on other distributions of %:
Table 5-1
Effect of energy attenuation factor If
0.995 in individual
H and L layers
of the
G (HL) 3 H (LL) H (LH) 3 G. n H = 2.35, L = 1.38, g = 1.52. Layers numbered

from bottom to top. For v = 9, 10, ... the results are symmetrical about the centre v = 8.
system
(Compare
4rin:
also Table 12-2 concerning a tuned reflector.)
T max
0.994
0.992
0.988
0.981
0.968
0.946
0.005
0.007
0.012
0.019
0.032
0.053
10
Win:
-3
allH
allL
allHL
max
0.912
0.742
0.762
0.645
0.516
1.000
0.086
0.238
0.223
0.316
0.408
0.000
0.002
0.020
0.014
0.037
0.074
0.000
in
none

So
far
we have examined
227
the all-dielectric system in the central wavemakes the reasoning more difficult:
length. Leaving the tuned condition
one cannot, for example, use the amalgamation
way of
seeing the trends
rule, etc.
to start with formula (5-20)
is
where x = 0.
weak absorptions
An
alternative
and use the now
simplified formula (5-18)
In addition, with
- q' to be - q, where
system. We have, with % 1,
take
.-(!-
<)<1
a.)
(1
in one layer at a time
is
,)(1
- *)J JL*I3lÎL
4
+1 2
l-<ar |7
(l-
g )(l-r*)
>|
-L
J+ ^
+1)
l-li
(5-24)
The last fraction is the ratio of the so called gross power flow
power flow (in the absence of interference fluxes). The formula
(for a given
The
<8r)
a increases with
we may
the reflectivity of the non-absorbing
v+1) 2
r
,
|
gross to net power-flow ratio
to the net
states that
[5].
sometimes expressed by means of
is
the standing-wave ratio
+ l# +1)
l-|rRv + 1)
_
SWR =
(5 " 25)
|
as
Gross
p.
-f.
_ (SWR) 2 +
1
(5
2SWR
Netp.-f.
"
26>
having the structure of the inverse Fresnel coefficient of

transmission.
For a given layer position and attenuation <%, a varies with
the reso-
nance factor, which essentially means that it varies with the

transmissivity
of the whole system: more transparent systems are likely to
absorb more.
But this is not an absolute rule and one may encounter cases
outside tne
tuned conditions, where more transmission is accompanied
by less absorption or, alternatively, where transmission
oscillates at the cost of reflection alone.
It is instructive
Fig. 5-5
to consider
shows the functions
tuned for 0.56 urn, with H

attenuation factor
W = 0.995
constant and absorption
some numerical examples:

x(k), (A)
2.35,
(i.e.
<^
nL
main features more conspicuous. All

the same absorption factor.
the
is
for a 16-layer A/4 system 1(HL) 8
1.38.
0.99)
slightly
was chosen
exaggerated
in order to
layers are supposed to suffer
make
from
228
We
see that in the stop-band region absorption
is
relatively low. It is
definitely smaller than the sum of 16 absorptions of the individual layers,

if they were singled out to simple environment 1 LG or 1 HG. In this case
the energy loss
is
very nearly
slightly less (0.75 percent) for
% 2 = 1 percent for low-index layers and

n H = 2.35, so that the sum would be about
13 percent.
On leaving the stopband,
<x(A) rises
to 32 percent,
which
substantially
is
more than the simple sum.

These two facts show what we have alleged on several occasions:
absorption is an interference quantity.
Another feature to be observed in Fig. 5-5 is the correspondence
between the
oscillations of t(A)
and
portionality between both factors.
in the blue
maxima of x(A),
which speaks in favour of the proHowever, there is a growing tendency
a(X),
while those of a(A) are decreasing.
further numerical experience
almost the
full
amount
is
that, with low-reflecting systems,
of absorption incurred
for example, multilayer antireflection films
they
may
not yield enhanced transmission.
The loss
may become
is
still
On the
subtracted from
t.
Thus,
deserve their name, but
other hand,
it is
q that
negligible in the strictly
is
tuned
affected in high-reflecting systems.
is
cases as in Fig. 5-5, but
quite serious with broad-band
reflectors designed
it
by any of the methods of contiguous
stacks, Sects. 3.5.1,
6.3.5.
type. If the
Suppose we have two contiguous stacks of the HLH
"blue" stack is seen by the incident light first, then the red part of the spectrum
.
must pass
this stack outside
of
its
stop-band, incurring a lot of absorption.
Then it strikes the lower stack, tuned to reflect the "red" part of the spectrum,
Fig. 5-5 Absorption as a function of A in a tuned 16-layer stack suffering from, spurious
losses.

and
travels
back to
229
up the broadened stop-band. Again it incurs losses

way dips of q in the originally flat p(A) curve are
fill
in the top stack. In this
caused in the long-wavelength part. In the converse situation blue dips are
formed.
Prediction of absorption loss in weakly dissipative media
[6]. The
The effect of weak absorption
was analysed in [8].
concept of potential transmittance
in
is
invoked for
was
treated
this in [7].
by the turning value method
in monitoring
5.4 Total reflection
We
n
>
now
shall
consider a boundary between two dielectrics /i with

O sufficiently large to make
n lt and with the incidence angle
W Sin6>0
ine,-
>1
(5-27)
Recalling the formalism in 4.1, Eq. (4-1) &(4-6a),

(5-27)
it is
evident that
6> x in
must be complex of the form
= 0[
0\ =
where
+j0',
0';=argcosh(M^2-)
In accordance with 4. 1 the bracketed expression should be denoted as s'
so that sin
Energy considerations
By
(4-3)
>
1),
s'.
& (4-6b)
call for the positive sign
with 0'[
we compute
cos 6>!
= ]c" =
-j Vs' 2
(5-28)
Evidently the remaining components of (4-1) and (4-3) are zero:

s"
c'
0.
Again
inferring
normal, (4-10)
from the complex
& (4-1 la, b),
this is
making
(Ix
kz)s
xs'
zc".
is'
wave
form
the existence of a complex
now found
+ jkc"
to have the special
230
The time-space
exp
C+koZcX) exp
(Evidently n t s'
This
factor of the refracted
n sin
[j(co*
is
then
xs' ni )],
= -Vn 2
n^c"
wave
sin 6>
InX' 1
(5-29)
n\).
a special case of an inhomogeneous wave, having its phase

normal parallel to the boundary (while the attenuation normal is perpendicular to
+z
it,
is
as usual.) Such a
direction, since c"
<
wave
is
called evanescent. It is attenuated in the
0.
Using (4-28) to compute the characteristic admittances behind the

boundary and introducing the relative index of refraction n = njn (< 1),
we can compute the amplitude Fresnel coefficients to be
cos 6>q
- j Vsin 2
cos
+ j Vsin
-n
rp
-n -n
====
=
Vsin
-^
2
Vsin
j
's
cos
n cos
O
O
(5-30)
2cos
cos
+ j Vsin
^=^=
+
2n cos
.
t
'
>
j Vsin
cos
(5-31)
Obviously
Ifj
=|rp
2
|
(5-32)
which means that all the incident energy is reflected back to the input medium.
This
is
why such a situation is
called total reflection.
The minimum angle
OC
arc sin (n^n^.
OC
There remains the peculiar fact that, despite the total reflection of
for which
s'
1 is
called critical
and
it
holds
non zero amplitudes f

behind the boundary.
These two facts can be reconciled within the concept of the evanescent wave
energy, theory indicates
established above.
We
In fact, let us compute the average flux of energy in the second medium.
can formally use the results of Sect. 4.5 where n = n x x =
and the
,
We
wave normal s is complex because of total reflection.

a" = k c ". Eqs. (4 33a, b) yield for both polarizations
-^ K,p
which means that energy
2
I
n t s'i
is
= -^"o sin
<f s>p
I
\
have
a'
is',
(5-33)
being transported parallel to the boundary,
making no contribution to the time averaged balance of energy across the

boundary: the oscillating field inevitably has fluctuations of the normal
231
tr
tr
tr
u
The radiant flux of the evanescent
wave behind a totally reflecting boundary.
Fig. 5-6
Fig. 5-7 Totally reflected
beam
of finite
aperture: problem of the distribution
of the radiant flux in the transition regions

of the evanescent wave.
component of the Poynting
vector, but their
mean
value
is
zero.
The only
non-vanishing values are just (5-33).

In the case of a general azimuth of polarization, there exists an additional flux of energy
We
due to interference between the two basic components.
have already shown in 4.5 that
this flux is
boundary, so that nothing qualitatively new
always directed along the
added to the situation
is
desribed above, apart from the fact that the third contribution
is
at right
angles to the plane of incidence.
In the following
we
shall confine ourselves to the basic states
of polari-
zation.
Denoting either of the expressions (5-33) as P(0), the

a distance z from the boundary
P(z)
flux
of energy at
is
P(0)exp [-2k z Vo
sin
6>
2],
or s
(5-34)
I. For further work we denote the square root as Q.

shows schematically the fluxes of energy above and below the
the direction being

Fig. 5-6
boundary.
This situation, although peculiar,
may now
compatible with the Maxwell boundary conditions.
be understood to be
Some
further strain
on
provoked when considering the incident wave of limited

a perture. Applying the scheme of Fig. 5-6, we arrive at the contradictory
physical intuition
situation,
is
according Fig. 5-7: while any cross-section like
may be interB and C are
preted in terms of Fig. 5-6, the tangent fluxes in the outer planes
untenable.
More
exactly, they are untenable unless
area between the zero state and the

are touching
on a
delicate subject here,
literature as diffraction
the field
full
is difficult.
we allow
for a transition
tangent flux according to A.
We
which has been discussed in the
of non-planar waves,
etc.
detailed description of
232
We shall present here a simplified picture enabling at least the computGoos Hanchen shift, [9]: by this we mean the lateral
beam relative to the incident beam (Fig. 5-8).
has been observed and its value may be determined in the fol-
ation of the so called
displacement
This
shift
at
of the reflected
lowing way:
The
total flux, traversing
a central plane
as an integral over (5-34), extending from z
in the x-direction
towards
is
given
infinity.
We have
oc
P(0)exp(-47tA
_1
zO)dz
AP(0)
(5-35)
4tiQ
Since there
is
no macroscopically observable exchange of energy
of the boundary, the value f^ builds up somewhere

B
in the region B' B from that part B B of the incident flux, which is contained in a cross-section d and which infiltrates into the second medium
because B' B is a transition space, where complete total reflection is not
along the part
established.
To
into
fm
the right of A, the flux
C C
eventually channelled out via
is
of the same cross-section
The energy balance requires

we obtain
ing (5-33) and (5-35),
as the
f x while d = x cos
Goos Hanchen shift
0q
4k
d=
CC
d.
tan
6>
Combin-
(5-36)
p - sl
'
(according to the state of polarization).

is based on the idea of Renard, [10]. More sophisticated
phenomenon may be found in [11 13] (considering, for
This derivation
analyses of this
Fig. 5-8
The geometry of computing

Goos Hanchen shift.
the
Fig. 5-9
The scheme
for frustrated total
reflection.
233
example, spherical waves or Gaussian beams). The theory of the
Goos
was extended to multilayered media in [14].

shift was proposed in [15].
Finally let us remark that our computations were relatively simple,
because we were only concerned with time-averaged fluxes of energy. The
Hanchen
shift
A refractometer based on this
time-microscopic look at the distribution of
complicated and
may be found
two adjacent media are then
field
amplitudes
work
in Schaeffer's
[16].
is
The
much more
fields in
the
than they appear in the present
less disjunct
description.
The phenomena connected with

examined in various
The behaviour of light

remarkable way,
and
small) thickness
if
if
The
in the conditions of total reflection
the third
would not be
(considered as isolated)
It
some
is
changed
medium n l has a finite (and sufficiently

medium n 2 behind the second boundary has
>
i such that the reflection between 0/2 at
total (Fig. 5-9).
of energy originally occurring at the boundary 0/1
total reflection
there being
steadily
in Ch. 12.
the second
a higher index of refraction n 2

the angle
wave are
17]
(FTR)
5.5 Frustrated total reflection
in a
the evanescent
situations, see also references [13
is
now frustrated in that it becomes partial reflection,
lossless leakage
of energy from the
first
should be stressed that the boundaries 0/1 and 1/2 are
ing,*) the partial transmission
of interference in the layer
and
reflection being
to the third media.

still
totally reflect-
due to a peculiar kind
In order to see this in terms of the electromagnetic theory,
let
us
establish the interference matrix for the situation according to Fig. 5-9.
Using some of the
(p
nî
2it
l=
sin ^>j
*)
results in 4.1
cos
= j sinh
<p'[
we have
=
,
2k
-j -j.
cos
h^_ =
,
'[
This statement holds about boundary 1/2 in the sense that by
transmit energy from the evanescent
ing characteristic admittance
-j^!
itself it
could not
wave existing to the left of it, because the correspond-
is pure imaginary (see below). If 1/2 is considered isolated

a homogeneous wave at grazing incidence from 1, then there is of course
transmission of energy at the critical angle
2 1 in the emergent medium.
and there
is
'
234
Further
n t cos
The
*ip-
=
COS]
MQ
(5-37)
interference matrix has the elements
m lt = m 22 =
y
= jQ,
cosh
being taken as
Ylp
q>'[
1
sinh q>\
m 12 = -t^-
or
Yu
cosh
sinh
<p'j
Inserting into the formula (2-27),
cosh
m 21 = Y
q>'[
(1
ql
(1
we
obtain
b) j(c d) sinh
+ b) - j(c + d) sinh
(p'[
(4-38)
<p'[
where
b.=
n 2 cos
n
2 cos
n
&2
cos
'
cos 2
'
cs
Cp
n 2 cos
n cos
"2
(5-39)
d=- n
n t cos6> 2
The squared modulus of (5-38)
is
6>
cos
nod
no longer identically equal to unity
total reflection is frustrated.
Since no absorption
is
involved in these phenomena,
we
obtain normal
transmission as a complement to reflection:
1.0,
cos
6> 2
cos
6>
(5-40a)
0 T P
0.5
FTR
Fig. 5-10. (a) Partial reflectances g , q s in dependence on A/A in a

system,
p
(b) Dispersion of some partial reflectances taken from part (a) of figure.
235
or
T
The numerator of
known
value
is
(5-40b)
normal
flux across the
to n
sin
n 2 sin
directed in the 6> 2 -direction
is
whole
of the boundaries. Since the emerging wave
homogeneous (owing
to be
this expression is the net
Poynting vector
real), its
q) cos
COS,
layer, including the outer faces

is
(1
and
being
its (relative)
obtained by (5-40b).
Fig. 5- 10a
shows some typical functions for a
specified index
com-
bination.
Choosing now h 1 in such a way as to make q = q 0s or g 0p for 1 one

may compute g s and g p in dependence of A. These curves, shown in Fig. 5-10b,
enable us to assess how far such a loss-less FTR semireflector can replace
,
the classical
Ag
or Al semireflecting films. These possibilities (though
necessarily limited to either of the polarizations) were recognized as early
as 1947,
papers.
[17], and used for the design of FTR filters, [18],

Under the term optical tunelling frustrated total
sively reviewed in [21] including the case
[19], [20]
and other
reflection is exten-
when some absorption
is
present
in the leaking film.
computed example for an FTR filter is presented in Fig. 5-11. The

shows two differently dimensioned filters as regards the
figure actually
spacer thickness
A2
actual fact there
is
the s-peak as the
more pronounced
so both
maxima may
always one tuning of

one.
lie
at the
A 2 which
same wavelength. In
can
serve, for
X//m
Fig. 5-11
= 2 =
for s
54.4,
when
FTR
filter
(highly schematic).
=h 3 = 4000 A. A 2 = 4080 A for p,

m 0, and 3700 A for s when m = 1.
ht
example,
The accompanying /7-peak must be
l&ik
236
by an additional polarizing device. {Kurd, [20], discusses filmoptical means of evading the two peaks.)
The situation will become perspicuous if we refer to the formula (7-22)
rejected
for the
maximum
of a Fabry Perot device (which the
FTR filter essentially
and realize what phase-shifts 5 actually apply in the given case. In

computing the data for Fig. 5-1 1 it was found that, at the chosen thicknesses
h t = h 3 = 4000 A, <5 p 253, d s x 48. (These values show very little
dispersion with X.) Hence for A max = 5890 A we have in the zero order
(m = 0) A 2p = 4080 A, A 2s = 760 A. Using m = 1 for the s-case one has
A 2s = 3700 A. It is these three designs that are shown in the figure.
is)
It is
now
also clear that, for
A 2 = A 2p = 4080 A
5890 x 4080
3700
interpreted as
A 2s
positioned at approximately
the nearest accompanying 5-peak will be
6500 A (neglecting the weak dispersion of
S). Its
order will be by one unit higher, whereas the accompanying peak of the
same order (m
would approximately
0)
at
lie
5890 x 4080
760
3.16 /im.
Despite the higher reflectivites for the s-component, the half-width
of the s-peak of the same order
than that of the />-peak. This

order
m+
djn,
Let us
i.e.
m positioned
is
because
at a given
is
2 max
by the actual thickness of the spacer
now pay some
is
much
greater
determined by the effective

layer.
attention to the inner field of the FTR-film.
Since the optical admittances of the outer media are both real and those
of the film medium pure imaginary,

of reflection on boundary
how
it
follows that the Fresnel coefficients
and 2 are unimodular. One may then wonder
the leakage of energy through the film
The answer
is
is
accomplished.
found by having recourse to
Sect. 4.5.2,
Poynting vector of two encountering waves. The
for metals are easily adapted to the present case, where the
normal
is
(with x
due to evanescent waves.

Recalling (4-1 5a, b) and using some
\j/
by
complex wave
facts established in 4.1,
we have
0):
From
concerning the
results originally derived
N=
r\a'
K =
xa'
(4-17)
(4-48).
sin x
+ xa" =
- ria" =
o sin
r\a'
-rja"
= in sin 6>
= -n^'k = kl
tn^s'
N' 1
=> %
n/2
which makes

Further, a' equalling
237
the angle 0' defined in Fig. 4-1
is',
Using these values in (4-49a) the normal net
also n/2.
is
flux inside the layer for
the s-polarization we find that the only non-zero component of this flux
given by the interference term:
PJO = Pr(H exp (

where PR(C)
where P(0)
is
*')
^~
N
r 2R sin ( -<5 2R )
(5-41)
R-wave
computed by a formula of the type (5-34),
of the evanescent R-wave, built up as the internal
the value of the non-projected (total) flux of the
is
in the given plane. In our case
wave
is
now the flux
it is
inside the FTR-film.
Using
(2-40a),
we may
write
where a prime
is
$s
'oi,RR/s
again used to denote "behind the boundary".
and (5-34), we obtain the z-distribution

of R-flux, directed of course along i. Its absolute value is used in (5-41) to
compute the normal flux. Changing variables from ' to z = h - C, we have
Inserting this value into (5-33)
Px( z )
-g--
8*
t 01 ,RR/,
2
|
sin
exp
(-~ zQjx
P(0)
^L--.
x S xp\-~(h-z)a\.
A
|_
J n sin
2K/N
aK
[-Im(r
2R )] =
v 2RJJ
L
O
r 2K
n\ cos
-Im (f2R ),
0\ +
sin(-d 2K)
o sin
but also
0\ -
f2R
2
\
nl
n 2 cos 6> 2
This shows two things:

(0
(ii)
ps*(z) =
Pint, independent of z
(it
does of course depend on h)
rearranging
C
-n~
""
<^ s
2
I
incident flux
2
i,
RR/s
2
.
1
'
i2K
-^cos
0
energy transmission
=P
cos
238
we may
write
Pint
Po
cos
which reads: it is the contant interference flux P )NT which feeds the normal
flow of energy onto the second boundary in order to maintain the normal
outgoing flux of the whole layer.
,
In a similar manner
we should proceed with
(4-50a), there being
by cos 20' = 1
Apart from the tunelling phenomenon there is a certain effect of lowrefracting single dielectric films placed on the rear side of the totally
a change of sign in Im(f 2R), but
reflecting
this is cancelled
hypotenuse in refractometers. This
is
discussed in [22], [23], [24].
References
[1]
P.
G. Kard, Analysis and Synthesis of Thin Interference Films,
(in Russian), Tallin,
1971.
H. Berning and A. F. Turner, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 47, 230 (1957).

J. Hemingway and P. H. Lissberger, Appl. Opt., 3, 471 (1967).
[2]
P.
[3]
D.
[4]
P.
[5]
in Ch. 2.
Am., 52, 753 (1962).
D. J. Hemingway and P. H. Lissberger, Opt. Acta, 20, 85 (1973).
H. A. Macleod, Opt. Acta, 20, 493 (1973).
F. Goos and L. Hanchen, Ann. Phys., 1, 333 (1947) and 5, 251 (1949).
P. Renard, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 54, 1190 (1964).
H. Schilling, Ann. Phys., 7, 122 (1965).
K. V. Lotsch, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 58, 551 (1968).
B. R. Horowitz and T. Tamir, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 61, 586 (1971).
T. Tamir and H. L. Bertoni, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 61, 1397 (1971).
G. Guillemet, Trans, of the ICO Conference on Optical Instruments and Techniques,
London, 1961.
C. Schaffer, Ein fuhrung in die theoretische Physik, Bd. HI/1, Berlin, 1950.
P. Leurgans and A. F. Turner, 7. Opt. Soc. Am., 37, 983 (1947).
B. H. Billings, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 40, 471 (1950).
H. D. Polster, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 39, 1038 (1949).
P. G. Kard, Opt. i Spektr., t. VI, No. 3, 389 (1959).
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
P.
W.
W.
L.
Young,
[21] P.
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
W.
Baumeister, App. Opt., 8, 423 (1969).
Baumeister, see
ref. 15,
J. Opt. Soc.
H. Anders, Optik 13, 175 (1956).

H. Anders, see ref. 7. in Ch. 2.
P. G. Kard, Opt. i Spektr., t. VI,
S. G. Tomlin, Brit. J. Appl. Phys.
No
{J.
3,
533 (1959).
Phys.
D)
Ser. 2, 1, 1667 (1968).
239
Problems
5-1
Derive from (5-30) and (5-31) formulae for 5 and

p
angles for the manipulations).
For which n
(with Wl
When is the difference

can
<5
<5
(using half the
<5
maximum ?
equal 90? Refer to* some basic

text-book for the theory of Fresnel prism.
5-2 Write out in full the instantaneous normal Poynting
vector
1)
it
(in real
notation)
and determine the amplitude of energy
fluctuations across
the boundary.
Do fluctuations exist in subcritical reflection?

5-4 Derive a formula analogous to (5-38) for the
case that even the
reflection at 0/2 would be total (Y thus being
imaginary).
2
What is
5-3
for such a layer?

5-5 Referring to (5-38)
in a
FTR
layer
show that for n
sin <9
5-6
n g the condition for q to equal

e,
p
is
=V2
[1+ (o/"i)T 1/2
Does one obtain realistic index ratios for @

Note that the formalism of total reflection
a degenerate metallic layer
(=0-j
=
is
45?
equivalent to that of
thickness h c ) in
normal
incidence, taking
for s-polarization
xc
xt
for/>-polarization
Refer to [21] or to
ref. [13]
optical tunelling for the
= },
= -n\ C" 1
h,
,
h[
=h
= h^/j-J
i
in Ch. 6 for the substantiation of the
FTR
situations.
term
6
General theorems
on
media
stratified
This chapter will be devoted to the formulation and use of some general
theorems on stratified media. Their importance is both theoretical and
practical.
6.1 Left-and-right-incidence theorem
We
coin this term to express the well-known fact that the two normal
coefficients
two
of transmission for an arbitrary layer system embedded between
dielectrics are equal:
with regard to (2-19), (2-20) and (2-21)
we may
write
o
L
cos0 o
n k+1 cos6> k+1
|fL |2==
ZVtl cos0 ^_
(6 _ 1}
n cosfc/
(for either of the polarizations).
Nothing of the kind holds for the reflectivities unless the stratification
will be left
itself is purely dielectric. We then have p R = p L but the proof
,
With some absorption present in the system we

have p R / p L The practical implication is that the two spectral functions
sides
are different, so that observing an evaporated specimen from both
is
absorption
some
that
indicates
tint
of
difference
slight
a
in white light
for another section (6.2.1).

-
present in a system meant to be loss-less.
With equal 3 R L but unequal p R>L

absorptions must be different.
,
the
left-
and right-incidence

For
is
which are
single metallic films
a rule due to Wolter
than about 100
With h
4.14, a L
6.7
250 A the ratio
thick there
o/ g
the combination 1/0.15 --3.36jfl.62 (silver
with a R
stating that
[1]
r/l
For
less
241
and p R
is 1
20.7,
1.56, i.e. still
pL
on
glass) this is fulfilled
18.2
at h
100 A.
near the limiting value /
Corollary: Using (2-20) for dielectric embedding of a general system implies

for the phase shifts upon transmission
dR
dL
(6-2)
6.2 Reversibility theorem
By adopting
the mechanical principle of reversibility, Stokes (1849)
postulated the following theorem to hold for light waves:
Considering reflection and transmission at a boundary with the rays

and B R , Fig. 6-1, let us formally invert time and let
L and B
A R AL
,
proceed backwards as
A* and
B'L , respectively.
New
R
divisions of amplitude
yield the respective pairs A^, C R and B R , C'L The superposition of these
rays must restore the time-inverted original situation, i.e. the reverted ray
R to the left of the boundary and zero state behind it.
.
In terms of transfer coefficients this
Vr
t R tL
These should be considered as
1,
rR f R
identities
is
expressed by the relations

tR rL
which must be
(6-3a, b)
satisfied
by the
set
r R ri> 'r> ^l> whatever the actual form of these coefficients.
As a partial result we have from (6-3b) r R = rL This enabled

Stokes to account for the "perfect blackness of the central spot in Newton's
.
Fig. 6-1 Reversion of light rays in Stokes'
principle (Subscript 2 should read L).
242
rings" at a time
when
the position of the formulae today
known
as Fresnel's
was not yet definitely established.

With respect to the immediate purpose, Stokes was originally concerned
with a boundary between two dielectrics, but in the same paper he extended
his considerations to include the more general case when "the reflections
and transmissions are accompanied by changes of phase different from
or 7t". He then anticipated the form
Vr + V* =
It
was only
modern
in
Mi +
'V* =
(6"4a, b)
thin film optics that these equations found their
revival with dielectric multilayers.
On
the other hand, checking their
complex Fresnel coefficients occurring on simple metallic

boundaries, one fails and has to fall back on the original form (6-3a, b). *)
These seemingly contradictory facts can be reconciled within a general
approach treating the problem of time reversion in connection with the
invariance of the Maxwell equations. This was done independently by
validity for the
and Kard, [4], and the results (valid for any combination of
and absorbing materials) may be stated as follows:
An adaptation is made in the complex transfer coefficients for the
reverted waves, which consists of
changing the signs of all the x implicity involved in the analytical
(i)
expressions for the f RjL fR-L these coefficients becoming r R L fR L
*
(ii)
taking the complex conjugates of these dashed coefficients, i.e. rR L
Santavy,
[3],
dielectric
'R,
Restoration of
fields
and backing media
in the incidence
is
then
expressed by the equations
Vi* +
This
is
'Vl*
r K i
iK rl*
(6-5a, b)
the most general form of the reversibility theorem. For rigorous
We do present, however,
an alternative derivation remaining purely on the computational level and
proofs
we refer the reader to the above cited papers.
dispensing with the physics of time reversion.
We
shall use
an ad hoc principle of negative path, defining for an
arbitrary system of layers
following way:
*)
in
S a negatively conjugate
jt is physically identical
system S* in the
with S (being the same sequence of
A historical review of the problems associated with Stokes' qrinciple

[2].
is
to be
found

and
refractive indices
all
of
its
243
optical paths), but for certain computational purposes
geometric paths are taken to be negative.
Denoting the corresponding transformation by the symbol #, the

interference matrices of the single layers are to be transformed according
to the following pattern:
sin -\*
cos
q>,

cos q>,
now
"o, v
-\
q> \
cos

sin
\ jn sin q>,
to the concept of negative path so that
Let us
1, 2, ... will
S*
the complex quantities
all
be processed as simple symbols without writing out

full. This means that the resulting system
the real and imaginary parts in
interference matrices will have the forms
respectively,
where
(On
jG\
\JG
<W
all
in (6-6), there being
complexity of
If now,
<p
G u -}G 12 \
\-}G21 G22 J
'
the imaginary units originate
some
from
G through the
by the established procedure, the complex
for the normal system
reflection coefficient
is
~G
Gn
rR
their counterparts
further j's implicitly involved in the
-G
2l )j
21 )j
(n k+1
G 12
G 1 +^1-G22 +
(n k+i
G 12 +
22
then the corresponding r for the system S*

the signs of G 12 and G2l
is
obtained from r R by changing
Similarly
denominator of rR
'
" k+1
U.=
denominator of fR
244
Inserting
equation
into (6-5a), provisionally interpreting '* as
now
is verified
-^G)*+U
\
(o li
"O
Gll+
(
+1
G 12
LG
^G
22
is verified
(n k+l G l2+
+4^ _
2l )
"0
Equation (6-5b)
We
#,
this
as the identity
"0
2i
in a similar way.
have thus proved that (6-5a, b) are valid
identities
among
the
normal coefficients f R fR fL fL and their "sharp" counterparts fjf if,

f*, i*, which may be interpreted as normal coefficients concerning a nega,
tive system.
It
remains to establish the relation to the general principle of rever-
sibility (6-5a, b).
The
The
interpretation in the sense of Fig. 6-1
identity of
is obvious.
with '* becomes obvious bearing in mind that the
geometric paths occur only in exponentials of the type
exp(+jv)
exp(
+-^- Kh
expf +j-^-JVcos/
h)
->
Thus changing h
-h
is
equivalent to
taking the complex conjugate. (The
two
steps
K -* -K and
happen
simultaneously
to appear in factorized
form.)
Further, changing the sign of
the change x -*
x:
s",
>"
K may
be brought about by making
This changes some signs established in 4.1, viz
>
0,
c"
<
- s", 0" <
0,
c"
>
which means that the vector K defined by (4-1 5b) is reverted.

The proof is thus completed.
Let us add the remark that for the multilayer case the simple Fresnel
surface of Fig. 6-1 is split in the input and output boundaries, respectively,
and the rays A,
B,
belong to the outer
fields
of the layer system.
Returning now to the simple Fresnel boundary where no path is

covered, we see that # is an identity so that (6-3a, b) express the reversion
even for metallic media. For non-absorbing systems # = *, which leads
to the form (6-4a, b).
Any of
L are
R and
of incidence.
the equations (6-3, 4, 5) remains valid when the subscripts

exchanged, expressing the principle for the opposite direction
Some
6.2.1
conclusions from the reversibility theorem
Solving (6-5) and
common
with a
245
mentioned counterparts as
just
its
linear systems
determinant
g = g e"
t R tL
f R fL
(6-7)
one obtains
*=- A
fR
?*=-A,
fL
JL
g
Comparing now
f*=A,
(6-8a,b,c,)
# -transform of (6-8b) yields
(6-8a) with the
gg*=\,
i.e.
gg'
=
#
Further, comparing (6-5a) with the
Y=Y'
\,
(6-9a,b,c)
transform of
its
counterpart
gives
?*.?*
* =
r L f *,
fR fL
tL
f*
(6-lOa, b)
while an analogous procedure with (6-5b) yields
(6-11)
= r exp j<5, i = t exp jd, r* = r' exp ( j<5') etc.

from these equations a number of general relationships
among the amplitudes and phases, respectively, of the transfer coefficients.
Thus from (6-10a, b) follows
Writing out in
one
is
full: f
able to derive
Vr = Vl,
t R tl
(6-12a, b)
tR t L
Expressing g from each of the equations (6-8) yields for y

y
=d K +
d'R
dL
d'L
=5'R +
dh
n=S'h +
8K
(6-13a)
so that
dK
a
and
for
d'R
.u
;,'
-SR -S L\_
a'(
(o-l 3b)
_!i-
(6-14)
g
2?_
Ik.
/'
f'
*R
Note:
rR
r'
'L
r'
'R
We are not in a position to prove by the mere use of the reversibility principle
the equality (6-2) between dR and d

L Accepting this,
.
turn equals d.
it
follows
from (6-13a) that SR
in its
246
now
(6-11)
gives the phase relation
2k
(6-15)
-5 R -5 L =28 -5 L -5 R
(6-16)
(o
-to'
where
eo
is
dR
8L
a characteristic angle of multilayer theory, (see Ch.
These relationships
7).
become practically conclusive if we confine

ourselves to non-absorbing media. Then the operation of dashes becomes
an identity so that by (6- 13b) we have the additional proof of the above
mentioned equality (6-2) and (6-1 3b) itself assumes the form
will
(o
(6-13a)
and
g =
may be
(6- 12a)
(6-14) yield
28
t R iL
5R
dL
28, so that
1,
f R rL
Pr
exp
+7C
(6-17)
(6-18)
(2jd)
read as
(6-19)
Pl
stating that the left-and right-hand side reflectivities of a dielectric system
are equal.
Owing to
Making use of
and
is
its
the product
(6-2)
(2-19) to replace
counterpart
tL
iR
,
iR i* may be written as ? R / L
found to equal 9 R = 9L (6-4a)
then be written as p R + 9 R = p L + 9 L = 1, which

It should be stressed, however, that in the
may
the statement of conservation.
general case the equation (6-5a)

tude, not allowing
concerned with the restoration of ampli-
is
any energy interpretation.
Returning to general systems,

(jo)] exp j(d R
.
8 L ).
We
tR tL
2
g = PkPl
all
Thus g
it is
is
g = pR
tltl
=
+
the media are dielectric,
to the energy balance
let
us write (6-7) as
[t R t L
r K rL
exp
can then compute
rlrl
For dielectric embedding

above and we may write
If
tf=
t R th is
9R
32
pR
9
2r R rL t R th cos co
9L
9 by the same argument as
- 29\/pr7l cos (o
= pL m =
= 1.
,
(6-20a)
(6-20b)
n and the equation reduces
constant only in the case of non-absorbing media, otherwise
equal to any of the ratios (6-14).

/L from (6-20a) by
2
g may be cancelled and the equation
Eliminating rL and
(6-14),
rlrf
is
of
tit?
247
dashed counterparts in
their
Irît^tl cos
m =
(6-20c)
obtained as an invariant of the theory of stratified media. With the help

(6-1 3a) it
(6-5a).
may
be interpreted as a statement on the absolute values in
This will be exploited in 6.4.2c.
6.3 Equivalence theorems
Introducing with Herpin,

films,
we
the Pauli matrices into the theory of thin
[5],
find that the interference matrix of a single film
+Y
cos
(p
sin
q>
at
be written as
- Y2
M =
may
jy sin <p
a2
(6-21)
where
ff
ffi=
o=(ii)'
ff2=
(ii)'
o )
with
2
^0
= W22 = a
Multiplying two expressions of the type (6-21),
we
are led to the adop-
tion of
with
"(i-0
so
we may cover
the products
r 1
o2
a*
ff
= ^2*1 = j<*3-
two-layer has therefore the matrix structure
w +
a^
a 2 <T 2
a 3 ff 3
(6-22)
where the aD are some complex numbers.
<t 3 w 2 =j<*i ^3^1 = ^1^3 =J W 2> no further basic

matrices are needed to express the product of any number of interference
Since
matrices:
a2 a 3
we again obtain
linear combinations of the type (6-22). This
suggests the formulation of the following theorem:
An
arbitrary layer system
to a suitable two-layer.
may be
formally regarded as equivalent
248
to be stressed that the equivalence
It is
for different wavelengths X (or phase angles
angles of incidence
on the
is
q>,
not a physical one and that,

for that matter)
and
different
real system, separate
of the refractive indices n, e , n 2e
computations must be made

and phase angles <p u , <p u of the equivalent
We refrain from discussing the involved algorithms of the matchbecause the practical importance of the general equivalence theorem is
two-layer.
ing,
limited.
Of utmost
importance, on the other hand,
is
the special theorem
on
equivalence, concerning interference systems symmetrical with respect to

the outer media (the media themselves being irrelevant).
Let us invert the matrix transformation (2-25)
Et+1/S = m 22 E ls w i2H ls
H* +1/s = -ifi 21 E ls + m u H lg
(6 " 23)
+ 1 and 1 boundaries written for the

wave normal directed from 1 to k + 1.
Taking the opposite direction as incident, we must change the signs of
This
is
a relation between the k
positive direction of the incident
the H-terms in order to preserve the right-handedness of the
wave trihedral.
For reasons of physical symmetry (6-23) now describes the same situation
as (2-25), whence w u = m 22 This relationship, together with the unimo.
dularity of the interference matrices, permits the following definition of
an
equivalent layer to be made:
cos
J = m
.
12
)n e sm<p e
= m 21
(6-24a, b, c)
(Nothing prevents us from taking the equivalent layer in normal incidence.)

A single layer whose phase angle and refractive index are
<p e
respectively,
is
arc cos
mu
ne
Im-,,
/--
= vm?i
(6-25a, b)
equivalent to the symmetrical layer system in the sense that,
for a particular wavelength
same
and angle of incidence of the
latter, it
has the
interference matrix. In oblique incidence, only one of the polarizations
may
be considered at a time.
Again, the equivalence is purely formal and the equivalent parameters
are generally strongly dependent on the q> or A of the real system. We thus
have significant "dispersion" not only of n e but also of the equivalent phase
,
angle
<p e
2nX~ 1 nJi e
which implies more than the dispersion of n e
Despite these complications, the concept of equivalent layer has developed
2 49
into a powerful design tool of thin film theory, particularly for dielectric
periodic structures. The pioneering papers are by Epstein
and Thelen
[6]
review of the methods
is
given in
and
[7].
The concept of equivalent

absorbing systems by Landau and
[8]
layer has recently been extended to
[9].
Lissberger [10], in connection with the theory of induced transmission
of this chapter). Graphical aids in the use of equivalent

index in multilayer design problems are described in [11].
In this book we shall first present examples of the compution and
use
of the equivalent parameters, then we proceed to the standard stop-band
theory for periodic structures and conclude with a less well known treatment
(see later sections
of contiguous stacks.
6.3.1
Computing the equivalent parameters for the basic

period
(0.5B) A(o.5B)
The simplest symmetrical period (apart from the trivial case of a single
Having many such periods in tandem leads
the system (cB) [A(2cB)] k A(cB) which is essentially a double-component
layer) is of the type (cB) A(cB).
to
detuned alternation, A(2cB) k

It
was as
A with outer extension by cB (see 3.2.1).

Lord Rayleigh, [12], studied such periodic strucaccount for some phenomena observed with the natural
early as 1917 that
tures in order to
stratifications in the elytra

first
of certain insects. It was perhaps here that the

stop-band theory was given, but the method was different from the
equivalent layer.
We have a similar reason to make the alternation strictly periodic by

using the outer extension. We confine ourselves to the
practically most
important case of a tuned alternation and therefore choose c =0.5.
The computation of the interference matrix for the basic period (0.5B)
A(0.5B) with phase angles \<p, <p, \<p and refractive indices
n B , n A Br
respectively, leads after some arrangements to the following
results:
,
ii
i 2
= m 22 =
sin
cp
(1
N') cos 2
[(1
JV')
[(1
N') cos
cos
(p
N'
(p
AT],
A/"]
(6-26a
6-26b, c)
m 2 = j B sin q>
i
cp
where
*'-4L,
2ab
AT
~ "a
\
2n A n B
(6
v
"
26d
uu
.^
,
'
e)
c/
250
N'
to be noted that
It is
N" ^
leaves
Restating (6-25a, b) for the given case,
,
cos 2 <p - N
/,
= (1
+ N')
J
K
cos Ve
<p e
and nA
^ B Further, interchanging B
constant, while N" changes sign.
for n A
N'
always positive and greater than unity, while
is
n.e
in the basic period
we have
IHI +N') cos <p-N"-\
nB
\Jl(l
N')cos(p
+ N"
(6-27a, b)
The computation of <p c by (6-24a) would be ambiguous unless a suitable

is made, e.g.: the sign of sin <p e must be such as to allow the
stipulation
equivalent index n e in (6-24b, c) to be interpreted as a positive number.

(In case
be
shall
turns out to be imaginary, see below, then
it
imaginary part
its
positive.)
In dealing with (6-25a, b) one encounters two qualitatively different

situations,
(i)
m lt <
|
nc
(ii)
is real,
1.
Then
since
the computation of
<p e
by (6-25a)
is
meaningful and
m 12 is imaginary (see 6-25b).
mu ^ This is necessarily the case around

Wn = N' < n computed by (6-25b)
1.
<p
is
now
tc/2
and
3n/2,
when
1.
nary, which
may of
definition of
 c
= - =
|
/M lt
as required.
Further, sin
in (6-28)
is

\
q> e
q> c
may be
written as
(-!)[
cosh
^,^
^sinh$
cosh<p e
-j|n e |sinh^ e ,
Its
unimodularity
The
by
is
(629)
preserved.
multiple of n to be used in (6-28)
(6-29),
e\
but for general reasons
continuous function of
cp
(see
is
irrelevant for the computations
we choose
it
so as to
graphs in Fig. 6-2b).
make Re
(<j9 e )
251
The region of imaginary n e is defined by the conditions m 12 orm 2i = 0,

implying m tl =1 by the unimodularity of M. This leads to two angles
cos<Pl
-Jf = +
1
AT
situated symmetrically about the value

is
|MA
"a
7i/2, i.e.
~
+
nB
'
(6-30)
(p t , 2
rc/2
e,
where
the inverse sine of the right-hand side in (6-30).

In view of the implications for multilayer structures the interval
(<Pi> <Pi) is called
the stop-band, the outside of
By way of an example we
= 1.36
and B = H
for L
The
The two
L(0.5H).
and nH
wL
2.3 in
<j?
the pass-band.
indicate graphs of equivalent parameters
both arrangements,
i.e.
nB
L , nA
yielding the periods (0.5L) H(0.5L)
and
cases are labelled as
results for
it
and
<X>
Continuous
(2>.
curves can be drawn separately for the real and imaginary parts of
as
shown
in Fig. 6-2b.
The only
nH
respectively (Fig. 6-2a, b).
(2>
are almost identical for
and (0.5H)
difference is in the sign of
 e
in the stop-
bands.
The equivalent indices for

and (2>
some interdependencies of the following
e O)
n e (n
"CD-
"(2>
<p)
n|
= 'â"b =
tions of
N' and N".
It is
e (0)
may
for
and n
h w l (for any fixed
These relationships have a general

symmetrical periods they
differ substantially,
but there are
type:
validity.
for
<2>
<p)
(6-31)
(6-32)
In our special case of
be deduced from (6-27a, b) using the
defini-
simultaneously quite easy to compute
V("a"b),
.()
/2
/2
(6-33)
b /a
The formulae (6-31), (6-32), introduce some inner rules into the graphs
and @ and all the information is actually condensed in one
fijsp) curve drawn for
^ <p <; 90. Nevertheless, it is convenient to have
of n e for
a sketch of the situation in the whole period
6.3.2 Analysing the spectral behaviour of

It
has been said that the equivalent layer
is
<p
360.
an equivalent layer
a highly dispersive element
(dispersion being understood as ^-dependence rather than explicit relation
to A). Figs. 6-2a,
b bear
this
out in
full extent.
252
To
we
shall
analyze the behaviour of the equivalent layer in dependence on
proceed along the same
lines as in 3.1.1.
was analyzed as a function of q>.

The complication now is that
(pj
cp ((p),
e
but there
Fig. 6-2
(0.5
L)
is
Y =
Y
q>
where formula (3-2a)
n e {<p) depends on
(p.
So does
the useful fact that at least in the region of real
Graphs of equivalent parameters for the periods

(p, and (0.5 H) L (0.5 H)case @,
H (0.5 L)case
Refractive indices: H
2.3,
wL
1.36.

e
two:
almost
(p e is
(p e k, 2(p.
strictly
We
<p,
the factor being very nearly
then have (taking everything in normal incidence)
n e (<p)
proportional to
253
n eW)
(w
(o
n g)
g)
+
+
cos2<jo
cos 2<p
j[w n 8
j[n n g
n,(<p)] sin2(?
*(<?)] sin 2<P
(in the real-n e domain).
As
in 3.1.1
we may speak of cardinal
2<p
yielding
ln,
points whenever
,
g,
n
"
(
(
~
,
ns
JY
(6-35)
and
2<p
where e
(2/
is
+ l)^
^
yielding
g. /2
=f
WW
'
\ n ng
taken as e
Owing
(2/
1)
~
+
"
"e
(6-36)
to the limited validity of (6-34), cardinal points falling out of
the region of real n e must be discarded. For the periods considered, only
/
0, 2,
4 apply for qk while

,
all
integers
are admissible for q I2
In 3.1.1 these cardinal points gave extremum values to q = f 2

With ne strongly dependent on <p this is no longer the case. However, the
|
structure of (6-34) being identical with that of (3-2a),
that for any
infer
still
tp
Q,2(.<P)
Q(<P)
where en/2 (<p) denotes the right-hand

function of
we may
(p.
is
(6-37)
side of (6-36) with n e taken as a
constant.
Thus the expressions
(6-35),
(6-36) define envelopes of the actual
oscillations of o(q>) in the region of real n e
Any time the independent variable
assumes a cardinal value, either of these envelopes
is
touched. Outside of
the cardinal values the envelopes represent upper and lower bounds for
g(<p).
Envelopes pertinent to the two cases CD and

are drawn in Fig.
Owing to symmetry only the first two quadrants are covered.
Since the equivalent index for case
first
quadrant,
it is
to be expected that at
6-3.
runs through small values in the
some
q>
the antiref lection condition
n g will be met, implying Q n/2 = 0. This actually happens at

which is a zero-point for the envelope Qn/2 (<p)n\
q>
60,
Apart from this, one sees that there are two points (<j =48 and 68),
where Qn/2 ((p) = Qn and the envelopes exchange their roles in the inequality
254
The function
(6-37).
remaining in-between,
g((p)
through these intersections, as
Although
q>
60
it
must
necessarily pass
also seen in Fig. 6-3b.
is
a good point for complete antireflection as

= 90
is
regards the refractive index n e the corresponding phase condition 2<p

,
is
not
This
fulfilled.
why
is
this zero point
touched by the actual function
g((p). It
of the lower envelope
would only be so for n
the constant-valued envelope Q n coincides with the
<p
axis
ng
is
,
not
when
and the two
intersections converge to this point.
An
analogous reversal of envelopes occurs for case
quadrant, but there
V w o
second
In the region of imaginary e

(2-27a) and writing n e for
where
in the
(J)
no zero point for Q n/2 ((p), since n e never equals
is
 e
COsh
<Pe
g)
inserting
+ j [n ng +
+ J [ W 0g ~
n\ (<?)] sinh
<p e
(6-38)
"e (<?)] sinh ê
no simple way (see semicircles in Fig. 6-2b).

we can make from (6-38) is that there are likely to
<p
inference
ne
in
be no oscillations inside the interval {(p x <p 2 )So far, both (6-34) and (6-38) might be regarded as only a more elab,
orate alternative of expressing
r(cp)
for the basic period to a straight-
forward computation without the equivalence concept.

discussed
some
We
have not even
unusual situations the equivalent layer experiences in
certain singular points.
1.0
05
Fig. 6-3a,
(05h)l(0SH)
A
J
b Envelopes of reflectivity corresponding to the two basic periods
and Qs.

. Then ne
255
and n e - 0,
h e -*
h t -* oo for (D and <2> respectively. These are cases of degenerate thin film
interference, which bring about peculiar states of the (formal) electromagTake, for example,
and of
netic field
its
cp
-*
q> x
-* oo,
boundary conditions. Sometimes continuity conditions
are violated in favour of displacement surface currents.

to [13] for a systematic discussion of such cases.
it is
These are easily determined for a degenerate layer
by equivalence computations.
originated
In the above chosen point of degeneracy
sin
sin
q> e
<pi
some

for case
-
For our present purpose

depend on the
sufficient to state that the resulting reflectivities generally
rates of convergence.
and
We refer the reader
(and
It is
in such a
m 12
way
0) for case <D
these finite values
as oo/oo for
and 0/0 for
it
must hold that njtt
->
jt
as to have by the definitions (6-24) w e
and
sin
yji' 1
we need
. The result
-*
m 12 (and m 2t
in evaluating lim g(cp) for

is
correct, but
-> 0)
<p
we have had
extra manipulations.
All these formal complications are unimportant in view of the role
the equivalence concept plays in the analysis of periodic structures.
6.3.3 Stacking the basic period

If the basic period
must be equivalent
is
repeated &-times, then for physical reasons
to a single layer of the
same
refractive index
it
e and of
A e for each q>. In other words, the equivalence

a convenient means of expressing the fc-th power of an interference matrix belonging to a symmetrical period: we simply take cos (k(p
c ),
fc-times the optical thickness
theorem
is
sin (k(p e ) in the real
domain and (-
domain of imaginary e
It is
l)
cosh (kq>j, (- l) k sinh (kq>J in the
(see (6-29)).
with these values that
we go back
to the respective formulae

view of what we know from
the analysis of the single period, the point being that the envelopes remain
(6-34), (6-38).
The
results will
be
easily seen in
fixed.
The pass-band and
q>
its
subsidiary
maxima
In the domain of real n e the straight envelope (6-35) will be touched for
integer x nj2k, the bent envelope (6-36) for q> = odd integer x njAk
(using only permissible values of the multiples). This
number of periods increasing, there

dary maxima in the pass-bands.
will
means
that,
with the
be an increasing number of secon-
256
The asymmetric shape of the envelope g n/2 ((p) with

implies that for case (D the short-wave
maxima
respect to
cp
njl
(with reference to the central
cp = n/2) will be smaller than those on the long-wave side.

For case (2> the situation is reversed. This prediction is illustrated by Fig. 6-4.
The first case may be interpreted as a 7-layer HLH
H with outer
extensions by (0.5L), resulting in suppression of short-wave subsidiary
maxima. Analogously, the second case may be visualized as a quarter-wave
stack with outer extensions by (0.5H), leading to suppression of long- wave
maxima. (Since such an extension forces the basic stack to be terminated
by L-layers, an 11-layer was taken in the second case in order to approximately
preserve the same performance in the stop-band.) However, it is not easy
wavelength at
an interpretation of these simple extensions as antireflection layers

L
of the equivalent index of the basic systems HLH ... H or LHL
respectively. These are now essentially new periods, whose pass-bands
to give
in terms
. . .
t(aSL)(Hl)H(0.5L)G
j
~.
60
\r\
90
iso
ISO
p'
no
A
\\\ ir\-M/\
05-
l(0.SH)(LH)L(aSH)6
I!
ll
60
90
Mi'
too
f>
Fig. 6-4a, b Phase diagrams for the two basic periods stacked. High
imbalance of secondary maxima predermines these systems as useful
prototypes for edge
filters in
the visible spectrum.

(identical with those
of
[(0.5 L)
H(0.5L)] k
and
spersed with real and imaginary domains of n e

levels
257
H) L(0.5H)]) k are
[(0.5
of subsidiary maxima as a fact proper to the stratification of the two
basic periods, which
From
filters.
may
well be exploited in the construction of edge-
a different view point
we
elaborate
on
this
on
features of the pass-bands of periodic structures, this discussion

specific choice
<
nH
p. 6-28
MS.
to be stressed at this point that, although revealing important
It is
inter-
We therefore take the uneven
<
2.5
of n H n L The results remain essentially valid

,
and
<
1.33
<
are obtained in this
way if we take H
based on a
for, let
us say,
two-component
spectrum, but no good edge-filters
1.5, i.e.
systems manufactured in the visible
is
for the orthodox
4.0 or so, as
is
usual in the infra-red,
Fig. 6-5. Further design work, possibly again exploiting the equivalence
concept,
is
necessary to flatten out the pass-band. This will be dealt with
in the next section.

10
j
/V^^jSL
1
1
05
1
~2^\i W
*\3
iso
Fig. 6-5a,
6.3.4
aoftao
30
60
to
120
isop'iao
b Phase diagrams of stacks using two basic periods with a different index pair:
L = 2.3. Substrate 4.0. No good edge filters are obtained. (The extrema are
numbered for further analysis.)
4.0,
Use of matching
We
now
layers to manipulate pass-band ripple
some examples of outer layers added to a basic

multilayer with the aim of reducing subsidiary maxima, the philosophy of
shall
give
the approach being antireflection of the equivalent system.
Matching then means choosing such a value of the added refractive

fit into the antireflection condition for the newly formed
index as will
combination.
258
Denoting the additional indices according to the scheme of Fig. 6-6

choose either of these layers or both. Apart from this their choice
depends on the respective phase conditions in which the added layers shall
we may
work.
Since a subsidiary
contact of
very nearly identical with the points of
is
we
face
two kinds of problems:
maximum associated with the constant envelope,
to antireflect a
(i)
maximum
with either of the envelopes,
g(q>)
with an essentially A/2 equivalent layer embedded between

to cope with a
(ii)
system
no)
r>,
In the
is
ne
the
by A/4
first line
n,
/?*
case the original layer
first
Scheme of indices
by bi-layers.
Fig. 6-6
\
to antireflecting the
is
and g
near the bent envelope, where the original
essentially equivalent to a A/4 layer.
nB
antireflection
maximum
dealing
boundary
/w
is
We
for extension
and the problem reduces
latent
shall first agree to use the simple
layers, single or double.*)
The
result then obviously
in Tab. 6-1.
Table 6-1
Matching indices of refraction for the three possible extensions of a stack by outer
single layers, the aim being suppression of subsidiary maxima or minima.
front extension
constant envelope
ri
bent envelope
ri
In the second case
= V
"g
n e yjnjn g
we compute by
rear extension
ri
bilateral extension
""/"'
<Jn an s
H e Vg/"o
n'n"
(3-23) for the three
n/" 8 /"o
n e \fn ng
columns respec
tively
"eff
2;
n eff
-5-,
2;
n"
nff
*)
n'n"
Since bilateral single-layer extension of a latent layer actually amounts to applying
a two-layer to the
substrate.
259
Annulling reflection as expressed by (3-19) then leads to the
marized in the second
line
of Tab.
two degrees of freedom
Since the bilateral extensions have
we may
the
postulate simultaneous matching for both envelopes.
two equations
in the last
"'
In
all
results'
these formulae ri
may
conditions
n"
\/("o"e)
and n" depend on
= Vt'VO
ri,
n",
solving
<p
(6-39a, b)
through n e (<p). The antireflection
be applied to any of the maxima on the corresponding

lies
its minima may

two adjacent extrema,
very high, even
be subjected to antireflection in this way. Reducing

lie
By
column one obtains
envelope. In fact, if the lower envelope
which both
sum-
6-1.
too high and belong to two different envelopes,
is
a typical
situation for using (6-39a, b), see Fig. 6-7.

If the critical point occurs for
is
used" to compute
ded layer
is
ri
some
q>
q> crit
then the value n e (cp
taken as 90/^rit
60
Fig. 6-7
crit)
or n" and the relative optical thickness of the ad-
90
Manipulation of the short-wave maxima
in the original system
shown in figure
main text.)
described in
6-5b. (Designs
260
This is all one can do in this kind of design. It remains to be verified

by numerical analysis across the spectrum of <p, how far this antireflection
extends into the neighbourhood of the critical points under control. It
will be seen in the examples to follow that useful results are obtainable.
Before doing
on
sion
Fig. 6-6.
we
this,
either side or
The
present yet another table (6-2) concerning exten-
both by 1/4
derivations are
left
bi-layers,
with notations according to
for the reader.
Table 6-2
Matching indices of refraction for the three possible extensions of a stack by outer
aim being suppression of subsidiary maxima or minima.
bi-layers, the
front extension
constant
envelope
envelope
By
= vW"g)
"i/"2
bent
"l/"2
rear extension
bilateral extension
IK = vWg)
= \/WgV"e
"Vn 2 =
n'in '{/n'2
"e/\/(Vg)
'i
"i"2'/2"l
column we obtain
solving the conditions in the last
V(/g )
= V("o"gV"e
as matching
for both envelopes
= V/-
= v/
"e
ll'2
(6-40a, b)
Examples of use
As an example
methods let us
bad high-pass filter
for the application of these matching
take the system according to Fig. 6-5b.
It is
and would even remain so if we made g

inner (0.5H) layer optically significant.
Let us number the extremal points
to
evidently a
=
1 1
1.5 in
an
effort to render the
and impose the
antireflection
conditions on them in various combinations, preferring, of course, those

nearer the stop-band.
We
may, for example, reason in the following way: 4 lying not very
we concentrate on 3 and 5, both belonging to the constant envelope .

Having two points we need two layers and the extension must be bilateral.
From Table 6-1 we take
high,
ln-
V4 =

being
this
satisfied, for
(a mixture of
The
ZnS and
example, by
c'
3,
may
c"
ri
2.76
be chosen in two ways: the outer layer
the inner layer covers
or
(MgF 2 SrF 2 ) and
1.38
Ge).
relative thicknesses
covers point
ri
261
5,
and
vice versa.
Then
90
90
C = ^-=1.637
or
c"
3,
30
55
respectively.
We
out both alternatives owing to the uncertainty we have
shall try
outside of the cardinal points.
The
resulting diagrams
q(</>)
shown
are
in Fig. 6-7a, b. Substantial
reduction has taken place at the cardinal points 3,5, but the range about
point 4, which was not treated,
is
somewhat
deteriorated. Also,
be noticed that antireflection of 3 and 5 in Fig. 6.7b

zero, although the conditions for ri, ri were properly
is
it
should
10 percent above
set.
This
is
because
of mutual interaction of the extensions.
We now make
and
5,
another attempt with a new pair of adjacent points 4
belonging to different envelopes.
If the outer layer is to cover
4 and the inner layer
5,
we have*) by
(6-39a, b)
= Vn
ri
e(43)
= 4lJ =
n"
1.643
C- 1 -2.09,
= Jngn55) = ^4x2.35 =
c"
= i?L-
43
3.07
(6 " 41a ' b)
1.637
55
In the converse situation

ri
s/n n c (55)
The
V2.35
1.532
c'
1.637
results are
shown
n"
>/ e (43)
g
c"
in Fig. 6-7c, d.
The
= V4x2.7 =
2.09
first
3.286
(6-42a,b)
case
is
obviously very
satisfactory over a broader region of the spectrum.
Let us
now turn our attention to the short-wave maxima of the diagram

down the points 8 and 9, occuring at <p = 136
6-5b with the aim of bringing
and
150: e (136)
5.9,
e (150)
5.53.
*)
The values of w e for 43 and 55 are taken from a diagram analogous to 6-2b computed for the 4.0/2.3 index pair. It is not shown here.
262
Repeating the above scheme we have

for 8
and
9:
for 9
and
c'
0.662
ri
4.69, c"
0.6
(6-43a, b)
2.345,
c'
0.6
ri
4.86, c"
0.662
(6-44a, b)
8:
ri
The
2.43
ri
d show good results. These even

computed indices by those
spectral checks in Fig. 6-8a,
remain nearly so
if
we
replace one or both of the
already at hand in the system (Fig. 6-8b,
We may
c, e, f).
as well distribute our interest
on both
of the central
sides
stop-band and require, for example, 5 and 8 to be reduced, which would

result in a
more
90
isolated central band.
120
150
HO 90
WO
ISO
120
90
ISO
120
**
ri-2A3
180
rV)
n"- iO
ri-2.0
n'-*.69
\'
so
ri-2.3
ri-4.69
so
00
20
\J\
K./l
120
120
Q
IJO
ISO
1M 90
d
ri- 2.3iS
ig.
150
180
IV/^
90
n'-tM
ri-23
ISO
120
n"-*86
6-8 Manipulation of the long-wave
ri-
maxima of
in figure 6.5b.
Z3
180
n"-k.0
the system
shown

It is
263
obviously sufficient to combine the conditions (6-42a) and (6-44b)
or (6-43a) with (6-4 lb).
results are shown in Fig. 6-9. Both antirenarrow and more sophisticated extensions would
The
flection regions are rather
have to be contemplated to extend
these.
wo
P
1,
1
50
V\
BO
Fig. 6-9
Attempt
ISO
30
SO
tSO
120
at simultaneously manipulating a long-wave (5)
a short-wave
(8)
maximum
A relationship between low-pass and high-pass
ISO
and
in figure 6-5b.
filters
To illustrate the r61e of bi-layers in the manipulation of pass-band

maxima we digress on an attempt at finding a relationship between low-pass
and high-pass
filters.
Let us start from the latter having the basic pattern 1(0.5H) LHL ...
HL(0.5 H) G and a typical curve according to Fig. 6-4b. Setting out to
reduce its exceedingly high short-wave maxima by bilateral extension in the
form of bi-layers chosen so as to match at the gn/2 points of the bent envelope
we must
<
<p
fulfill
the formula in the right-hand
bottom corner of Table
6-2.
Referring to Fig. 6-2a, the average value of e in the region 120 <
< 180 for the case
is about 3.5. Choosing n\ = n' =
2
L = 1.36
and 2
n'[
nH
2.3,
we
'
find that the
formula
is satisfied
accuracy, viz:
HiTlo
n^n
2"1
A-36V
A .
y i.52
3.5
Jn
ng
with excellent
264
The
high-pass
to a low-pass
filter
filter 1(0.5 H) LH
HL(0.5 H)
by extension of the type
.
lfc'(LH)] [(0.5 H)
LH
Considering the region about
...
<p
may
HL(0.5H)] [c"(HL)]
ISO
180 as critical leads to
and we arrive at the standard form of the low-pass

H(0.5L) G, Fig. 6-10a.
0.5
ito
thus be converted
filter
c'
c"
1(0.5L) HI
iio
100
30
SO
C-0.5
10
c*-o.a
c)
ISO
ibo
iho
d)
<)
f)
Fig. 6-10.
The low-pass
filter
deduced as a manipulation on
its
high-pass counterpart in figure 6.4.

Such an approach makes
in the short-wave pass-band:
for example,
c'
if
interplay of the
c"
do not have
to be equal
= 0.7 or 0.8 (Fig. 6-10b, c),

= 120, where some residual
q>
number of quarter-wave
the
A fair compromise is also

hand, keeping c"
and
0.5, c"
of the region about

standard design
possible to predict further flattening effects
it
c'
265
0.5
c'
and
c"
setting
two extensions
ripple exists for the
layers exceeds 9, or so.
0.6 or 0.7 (Fig. 6-1 Od,
c'
0.6
and choosing,
one takes good care
0.8 leads to
e).
On
the other
an unfavourable
(Fig. 6-10f).
Let us once again turn to the high-pass pattern and try bilateral
antireflection at the g n/2 -points by adding a pair c'(LH) in the front and
c"H(2L) in the rear. The latter stipulation means that we are envisaging
an
in
antireflection layer
Table
yeff =
6-2,
but one
of the X\4
may compute
k\2 type. Such a case
is
not included
directly (taking the A/2 layer as latent):
n\n'e ln'2 n'[, which for zero reflection with an even
number of
layers
leads to the condition

ft
Inserting ri[
n'2 = 2.3, n\ = 1.36, 3.0 < n < 3.25 for 150
c
180, the equality is very nearly fulfilled as 3.84
3.7 -r 4.0.
<
<p
<
Choosing
c'
c"
we
0.5
obtain the system
1(0.5L)HL...HLG
which should be a low-pass
The dotted curve
filter.
in Fig. 6-10 a
shows it is in fact an even better design

than the orthodox bilaterally (0.5L)-extended quarter-wave system.
Trying the same thing from outside, i.e. choosing a c'(2L) H front
extension so
match
we may obtain 1 HL
LH(0.5L)
<<
(3.84
G does not lead to a satisfactory
in the corresponding condition
on the
left
fa
side being substantially different
Analogously to the above
results,
from
2.5
a similar conversion
on the
right).
may be expected
to exist from the low-pass to the high-pass design. It would of course be

pulling the reader's leg to state that the method consists in cancelling the
extension of the high-pass pattern.
low-pass
filter
which
What we
seek
is
an extension of the
actively suppresses its long-wave ripple.
266
However, following exactly the established pattern of
bilateral exten-
sion by two quarter-wave bi-layers does not lead to the expected result.
The procedure having by now been adequately exemplified, we state its
result directly:
l[c'(XY)] [(0.5L) H(0.5L)]
where n\\n] must equal

region of
in Fig.
6-2.
V*W"e>
ie
Choosing y
- 6 for "
[c"(YX)]
2.3,
2 - in the h ig h "P ass
we have w x =
1.8.
30
* -
-18
ne
20
?K
v..y
60
to
k'1
30
nn-25
'
20
to
90
60
00
k-if
30
nt'1.6
20
I
10
Fig. 6-11 Suppression of the long-wave

maxima by bilateral extension using two-
layer periods with indices of refraction 2.3
and
^y
\{
J
90
60
30
to
JO
1.8.
r\
K'*
nt-2.5
20
O
Fig. 6-12
A study
of the antireflecting effect
by very thin outer
r\
extensions.
'V*
60
p.
good high-pass filter has

our original goal.
from
indeed been obtained, but the result deviates
The standard high-pass filter design will be obtained if we adopt a
on
different antireflection technique. The following discussion will be based
the knowledge of the final result and the conversion will be presented as an
Fig. 6-11 shows, for various
c',
c",
that a
interpretation rather than a cute design step.
and
The point
= k 2<p
<p e
is
267
whether an essentially quarter-wave layer with n e 2.0

modulo 180 (k number of periods in the low-pass
90,
system) can be antireflected by a sequence of indices 1/2.3
1.36
2.3/1.52, the
embedding layers being very thin:
1.36
in fact the
e
working
range of the unit phase angle of the envisaged high-pass
filter under study

about 45. The layers expected for extension are 0.5 -multiples of this,
while the antireflected body is in its peaks equivalent to at least 90 for
lies
1,
possibly fc-times more.
So we add
at the
most 0.25-multiples of the
optical thickness of the layer being antireflected, possibly &-times less.

Fig. 6-12
shows a study of such an
antireflection in terms of the original
unit phase angle, the sequence of optical thicknesses being

1[0.5(HL)] ffc(2E)] [0.5(LH)J
where E stands for a unit layer of refractive index e The values for
e
were chosen to be 1.8 and 2.5, covering both wings of the high-wavelength
.
region of the low-pass design. Obviously, for n variable between these values
e
according to curve
of Fig. 6-2, the extension 0.5(HL) ... 0.5(LH) will

be effective everywhere within the pass-band in question, as expected for
the standard high-pass design.
Note: Only those regions of Fig. 6-12 are meaningful for
do not coincide with the stop-band of
6.3.5
this discussion
which
the basic period.
The stop-band
Simple stack
Looking at (6-38) with 1 as k ~* oo. This is because the hyperbolic
,
for
functions tend to infinity.
We thus come to the result that a multilayer composed of many basic

periods of the type (0.5A) B(0.5A) has a stop-band defined by (6-30) which
is
equal to that of a periodic structure (AB) k as computed in 3.2.6. The

differ by outer A/8 extensions, which evidently have no effect on
,
two cases
the stop-band width.
They do,
as
we have
seen, strongly influence the pass-
bands.
For basic periods of other types the stop-band is again defined by the
condition of imaginary n e this occurring between such q>, where m
12 or m 21
assume zero values.
,
268
Two
contiguous stacks
We
have mentioned in
3.5.1
the possibility of enlarging the high-
by having two stacks of the same type

same numbers of layers,) centered at two
different wavelengths. Maximum efficiency of this method is expected when
the two stacks are contiguous, i.e. their relative tuning is c, = 1 + e/90
and c 2 = 1 e/90, where e is half of the stop-band in degrees. In the
present section this angle is computed by (6-30), the result being identical
with the former computation by (3-31).
Invoking a theorem by Rayleigh, we declared in 3.5.1 the interval
covered by the two separate stop-bands to be the stop-band of the composite
reflectance region of a tuned stack
(but not necessarily with the
system.
Having now a new theory
for the stop-band, let us try to apply the
concept of equivalent layer to the case of two contiguous stacks of the

modified type with A/8 extensions.
e.g.
Let the two component mirrors have basic periods of the same kind,
(0.5H) L(0.5H), p and q being the numbers of periods in either of them.
>
Let the tuning c t

to the second. If
cp
be applied to the
is still
first
stack seen from the air, c 2
<
the independent variable, then the equivalent
parameters of the two stacks are
where n e and
are the functions defined in Fig. 6-2.
<p e
Considering
the
first
stack
now
the partial stop-band interval to the
of
left
<p
90,
operating in the conditions of imaginary equivalent index,
is
the second stack has a real n e
Dropping the subscript e (thus
n'e
ri etc.)
we have
the following
product of equivalent matrices
CC-
(-l)-l
\ j(
S'S",
- n'S'C" +
'
"C'S"),
}( S'C"+
C'C"
CS")\
f
S'S"
where (6-29) was used for the matrix of the first stack. Thus ri = , is a real
number. C, S' stand for the hyperbolic functions of the argument pip',
while C", S" are goniomstric functions of the second argument qq>".

It is
269
convenient to investigate the transmission coefficient
which
is
inversely proportional to
(a
n C'C" +
a 12 S'S")
j(a 21 C"S'
a 22 C'S")
(6-45)
the coefficient matrix being
flu
n.
~,
a 12
=n.
ri
n"
"o
n"
ri
"o
=~
a 21
a 22
s-
n
If the left vicinity of
to zero as
-* oo.
For
<p
90
is
to be a stop-band, then
must tend
large values of pip' (6-45) equals
|eP?'[(<"nC" +
a 12 S")
j(a 21 C"
a 22 S")]
which will tend to infinity with p if we exclude the possibility that the real
and imaginary parts vanish simultaneously. This could only occur if the
determinant
a V)
were zero, which would entail the controversial condi-
tion*)
n g(n' 2
n"
2
)
{n
ri )
(6-46)
In a similar manner the right-hand vicinity of <p = 90 covered by the

second stack could be shown to behave as the stop-band of the composite
system.
If the mutual detuning is less than would correspond to exact touching
of the two stop-bands, then a region of overlap forms, which can be shown
to belong to the composite stop-band.
If the detuning is
bands
is
pushed a
little
further so as to
make
the
two stop-
disjunct, then the breech is not part
kept moderate, then with
finite
of the stop-band. However, if it

numbers of layers it may be covered by
the side-slopes of the two reflectors. Sufficient reflectance
may thus build

up, comparable with that present in the stop-bands proper. Allowing for
some oscillations in q, the resulting mirror may have a practical bandwidth
slightly larger
than two exactly contiguous stacks.
*)
We tacitly exclude the possibility that ri and n" simultaneously vanish. Inspection
of the graphs in Fig. 6-2 (shifted in accordance with the detuning of the two stacks)
reveals that the case cannot occur.

kind,
one
However, combining stacks based on periods of different

Ch. 3.
risks reflectance gaps in the stop-band, as discussed in ref. [42]
270
6.4
Theorems concerning induced transmission

In Chapter 5 the basic features of the concept of induced transmission
have been outlined. In the present section we
and
subject
derive
some theorems
shall further elaborate
vital for the design
on the
of transluminated
systems.
6.4.1 Front-extension
theorem
We simply restate the rule substantiated in 5.

we
that the ratio
any
called inevitable absorptance) remains constant with
dielectric extension
first
(which
outer-left
of the absorbing system. Alternatively, the same holds
for the potential transmittance *P related to a/t
The
oc/t
by
(5-13).
to enunciate this theorem was Abeles,
[14].
The
invariant
g)jx, which is the inverse of W. However, the

quantity was taken as (1
invariance was then in no way associated with the concept of induced
transmission. This
6.4.2
was
later
developed in the papers cited in Sect. 5.2
Theorems on maximum potential transmittance
Single metallic layer
The
formula
potential transmittance of one absorbing layer

(5-8) as the ratio
boundaries, expressed via the internal
y=
<8T
where
r=
tan y
reflection coefficient
exp
*)
the
4nX~
is
given by the
of the net fluxes at the emergent and incident
field.
We
shall restate
l-g-2T Vising
W 2 Q - ir Ve sin - 2q>')
*) and yfg
it
in the
form
(64?)
(<5
exp (j<5) stands for the effective amplitude
2
of the second boundary. <% has the original meaning
xh).
The angle y has the same meaning as

same symbol introduced by Eq. (6-7).
in
Eq. (1-39) and
is
not to be confused with
We can plot,
on
271
the complex plane, the loci of y/g exp
correspond-
(j<5)
ing to constant W. Eq. (6-47) can be written as
- W% 2 ) g + irw sin 2cp'
(1
=
Setting
circle
X=
Y=
yjg cos 8,
+ 2r(l - cos 2<p')

-f<ar 2
yfg cos 8
1
yfg sin 8, (6-48) can be
shown
yjg sin 8
.(6-48)
to represent a
with the centre
(TW sin 2<p'
r(l
<Pcos2<p'))
and radius
2
[!P (1
+ T 2 )-2!P(r 2 cos2< / + cosh2')lsin 2y' intersecting the imag-
straight line with the tangent
inary axis in the point

to
Problem 4-8
T. The corresponding radius is Vl + T 2
reveals that the isotransmittance contour for
identical with Berning's circle, as
For
>
it
the centres shift to the third quadrant
(See Fig. 6-13 concerning a
We know from Ch.
lie
chromium
than unity
Reference
W =
is
should.
parts of the isotransmittance contours
reflectivities greater
may be
and
substantial
outside the central unit circle.
layer.) This
means
that energy
required at the second boundary.
no contradiction to physical laws insofar

inside Berning's circle. With the centres travelling sideways this imposes a constraint on the isotransmittance radii such
that the contours must lie within the greatest circle "F = 0.
With W increasing, the radius (6-50) must therefore decrease until it
reaches zero value^The corresponding point of collapse then determines
4 that
as the vectors yjg exp Q8)
this is in
lie
the unique value y/g m exp (j<5m ) which determines a

Setting (6-50) equal to zero one obtains
^max
maximum
of
V^7
W = fmax
(6-51)
where
e
= ^ 2cos
V+
i
The negative
than
1.
sign
must operate
cosh2<?"
}
+ r2
in (6-51) to furnish
!P real
and smaller
272
The
real
(6-49) with
and imaginary parts of y/gm exp
V replaced by
_
<Fmax
m) are then given by
(j<5
This leads to
yix -2ymM cos2</ r2

(1
(6-53a)
- â** 2 ) 2
and
tan|<5J
= l-^costy'
<
Sm
<
3rc/2
^maxSin2<i9'
Fig. 6-13 Tansmittance contours for
a chromium
layer.
(6-53b)

now important
It is
273
to note the following: the target value
T,max
depends uniquely on the parameters of the layer, not on its embedding.

Neither does it depend on the direction of incident light, i.e.
9W = SW
although generally
*F R
To maximize
(6-53a, b)
^
it
P L , since
is
gK
eL
(6-54)
.
of course necessary to synthetize the values
by proper backward extension. There
dielectric structures leading to (6-53a, b),
for a fixed metallic layer. (It
is
is
an
infinite variety
of
but these target values are unique
to be recalled that the whole discussion
is
limited to one wavelength only).
now have
Let us
and consider
it
translumination.
tension S 2
now
a transluminated layer with a backing system S 2
for the L-direction of incident light, again postulating
By
6.4.1 the
new
may
process
appearing on the incidence
disregard the former ex-
side.
Since the metallic layer
unchanged, the design value s]gm exp (j<5m) for maximizing "P is the
same as before, but nothing prevents us from synthetizing it by a different
structure S t We then have the metallic layer in asymmetric embedding
itself is
when
qk
QL
Simultaneously
it
must hold by
w
r max _
1
Qr
(6-54) that
Ql
only possible when g R = g L = 0.

follows that the stack S t which was designed to maximize W for the
L-direction has the property of completely antireflecting the composite
which
is
It
system
MS 2
for the R-direction.
by the uniqueness of gm exp (jdm) and by the symmetry of the

device, S 2 can replace S t in its role, we have arrived at the following theorem:
Since,
A single metallic layer is manipulated into its maximum transmittance

= !Pmax for g K = g L = 0), if the matched system MS 2 is
extended into the symmetrical system S 2 MS 2
This theorem is important for the design of induced transmission
possible (Tmax
monochromatic
Fig. 6-14
filters. (Sect. 7.3.2).
shows the Argand diagram of the
reflectivities
,/^ exp
maximizing the potential transmittance of chromium layers (n

A = 5500 A) at various geometrical thicknesses. The !P
max - and
versus-/; curves are also
O'^m)
(a/T) min
3j,
shown.
Such diagrams may be computed for any single metallic film indepenits embedding. During a particular design procedure, however,
dently of
274
the factor V#m ex P (j^m) 1S not a convenient design quantity, because it

corresponds to a system inserted on the emergent side seen from the metal.
It is difficult
to acquire a practical insight into the properties of a stack
starting with a metal/dielectric boundary.
(We
also recall that the deisgner
have to cope with situations where q > 1.)

It is easy to dispose of this situation by setting up an Airy summation
formula for the layer / in Fig. 5-2 as the spacer layer, the first system being
will
200
100
ij\
25
30
000
WO
500
EOT
700 h A'
tfmCosSm
m\
/4
js"
m\/
-"^^
:L
Fig.6-14 The (a/r)

chromium layers of different thickness
(a). The Argand diagram of the
xoK
a\
3B0*
wo
b)
corresponding matched rear

reflectances
(b).
275
represented by the metal-dielectric Fresnel reflection coefficient fM( , the
system
playing the part of the rear subcoating.
Expressing thus
^Qm
rD e
exp
ja ">
The absolute value of

is
performed through
we can
(j5m)
invert the formula to obtain
= ^-ygme*"
the right-hand side determines r D
the tuning
2q>,.
General absorbing system

a) Reflectance matching
The problem of maximizing
potential transmittance will
now be
investigated for a general layer system, with a limitation to external trans-
lumination.
We
shall again single out the metallic core as in Fig. 5-1
and
with
refer to Eq. (4-44) connecting the net radiant flux across the plane
the total-field components in the plane /.The exploitation of this relationship
depends on the type of media behind the core. Let us
first
review the existing
was only one metallic layer backed by a semi
infinite half-space,
possibilities.
If there
we
obtained the formula (4-46) for the inevitable absorptance with the
substrate index n 2 as the design parameter. (This formula even admits
oblique incidence.)
One can
seek the
but the limitation to a real n 2
extremum, because the Fresnel

variable
represents
coefficients,
may
minimum
of
oc/t,
or
maximum
of T,
hinder the attainment of the absolute
reflection
on
one-dimensional
r\
from which the optimum value
r\, x fixed and

2
complex reflection
may be absent. In fact,
\x\n 2 with
of
variety
(6-53)
a serious principal limitation already exists in the circumstance that the

Fresnel reflection coefficient is smaller than unity, while maximum potential
transmittance often calls for q > 1. Nevertheless, practically useful improvements may be obtained in this way, as will be shown in 7.3.1.
The next generalization so far made was the manipulation of Eq. (4-44)
with respect to the existence of the system II behind III (Fig. 5-1), introducing
the reflection factor (5-1) in accordance with Fig. 5-2.
If
we now use
mittance by (5-13)
the resulting formula (5-3) to compute potential trans-
we obtain
the expression
* ??
A + Bq d + 2 C^Jqo cos (/i +
(6 . 56)
S'lR )
276
which
is
an obvious generalization of
may be
(6-47). It
regarded as the
potential transmittance of the core III plus the adjacent dielectric layer
All the quantities involved in this formula are given by the relations
An
/.
(5-4).
advantage of the formula (6-56) consists in the important rear
reflection factor being directly defined with respect to the first
behind the core, not to the
last
boundary of the core
been explained why such a situation lends

procedures.
Among
itself. It
more
itself
readily to design
>
other things, the paradoxical case g
This will become evident in the course of a
boundary
has already
is
avoided.
new computation of
isotrans-
mittance contours on the basis of formula (6-56).
They form
circles
on the complex plane with
l+BW
and
TC sin
-yCcosn
'
ft
centres at
^' J
1+flfJ
radii
[(C
where
- AB) T 2 +
C 2 - AB =
The
centres
contour of zero
A)
V+
l/2
l]
[1
+ BY]'
(6-58)
1.
lies
{B
is
on a
straight line passing
through the origin and the
identical with the unit circle. All the other circles are
nested inside and the
maximum
equal to zero. Thus
value of
found by
is
I/A-B^
Â-B
T^ Vl"V1
.
The proper value
<
!Pmax
<
is
setting (6-58)
+1
(6 - 59)
-J
then inserted into (6-57) to obtain
the real and imaginary parts of the reflection coefficient yJg Dm exp
securing that !fmax
(j<5'iRm )
The
dielectric stack
to the required g D
S[ K is
in Fig. 5-2 need be designed only with respect
Whatever the accompanying phase
then secured by choosing a convenient value for
If the stack
D is alternating and quarterwave,
shift
q>
which
8 D the required
,
in (5-4f).
is
usually the case,
or n depending on whether the layer / has a lower or higher

then 8 D =
index of refraction than the following first quarterwave.
The present approach involves as a special case the single metallic

from (6-47) in that the spacer layer / is included in the
and
absorbing stack
^q d exp (j5J R ) is seen from the spacer layer a result
which formerly required the separate step by (6-55). The denominator is
correspondingly more involved, containing the combinations A, B, C of
layer. (6-56) differs
On
the matrix elements.
277
the other hand, the numerator does not contain
any interference term.
Having proved the existence of the value

it is
again independent of the direction of
y^, we may
,
The answer
light.
is
ask whether
positive,
but
the proof will be deferred to the next paragraph using the admittance
formalism.
b) Admittance matching
Another important approach to the manipulation of Eq. (4-44)

is backed by a dielectric multilayer
case that the absorbing stack
introduction of the relationship H, s
= Y (0E
is
Y (0
where
is
in the
is
the
the input ad-
mittance on the /-the boundary seen from the metal. Since this quantity
continuous across the boundary

plane
/.
Denoting
it
formally as
is
we may well take it at the right face of the

Y' <0 we obtain the input admittance of the
,
boundary by transforming Y' (,) according to the formula (2-43),

taking the angle q> negative owing to the crab-like shift between the two
quantities. Thus
(/
1) th
y^^-Jâng
(6-60)
V
'
^-jY'^tan?,
l)
is the matched admittance securing maximum potential transmittance, then the design admittance for the matching stack is computed
If Y'
by
The angle
(6-60).
cp t
furnishes one degree of freedom in this matching.
Part of the literature
formalism.
We
on induced transmission
not enter into the details of
shall
written in admittance
is
this
matching, but derive
in accordance with Baumeister, [15], the admittance version of the theorem
on maximum potential transmittance.

Eliminating H,^ by means of the input admittance,
be written in the form
Ems H* = (w^m*! + Y")|s12

+ Y m l2 m*21 + Y^m^mtz) E
5
Writing further
of (6-61)
is
jz and
i}
m'n
(6-61)
m'^, the real part
evaluated as
D(x, z)
where the
(,)
(s
may be
+
2
(4-44)
coefficients
D o0 +
D, x +
D 01 z + D 22 (x 2 +
of the quadric are defined thus
z2 )
(6-62)
278
wiiî + w w 2i
Dio = m'i2 m'2l + m"X2 m"2x + m'xx m 22 +
= + lim'^m"^ + m 21 m'i2 )
Doo
'i'i
m'xl m 22
D 01 =
D 22
(6-63)
m"xx m 22 + m'x2 m 2X - m"x2 m'2x - m'xx m"22 =
= 2(m 2x m'X2 - m'22 m'xx ) =

= m'X2 m 22 + m"X2 m'22
(The condensed form of the central

interdependencies
among
the m\ v
2(m"tl m 22
made
coefficients is
m"
Vi
m'21 m"12 )
possible by
some
following from the unimodularity of
the interference matrix.)
The
net flux behind the absorbings stack
Re
(E, S H*)
is
proportional to
= Re (Y<>) E
|
2
(s
(6-64)
hence the potential transmittance as the ratio of (6-64) and (6-62)
is
given
by
^T
*=
<6
65 >
D(x,z)
Isotransmittance contours are circles of the type
D 22 W(x 2 +
z2)
+ (D 10 P -
l)x
and, again, the point of colapse indicates

It
may be
+ D 01 z + D 00 P =
fmax
expressed as
^ x=(D.o + 2Fr^
mil
F = (r> 00 V 22 - ^T>l,y
(6-66)
and the components of the corresponding matched admittance are
D 22
For
< W <
!Pmax
max
= zmax
remains to prove the symmetry of
sible directions
2D
the circles of constant
positive half of the straight line z

It
D 01
_
'
(6-67a, b)
have centres on the
max with respect to the
\j/
two pos-
of propagation.
Stacking the elements of the core in reverse order
may
be described
by a sequence of interference matrices which are related to the present

ones in such a way that the elements of the main diagonal are interchanged.
(Compare the considerations around Eq. (6-23).) Inspecting the formulae
279
D 10
and F are invariant

to such a change, hence Waax is the same for the R- and L-directions.
According to (6-67) and (6-63) the matching admittances for either of
the directions are different (unless the core is symmetrical.) This means that
the antireflecting stack on the incidence side is not obtained by simply
(6-63)
from
this point
of view one
mirroring the matching stack.
matched and
may
It still
verify that
holds, however, that for a properly
from both
antirefiected system the reflectance
sides is zero.
This allows to regard antireflection for the R-direction as matching the
emergence side for the L-direction.

c) Potential transmittance in terms of bilateral invariant
We shall now elaborate on some further aspects of induced transmission

using recent results of Thetford,
of
[16],
and
relating these with the principle
reversibility.
Thetford studied the properties of the expression
K=
2[Re {m iv mt 2 )
+ Re (m X2 m*2l )}
(6-68)
and found
this to be a characteristic quantity of the absorbing core, independent of any left and right dielectric outer extensions. (The proof is straight-
forward when writing out the product of the three matrices and using their
unimodularity.) This two-sided invariance is a new result as compared with
the invariance of potential transmittance to the outer-left extensions alone.
Referring to our equations (5-4a,4>)
K=
It
requires
some manipulations
we note
that
A -B
(6-69)
to establish the relationship of
to
measurable quantities:
Kx
The right-hand
We
as
t/t',
qr
x'
qk ql
side of this equation
shall consider
where
ql
2t
vWl cos
5.
By
transmittance
qJt =
(6-70)
(6-14), taking
concerns a negatively conjugate system (x -+
using the relationship
CO
identical with that of (6-20b).
normal incidence with
ing the corresponding potential

finally
is
q'^x' following
t'(1
from
x), introduc Qr)' 1 and
(6-14), the
com-
parison of (6-20b) and (6-70) yields
K=
+
/
u/'
(6-71)
280

Suppose now that the system
reach the conditions
W = fmax =
from
g'
as follows
(6-14)
transluminated and front-extended to
is
T max with g R
ql
Then
0.
also q'r
and (6-71) then reads

"max
By
(6-14)
lumination
equals t/t' in any case. In the condition of absolute trans(6-20a) also equal to T 2 ax
by
it is
T max
"max
In view of
is
in agreement with
It is
^max
(6-72)
*max
this
K=
which
Hence
"Pm ax
(6-73)
^max
one of Thetfords interpretations of this invariant.
evident that the quadratic equation for ?, ensuing from this
is
identical with (6-59).
The
invariant
has so far been introduced as a formal quantity
without any direct physical interpretation.

ference to the reversibility principle and
We
shall try to find this
some of
its
by
re-
consequences evolved
in 6.2.
Let us rewrite (6-70) with

transluminated,
isT!fmax
<?
i.e.
(1
K expressed as (6-73) and assume the system
q r ) !Pmax
t.
The
left-hand side of (6-70) then
Referring once more to (6-14)
t, t r
t'l
t'.
equation (6-70) becomes
t/t',
Wl +
further replace
Ql
where t r = tl
Reducing
we may
QrQr
2 \/(*rt:LQrQr) cos
a>
t' !Fmax
(6-74)
qr
In terms of the negatively conjugate potential transmittance, q r may

be expressed as 1 t' 5** and the right-hand side equals unity because
of
(6-72). (6-74) is
We
thus
then identical with (6-20c).
come
to the conclusion that, in the counterabsorbed case,
Thetford's equation (6-70) is actually a statement on the absolute value of the
amplitude, obtained after reversion in accordance with equation (6-5a).
When
the system
is
not counterabsorbed, the identity (6-70)
may
formally be written as
vf +
R t*
2
|
t'
(k - -~ -
(6-75)

which
is
again compatible with (6-5a), because the bracketed term
ally equal to zero
Let us
now
owing to
so,
equation by
may be
r, it
Ql
Regarding
this as
y/oL
^l
again,
is
identic-
(6-71).
return to (6-70), express
transluminated,
Since
281
(1
K by (6-73) and suppose the system

=
q r ) *Fmax
recast into the
Dividing
t.
the
resulting
form
YmBtx JqrQl cos (d +
q r "P^x
a quadratic equation for s/q l we can solve
= -
must be
^max
real
COS
V^R
and
>
Vt^ma^RÔS 2
positive, this
CO
1)]
imposes the condition
co
and we have
The phase behaviour of a transluminated system therefore resembles

The relationship (6-76) may be of help in
that of the purely dielectric case.
monitoring the manufacture of an induced transmission
filter.
It
defines
the imbalance between q k and g L for a transluminated system being frontextended until the final condition g R = g L =
is reached.
The reader
is
referred to Thetford's paper for a proof that q d
may
also
be expressed as
n
^D
1
1
and
for other
new
details
_ u/ip-i
max
_ WW
z I max
of the design when more metallic layers are
contained in the core.
Note:
A novel technique for maximizing potential transmittance was described

in [10].
It is
based on the extension of the concept of equivalent layer to
(symmetrical) absorbing systems and a
maximum
of
*P is
secured by manip-
ulating the imaginary part of the equivalent refractive index to zero.
References
[1]
H. Wolter, Z. Phys., 105, 290
[2]
Z. KnittI, Opt. Acta, 9, 33 (1962).
[3]
[4]
[5]
I.
(1937).
Santavy, Opt. Acta, 8, 301 (1961).
G. Kard, Opt. i Spektr., t. XI, No 2, 237 (1961).

A. Herpin, Compt. Rend., 225, 182 (1947).
P.
[6]
L.
[7]
A. Thelen,
I.
Epstein, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 42, 806 (1952).

J.
Opt. Soc. Am., 56, 1533 (1966).
282
[8]
[9]
A. Thelen, Design of Multiayer Interference

G. Hass and R. E. Thun, Vol. 5, Academic
see ref. 29 in Ch. 3.
[10] B.
V. Landau and P. H. Lissberger,
[11] P.
W. Baumeister and
[12] see ref. 1. in
Ch.
[15] P.
[16]
W.
Physics of Thin Films, Ed.
Opt. Soc. Am., 62, 1258 (1972).
C. Ufford, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 64, 329 (1974).
G. Kard and Z.
see ref. 8. in Ch. 1.
Knittl, Opt. Acta, 8, 185 (1961).
[13] P.
[14]
/.
Filters, in:
Press, 1969.
A. Thetford, Opt. Acta, 19, 533 (1972).
Problems
6-1
Try do deduce the general Airy summation formulae (2-29a, b) by

applying the reversibility principle to parts I and II of the split system
and connecting the two sets of equations by phase transformation
across the spacer.
6-2 Defining with dielectric embedding
consider that
r'R
cos o).=
t'L
aR a L
x'R
k + i ~VR
and then compute from
(Qr
Ql)
t-a R
-tt L
r=
x'L
n nk + it[
2
,
(6-20a)
tt'"
2t ^JQ RQ L
and compare with Cownie's inequality

COS
0)
<
cos CO L
Note the inference that

6-3
What
are the inferences
g2 <
from the
(ref. [15]
in Ch. 7)
oe
R + aL
principle of reversibility for
.
(ii) two-sided antireflection q r

sided antireflection q r =
Distinguish between the dielectric and absorbing cases.
6-4 Considering the
<p e -function
in Fig. 6-2
on the transmittance maximum
(i)
ql
one-
0?
what prediction can you make
of a Fabry -Perot sandwich
spacer consists of either of the periods (0.5 A) B(0.5A)
if
the
7
Basic metal/dielectric design units
The FabryPerot sandwich
7.1
When,
(initiated
by
in the metrology techniques

their teacher
of the 1890's, Fabry and Perot
Raymond Boulouch*)
replaced the Michelson
new experimental set up consisting of parallel-sided

mirrors some centimeters apart and monochromatically illumin-
interferometer by a
half-silvered
ated over a collimator with extended circular
towards what
is
slit,
they
made
the
first
step
today called multiple-beam interferometry. The super-
position of the many effective partial reflections inside the air gap gave
rise
to a type of Haidinger circles of equal inclination, exhibiting extreme
sharpness in the bright transmission maxima. This enabled exact evaluation
of the distance between the
reflecting surfaces in
and the Fabry-Perot interferometer with
terms of hundreths of A
was born.
Conversely, keeping the air gap fixed and observing a composite
variable spacing
one could further enhance the resolving power of a normal

spectroscope by means of the Fabry-Perot etalon, placed in tandem with
the main instrument.
spectral line,
This occasioned the

formulae, because as
made
first effective
use to be
made of the Airy summation
much
as sixty zig-zag reflections inside the spacer

significant contributions to the geometric series of complex amplitudes.
was recognized that the high reflectivity (betwen 60 and 90 percent) of the
interferometer surfaces was responsible both for the sharp fringes and for
the slower convergence of the series and the concept of multiple-beam
It
interference began to
*)
grow as a synonym for sharp
See a retrospective note
in [25].
fringes of
any kind.
284
This was particularly brought forth in 1942, when F.

produced multiple-beam interference in a Fizeau wedge by
surfaces. This time extremely sharp
S.
Tolansky
silvering its
dark fringes of equal inclination could be
observed in reflected light (or the corresponding bright fringes
in transmis-
sion).
At about the same time sharpness

in the spectrum
filter.
This
is
in space obtained its counterpart
when Walter Geffcken invented the metallic interference

Fabry Perot etalon whose thickness is chosen
essentially a
to be extremely low (amounting to only a few half-wavelengths).
Despite the high reflectivity of the interfaces, the Haidinger central

fringe
now widens
across the whole aperture of, say, 50
mm,
because the
variations of the incidence angle cannot produce significant changes in the
phase angle Ink" 1
when A is small. However, a significant change

may be brought about when k varies over the visible spectrum. Then,
cos
qualitatively speaking, again
as sharp a function of A as
Placed in a
it
due to the high silvering, the transmission

was of & when A was large.
beam of white
light
is
of moderate collimation (simply
observing a white wall or the sky, with the eye some distance behind the
specimen) the degenerate etalon acts as a monochromator. This

often referred to as the Fabry-Perot type interference
is
why
it is
filter.
on the basis of formulae

spacer layer, embedded between two
All three types of interference are analysed

describing the behaviour of a dielectric
more or
less
semitransparent metallic films.
We
Fabry
shall call this the
Perot sandwich. The immediate variables of observation are in turn the

angle of incidence, the geometric thickness and the wavelength,
effectively leading to a variable
all
this
phase angle of the spacer layer (the properties
of the metallic interfaces being regarded as approximative^ constant).

There are some points of detail to be respected in the geometry of
observation in the fomer two cases, which will not be dealt with here
the wedge-versus-sharpness problem with the Tolansky fringes).
keep to our assumption of plane waves reflected on parallel-sided

ations, so that
results,
our analysis
however,
may
will best
fit
the interference
serve as a reference
problems of interferometry.
filter.
when studying
We
(e.g.
shall
stratific-
Many
of the
the actual fringe
285
7.1.1 Basic formulae
The
pattern for the basic reflection
Fabry Perot sandwich was

the subsystems
and
and
out in
set
and transmission formulae of the
We only need to interpret
sect. 2.6.1.
the metallic films (generally of different materials
II as
thicknesses).
Considering the media n
n t 2 n3 4
,
us agree on the following
let
notation:
h = sq'
tm
jS '
rn
= v q" eja
with subscript
Ncos^
\]
n 2 cos
ln 2
\J
n 4 cos
cos0
n cos
or
6>
@4
Because of theorem 6.1 the transmissions

with any subscript of orientation.
#',
S" need not be provided
The energy coefficients of reflection and transmission for the composite

system will be denoted by St and ST. We shall consider these coefficients for
the R-direction only and the corresponding subscripts will not be used.
Finally let us write in the spacer layer 2q> = x and the bracketed
expression in (2-29a) as
Starting
g exp (jy).
from
(2-29a, b)
ek
(V(?i
g QR
Q'lQr
+ gVe R ) 2 -
and using the notation
2g Vgjgj cos (x
2 Ved?R cos (x
4g vW?r
sin
5'
R
S'L
(6-7),
S*
we
obtain
y)
(7-la)
- SQ
^-
y)]
(7-lb)
(1
Jq'lQ*)
,=
^
An alternative
summed
4 V<?a?R sin
~(x -
S'L
5)1
9'9"
denominator same as above
formula for 0t
(7-21
is obtained when taking the first reflected

then start from (2-30a), where the geometric series is
up in closed form, but we do not form a common denominator.
ray separately.
After
We
some complex algebra we obtain
286
m = g' +
9'
a 'gR
2\/gLgRC0s(a>
1
qLQr
ip
2 Vgi.gR cos
where some further angles were introduced

usage:
defined by (6-16) as 2d'
is
* =
Some
in
all
<5
8'
2gRVgRg^cosct))
(\ji
x)
Si while
-
5l
and
(7-4)
(7-3) are given
7-1.
these formulae the metallic coefficients
may
often be regarded as
constant, at least in the narrow regions covering a fringe. If

spatial
(-7.3^
in conformity with existing
hints for proving the equivalence of (7- la)
Problem
In
x)
fringe,
we
it is
a Haidinger
neglect the extremely small departure from normal
incidence and the corresponding implications for the p- and s-components.
Studying the spectral profile of an interference

of the optical constants and interference
filter,
effects
we
in
neglect dispersion
the extremely thin
metallic films.
These simplifications are typically made when analysing the fringe
We
profiles in general algebraic terms.
shall also use
them
in the next
section concerning a type of trigonometric expansion for the sandwich.
On
the other hand,
when numerically
analysing the spectral transmit-
tance of an interference monochromator by a computer,
it is
easy to keep
the metallic films as "live" as they actually are.
&
7.1.2 Fourier expansions for
and sr
If the geometric series (2-30a, b) are not
summed and
the moduli
squared are calculated directly from the expanded forms, we arrive at

infinite trigonometric series which may be regarded as the Fourier expansions
and transmissivity. The method proves useful

analysing many of the typical features of the Fabry Perot sandwich.
of the formulae for

in
reflectivity
Introducing the notations
2d'
5R
QiQ*
and using those already defined

amplitudes
may be
written as
= z\<
=x
-xjj
1)
in 7.1.1, the infinite series of
(7-5)
(7-6)
complex
= Vek e
fR
^'
S'
287
^ eK- I= z k e"
k
>
(7-7a)
It is easily seen that carrying out the summation from

to finite k
means summing up the contributions of the first k + 2 interfering rays
in reflected light and k + 1 rays in transmitted light. The ambiguity of this
rule is caused by the first term in (7-7a) which stands outside the summation
We
shall
"odd" term causes important

and
subsequently that this
see
differences in the behaviour of the sandwich with respect to reflection
transmission.
Let us take transmitted light
We
first.
have
ST
$'"
m,n = 0,
m+n
(cos
SX
m,B = 0,
which for a
m cos n +
-~{\l ~ z2(k+1
This relation gives for
two-, three-, four-,
m{ sin nt) =
m+n
cos(m-n)
I,...
number k of summands
finite
sin
1,...
>]
1, 2,
yields
z"[l 3
...
2 <k
- +
]cosK
(7-8)
a mathematical description of
-beam interference in transmitted light. For k -* oo

the terms in the brackets simplify to unity and we have the exact
solution
. . .
f(x)
The
is
infinite
[1
zm cos m(x - i/0]
(7-9)
trigonometric series obviously converges uniformly and

series. Since the expanded transmissivity
thus a Fourier trigonometric
function
is
known to be periodic, (7-9) represents the Fourier expansion of

(We recall the assumption of constant metallic parameters,
this function.
explained in
(7-1)).
In reflected light
we
obtain, after a
more
tedious arrangement,
= Qk + V 2QZ I
=
in,n
29' Veie
m+n
cos(m-nK +
0, 1,...
z m cos (m + x -
<x
<%)
(7-10)
288
Xm
Obviously the summation
latter is
covered by the summation
m =
n beginning with
Let us
now put relation
terms
contains interference terms between the
among
ray and those multiply reflected, while interference
first reflected
2mn
the
In addition there are pure intensity
q'
k.
(7-10) in ordered form, proceeding to the indi-
For reasons of generality we again write first the result for

number of summation terms k and then pass to the limit k -> oo.
The double sum has already been rearranged into the form (7-8),
wherein the summation index commences with one. In order to adapt
ourselves to it in the last term in Eq. (7-10) we renumber the indices here
from m to m 1 and make the summation limits 1 and k + 1. The last
vidual harmonics.
finite
term
will then
be written separately.
Introducing the quantities
P =
and noting that a
Qk
(1
\ji
+ P[l-
ra_1
<5r
2(k+1)
a>,
(7-10)
2(k-m+1,
9'
Ve^
(7-1D
can be written in the form
+ 2Qz k cos
}Pz[l
Q =
Qie'ir
{{k
+ l)(x-il/)-m] +
]cosm + gcos(m -
co)}
(7-12)
m=l
which equation gives for k = 0, 1, 2, ... the mathematical description of
the
two-, three, four, ... -beam interference in reflected light. For k =
term
falls off.
For k
-> oo, z k -*
and some terms
in (7-12) simplify. Let us
now
introduce the substitution
Then,
after
I
^( X) =
some rearrangement of the absolute term,

/a/2
JL J"V
rf
which
is
We
will later
Q sin $ = Q sin to
= Pz + Q cos to,
Q cos
\ si
fj
-gRgJgR
+ 2Q
rt
QlQr
(7-13)
(7-12)
becomes
<x>
^n-1 CQS [w(x
^)
(7
$]
_ 14
m=1
the Fourier expansion for reflectivity.

shall write the absolute
terms in (7-9) and (7-14) as ^"
,^
They
be shown to be identical with the transmissivity and reflectivity,

between the two
respectively, of a thick layer with incoherent coupling
surfaces (Sect. 11.1).
by Fabry and Perot
The expansion (7-9) may be found in an early paper

[1]. The expansion for reflectivity and the following
applications of both series were presented by the author in
[2].

First partial
289
sum and two-beam approximation
As an immediate application of these expansions let us assess the quality

of the two-beam approximation, occasionally used to describe interference
The
in a single film.
By using
0k
while the
first
role of the film
(7-12) for
partial
k =
$' 2
Qr
sum of
0t o
is
in
our case played by the spacer.
one has
(7-14)
sum of a
>{/
(7-15)
to)
is
+ 2Q cos (x - ^ -
These are different expressions. Since

that each partial
29' Jeke'k cos (x
it is
Fourier expansion
(7-16)
4>)
is
known from
series
theory
a better approximation in
the sense of r-m-s deviation than any other trigonometric series with the
same number of terms, we may question the
quality of (7-15) as
compared
with (7-16).
The
may
Qi
latter is justified in place
already
still
come about when
there
is
no
if
<
1.
Such a situation
first boundary,
metallizing of the
being allowed to be large.
Then q^
The
of (7-14) only
q'
l is small, o>
it (see 6.2.1) and therefore
$ = 0.
now becomes
substitution (7-12)
Q = PZ - Q
while the absolute term
is
approximately q^
9' 2 q'^. (7-16) then
assumes the
form
Qk
,2
e'k
(i
eS> 9'
Veiei cos (*
(7-17)
*)
is to be compared with (7-15) where a> = n.

Assume first that even q'^ is small. The two expressions are then identical
and the two-beam approximation may be declared as the best one, when,
This
for example, used for a dielectric film.

If 0r is large, then the first partial sum of the Fourier expansion yields
a smaller variable term than the two-beam approximation. The maxima and
minima will be less pronounced, which is in accordance with a classical
theorem due to Rayleigh that a dielectric interference film on a perfect
mirror does not exhibit interference colour.

In fact, for qI = 1, Pz Q
exactly and the absolute term
equal to unity: 0l(x) = 1 without any interference.
(7-17) has the
same tendency, although
unity by the small value S'g.
its
absolute term
falls
is
short of
290
On
the other hand (7-15) behaves quite erroneously, keeping up inter-
and substantially exceeding unity in the maxima.

one thing, however, that one can extract from (7-15) correctly
even for large q'k. It is the location of the interference extrema, which, after
ference oscillations
There
is
what matters when recourse is had to the two-beam approximation.

The argument is in fact x 5^ <5, which yields results in accordance
all, is
with the correct formula (Sect. 7.1.4, Eq. (7-28), also 7.2 Eq. (7-60).)
In transmitted light there exists clear identity between the two-beam
series
the
and the Fourier partial sum for any value of z and for any kind of
system. Both are of course justified only for small z.
first
Position of the extrema
Let us appreciate the usefulness of the various approximations for

finding the extrema in the case of the completely metallized etalon.
By
setting the derivatives of the functions (7-9)
one obtains the following
and
(7-14) equal to zero
table.
Table 7-1
Conditions for the extrema of a Fabry
Perot sandwich
in various
approximations
=
d#/dx =
2 ms m sin m(x y) = 0; ,/(l 2z 2 cos 20 +
+ z 4).sin(* y> =
= 2z sin 0*)
sin (x y> <P) =
1
=
> sin m(x
sin (x y> <o) =
f
d-T/dx
(A) Complete description
j8)
(B) 1-st partial
sum
yt)
(C) two-beam
interference
The transmitted
result
jc
With
\j/
In, I
light
poses no problems and
0, 1,
versions lead to the
...
reflected light there exists a difference
and between (C) and
all
both between (B) and (A)
(B).
An idea of the differences involved may be gathered from the following

Ag MgF2 Ag-
table 7-2 concerning a reflection sandwich of the type air

*)
This formula was obtained by putting the expansion of the
closed form
summing over complex
series.
tanS
The angle
fi is
2
= 1+z 2r-tan#
1-z
defined by
first
derivative in

glass,
where the
first
291
Ag-layer has a variable thickness
h,
the other being
very thick (1000 A).
The
values
(in degrees) securing
first
minimum
order reflection
are computed. In addition to the computation by (A), (B), (C) a fourth

is added, resulting from the simple requirement that the argument
of the numerator cosine in (7-la) be equal to 180.
value (D)
Table 7-2
Comparison of various computations of the

St
for an air/Ag
phase angle x securing
MgF Ag/glass
2
in degrees).
reflection e talon.
(Phase angle x
hk
(A)
100
223
195
237
231
150
242
213
245
200
300
252
225
263
241
500
269
251
240
247
254
296
(B)
(Q
(D)
254
263
269
ooo
100a
o
The angles co,

and jS with dependence on metallic film thickness h x for the
combination air/Ag/MgF 2 A = 5500 A, n l = 0.15
3.36 j, n 2 = 1.38.
Fig. 7-1
292
This
is
a simplified look at the extremum, taken over from the purely
which in fact is not allowed when the cosines of the numerator

different additional phase-shifts: the extrema of ^?
are then not identical with those of the numerator. We shall look for the
extrema in a correct way in Sect. 7.1.4. We have already one version of the
dielectric case,
and denominator have
correct result in (A).
Nevertheless, case (D) compares
more than favourably with the other
approximations, at least in the chosen numerical example.
3S0
Argand diagram for g eiy with dependence

on h i for the system mentioned in figure 7-1.
Fig. 7-2
In general one
may
say that the differences between (B) and (C) tend
to vanish for heavy coating of the
with the fact that both
and
For small values of h, (C) is

We append Figs. 7-2, 3
<P
first layer,
which
is
common
tend to a
inevitably connected
value. (See Fig. 7-1 .)
better than (B).

illustrating the
behaviour of the quantities Q,
<P, g, y for the given layer system.
Shape of the extrema

Since the expansion for &~(x)
extrema at (x
On
\fi)
the other
In, these
hand
0t(x)
is
a mixed
series
+ 2Q (cos # 2 C +
where E c 2 S are pure cosine and

,
a pure cosine series and S~(x) has
is
are symmetrical about their centres.
of the type
sin <P
sine series in (x
2S)
^).
(7-18)

There
is
293
an antisymmetrical component
in 9&{x) proportional to sin
which causes the reflection extrema to be asymmetrical. The wnspicuousness of this effect depends on circumstances and is particularly manifest
with reflection minima. We shall refer to this problem later.
Putting (7-18) in closed form by summing the corresponding complex
series
we
obtain
M = ô + 2G cos
tf>
[cos (x
ij/)
z]
which
is
an analogy to the formula
2z cos (x
(7-3).
$ sin (x
+ z2
sin
ifr)
if/)
(7-19)
The antisymmetrical element
is
clearly visible in the sine term.
tit*
too
Wf20o(
250
so
\3D0
050
\
i
\? y- 4
A,
Argand diagram for Q e j * with dependence

on h t for the system mentioned in figure 7-1.
Fig. 7-3
7.1.3
The transmission
We
have recognized the
layer in Sect. 3.1.4.
we need
filter
We
then
filtering potentialities
left
of the single dielectric
the analysis with the conclusion that what
maxima is some means of

of the interfaces. The purely dielectric solution
in order to obtain sharp transmission
enhancing the
reflectivity
was discussed in Sect. 3.5.2.

The simplest device to put this
into effect
is
the metalic single-half-wave
normally considered in the cemented version glassmetal-dielectric-metal-glass. For reasons of symmetry its performance will
interference
filter. It is
be optimum when the two metallic films have identical properties. (One
294
would hardly contemplate two

h t =h 3 .)
We
then have
q'^
&=
different metals, but the point is -to
%'
T"
t, S'l
<5
=5
and
make
(7-2)
may
be written
*
1
r-
-2q cos
(x
25)
which may be recast into the form

$-
j^
(7
v
+J^sin 2 (<p-5)
. 20)
'
where
*
_/
~_
4g
(j + aj'
Ve e
J*
is
the metallic coefficient of reflection seen from the inside of the
holds that q + x + a.
concern either of the metallic films alone.
spacer layer and
it
1,
where
all
three coefficients
The designation ^"max for the expression (7-21a) is justified by inspection

of
(7-20); this function clearly attains its
maxima
for zero values of the
sine.
These are obtained when the argument
q>
S equals an integral
multiple of n, which leads to the following condition for the tuning of the
filter:
A=
The value of
slightly on
depends
<5
n2h2
= m+
for an
-~
j
MgF 2 /Ag
filter lies
integer
(7-22)
between 100 and 140
the thickness of the metal used and on
X).
(it
The fractional
part of the
filter's order lies between 0.60.8 and one may start the sequence
of m in (7-22) with the value and still obtain a physically reasonable result.
For practical purposes it is useful to plot the function (7-22) graphically,

taking 6 for a contant value of h, say 350 A, yielding the reflectivities in the
85 percent range.
If we start with
= and if 8 were independent of
obtain a straight line with the tangent S/2it.
Now,
for
slightly with X in
Ag
at the normally used thicknesses
such a way that the function
2re
A,
we would
happens to increase

is
essentially a straight line
of the type
A=
where A'
It is
>
42 - A
a constant correction
is
then clear that for any order
A=
295
'
shift.
we have
in place of (7-22)
(y~ A ') + w y = (m + 1) T~ A
'
Therefore, renumbering the orders from 0,
we have the same net as
1, 2, 3, ...
to
1, 2, 3, 4, ...
in Fig. 3-3, only the straight lines are shifted parallel
to the A-axis by a constant
amount
A'.
Ag/MgÂg
AgjZnSJAg
corrections
ford
1.0
Fig. 7-4 Calibration lines for

filters
Ag
&(/im)
Fabry
Perot type
with two different spacer media.
All this has a sense only in the spectral range

rely
on the quoted
4000 7500 A, where we
optical constants of silver. Outside of this region, or with
other metals, or with a highly dispersive spacer dielectric such as ZnS, this
exceptional situation would break
bent calibration
Fig. 7-4
"new"
it
orders
yields. It is
down and we would have
to put
up with
lines.
shows calibration
2, 3, 4.
Number
lines for the
1 is
Ag-MgF 2 -Ag
omitted owing to the low
obvious that the design data significantly
would obtain from the simple mkjl
rule.
differ
filter
for the
filtering effect
from those one
However, for high
the relative
error thus incurred decreases.
The graph
also offers important information
on the position of the

filter is being manu-
neighbouring maxima in the case that a higher order
296
factured. Additional coloured
glass or interference
needed to dispose of this.

Returning to the formula (7-20) in the
blocking
maximum
are
filters
condition one
may
continue the analysis in the following way:
As
the sine deviates from the zero value, the greater the coefficient 3F
the faster &" will
abandon
its
maximum
value. Since
it
influences the defini-
tion of the spectral line (or of a spatial fringe, for that matter)
it is
affection-
ately called the coefficient of finesse.
While the maximum transmission of the prototype filter in Sect. 3.5.2

was 100 percent, the presence of absorption in the metallic films causes it to
fall
For the
to substantially lower values.
ultraviolet region,
It is easily
maxima, for
q>
visible region it is practically only
among
a reasonable compromise
silver that offers
aluminium
seen that the
is
the values g,
r, a.
For the
more adavantageous.
minimum
transmission occurs in-between the
odd multiple of n/2, and that it is given by

when q is replaced by + g in the denomin-
6 equal to an
a formula analogous to (7-2 la)

ator.
We
then define as the contrast of the
It is
some
to be noted, however, that the
filter
(7-23)
minimum
transmission occurs at
substantially different wavelengths than Xmax , so that (depending
the actual dispersion of the reflectors)
on
we should use different g in the numer-
ator of (7-23). Similarly, the condition for l m!n analogous to (7-24) should
use a different
5,
but these are points of detail which
the rough estimates for which these formulae serve.
may be
neglected in
computer check of
the function 3~{X) reveals the final details.
The sharpness of the filter line is conveniently characterized by

called half- width, or more generally 1/fc-width, defined as
iTk =
K-K
and, of course, A
<
XmiX
where
<
j- A
= *K) = 1 ^(Xmn )
A.
To a first approximation
of the maximum condition
sin
iT(4)
the so
sin {pin)
it is
computed by developing
cos (inn)
A
x
Ak
in the vicinity
(mn +
S)
Kmax
297
where we have used (7-22) and have neglected the dispersion of
6,
which
is small.
Inserting this into (7-20)
we
obtain the profile of the line approximately
expressed as the inverse of a quadratic polynomial in dA.
This yields an estimate of the basic shape of the lines the transmission
peaks resemble sharp parabolas.

Secondly,
it is
now
easy to compute
1-g
= 2d/
mK +
For the half-width the square root drops

times used
the tenth-width. Obviously
is
commented on
filter
y/k-l
out.
10
(7-24)
Another value some3iT2 which may be

,
as showing that the edge steepness of a Fabry-Perot type
leaves something to be desired.
We are now able to see the dilemma of the F-P filter between
a large
^max ard a small iTk One is paid off by the other. Increasing the order of
the filter helps to keep nr reasonably small with not too large a value of
q,
.
i.e.
with
little
loss a.
Typical curves of the
Fabry Perot filter of various orders and various

= 5500 A are shown in Fig. 7-5. It is
metallic thicknesses centered at X
a computed performance based on the widely accepted optical constants

measured for vacuum-deposited Ag by Schulz, [3]. The dispersion is given
by table
7-3.
Table 7-3
Dispersion of the optical constants of silver (after L. G. Schulz).
AA
3800
4000
4500
0.14
2.42
5000
0.14
2.89
AA
0.20
1.77
3.36
1.95
5500
6000
0.15
0.18
0.15
3.82
0.13
4.27
0.14
4.68
6560
7100
v.
Practical filters stand up to this performance fairly well. Typical values

are 5"mai = 30 percent, nr% = 100 A. In the blue region, however, silver is
less effective reflector
and more thickness h
performance (compare Fig. 7-5c,
is
needed for a
d). It is also to this effect
slightly
lower
that one can
298
somewhat deteriorated suppression of the green filter on the

short-wave side. Conversely the red region offers a more favourable compromise between ^"ma![ and
2
attribute the
In accordance with the graphs in Fig. 7-4, with increasing order

further
maxima appear
in the visible region.
The blue peaks conform with
the tendency just mentioned.
AA
6000
5000
300
7000
m-1
6000
5000
A.
>ooo
These unwanted maxima are suppressed by cementing with auxiliary

filter glass-plates,
An
effective
^"max versus
iV
but long-wave
maxima
way of comparing
for a given order
are difficult to dispose of.
the performance of
and a given Amax
filters is
to plot

This
is
done
in Fig. 7-6 for the order
299
m=
for six wavelengths across
the spectrum.
With decreasing Amax the same ^"max is obtained with increasing #".
Similar graphs may be set up for other orders. With increasing m the
differences diminish.
m-2
woo
6000
5000
7000
m-3
WOO
5000
7000
Afi
6000
Ag
d Spectral transmittance curves for Ag MgF 2

of various orders at two typical thicknesses of the metallic
Fig. 7-5a, b, c,
Basic papers on Fabry -Perot type

duction problems are discussed in [6], [7].
filters
are
[4]
and
filters
layers.
[5].
Some
pro-
A selection of colour glass rejection
filters is
made
in
[8].
Filters
with variable spacers are described in
[9], [10].
300
tOO
200
500
400
300
/f
/"
Fig. 7-6 ^"max -vf-* 2 curves for Fabry-Perot type filters of first order positioned at six
typical
7.1.4
The
We
values.
reflection etalon
refrain
from using the term
reflection filter because
it is
only in
monomuch more common to
exceptional conditions that the Fabry-Perot sandwich can act as a
chromatic
filter
with a sharp reflection peak.
It is
observe sharp reflection dips so one has a channelled spectrum or a system
of dark spatial fringes. This closer connection with interferometry supports

the
word etalon.
Looking at the formula
(7- la) let
us
first
establish
its
relationship with
simpler situations:
(i)
a dielectric layer in dielectric embedding
Then g
<5r
<5r
=
=
The
$L
<5l
=
=
1,
^r
0, q'l
n
= Sr
f r a
Qk
1
q'
r , S'l
or n and
f r a symmetrical combination of indices
reflection function
where the
monotonic combination of indices
is
+ Qrr2V<QRQR COS X
Qr6r
sign operates for the
(7-28)
2VeR eR cosx
two index combinations,
respectively.

This formula
and
rR
is
301
essentially identical with (3-3a), only the signs
are taken care of differently.
on a metallic substrate: n n x n 2 <5r may have a gefrom

or jc. We obtain a formula of the type
where x is replaced by x 8'^ and the + sign applies for n ^ n 1
dielectric layer
(ii)
of
neral value, different

(7-28),
We shall discuss this

Now w& assume the
formula
later (7.2).
general form (7- la) and introduce the positive
quantities
i
eu?R
= A
2VSeR =
i
tnf%n u
(7-29a, b,
c,
d)
These are roughly constant.

It is
useful to realize at this stage that
C ^
A ^
D,
(7-29')
because these inequalities are equivalent to the evident relationships
- W<?r) 2
(Jq*
o, (i
VeLe*)
o.
<?l
Further, introducing the angle
we may
<5r
a= -c
s depends solely
it
also
write
may be
on the
(t
T r
<<
A B cos f
first
metallic layer. Considering Eq. (6-1 3a)
expressed as
e
-at
(7-31)
where 6 is the difference d-d' for the first layer in the notation of Sect.
where the dash meant the system taken with negative absorption.
Let us
now
6.2,
seek the extrema of (7-30).
Setting the derivative d^/dd; equal to zero leads to the condition
= AD cose +
b sin
c cos
(7-32)
where
a
= BD sine,
BC,
= AD sine
Setting
E cos x
b:
E sin x
c:
= Vb 2 +
2
,
tan %
(7-33)
302
with x ia the proper quadrant, the extremes of

occur for
ic
arcsin
(tH +
M with respect to
I2n
(or x)
(7-34)
In the following we shall denote the principal value of arcsin (a/E)
having a positive cosine as
Fig. 7-7
'
p
that with a negative cosine as
Mutual relationship between the extremes
Perot sandwich.
of &~ and St in a Fabry
The
on
this,
sign of
the
,'
Depending
the upper or lower quadrants, respectively, and it
any of the
lie in
303
sin
is
identical with that of sin
e.
holds that
*-
(7-35)
Fig. 7-7 illustrates the implications of the fact that the extrema
lie
in the cardinal points 0, n,
do not
2n
The top part of the figure is the usual situation in a transmission filter.
If the first reflector had the properties of a dielectric system, then e would be
equal to 7t and (7-30) would have the structure of (7-28). The minima ofM
would be exactly complementary with the maxima of IF and vice versa.
Increasing the reflecting power of the interfaces leads to more pronounced
maxima of ST and nothing other than pronounced minima in reflection is
possible.
now
Let us
consider a genuine reflection etalon with a metallic
layer. Taking, for
1000 A,
l/Ag-MgF2 Ag/G
= 300 A (when gmia =0)
example, the system
we would have
for h t
first
with h 2
e
181.8,
= -4.9, ?p = 184.9. Exaggerating these values (and

X = 193.8 and
not insisting on the zero value for g min) we obtain in the third part of Fig. 7-7
a qualitative description of the extrema in the case that sin e < 0. It is
convenient to have the abscissae plotted both as and as + X- Since there
is
no extreme
in the
upper quadrants, the curves have an assymetry such

minimum is steeper than its left-hand coun-
that the right-hand slope of a

terpart.
If sin e
were
would be depicted by the bottom

The asymmetry of the minima would be reversed.
positive, the situation
part of the figure.

It is
important to note that the position of the extrema by (7-34) not

on the phase-shifts in the sandwich, but also -through the
only depends
a, b, c on the reflectivities accompannying them. We refer the

reader
back to row (A) of Table 7-1 for another version of the phase condition for
extremum reflection, which also makes it clear that the reflectivities explicitly
cooperate.
An important
dispense with the
case of a minimum is one with zero value. We can then

cumbersome computation by (7-34) and infer by direct
inspection of (7-30) that SI
(i)
GO
Jt,
3n
...
i.e.
C =D
if
x + S^
i.e.
<5
ea=g 2 eR
n, 3n,
...
(7-36a)
(7-36b)
304
This
is
the only situation in the reflection etalon
condition contains no
When
the amplitude condition (7-36b)
is
not met, (7-35a)
the correct phase condition, at least principally.
from
when
the phase
reflectivites. *)
may be negligible,
The
no more
is
practical deviations
shown by case (D) in Table 7-3.

was carried out in Fig. 7-8 showing a
series of curves concerning the Ag etalon mentioned above, with h t assuming
a number of different values. Since h 2 = 1000 A, the transmission is practically zero everywhere and only the g(X) and <x(X) curves are shown. The
spacer thicknesses were computed by (7-36a) for all values of h 1 the aim
being to center the g min value at A min = 5500 A. The deviations from the X min
it
Another study to
as already
this effect
value are negligible, particularly for higher values of A t

refractive index for Ag was
The
reflection curves
assumed
shown
in the relatively
so far exhibited
than the neighbouring maxima. However,

with the reflection etalon, and situations
this is
constant
narrow region assesed.
minima that were sharper
not an invevitable situation
may be brought about when
are sharp reflection peaks, the reflection minima being in their turn
there
flat.
We
then speak of transmission-like bright fringes in the reflection etalon,

resembling the inevitable bright fringes of the transmission Stalon. Obviously,
from complementarity between the

and the minima of the former etalon, if both kinds
of sharp fringes are to be bright. The scope for this is proportional to the
amount of absorption involved in the first layer. We shall now look more
must be a
there
maxima of
substantial deviation
the latter
closely at the factors that decide the type of reflection.
The method will consist in studying the second derivative at the extremal
The sign determines the type of the extreme, the absolute magnitudes
point.
allow a comparison of the respective sharpnesses in the immediate vicinity

of the extremes. Since the curves are of a fashionably smooth kind, we
may
expect these local sharpnesses to determine the overall sharpness of the
extreme.
Taking the second derivative at the extremal point
AD cos (g +
d2 &
dx
*)
e)
{.
one has
+ BC cos g e
[A-Bcosj 2
Despite the long history of the 6talon, the conditions for zero reflection were
relatively recently by Schroeder, [11], although in somewhat different terms
deduced
(for
7-5). A historical review of the problem is to be found

approximate formulae in proper physical terms for the reflection
a comparison, see Problem
in this paper, as well as
of infra-red and radar waves The
work
[4] is
also
recommended
in this respect.
305
hfWO
so so
N^
Mac
5500
ssao
\eoo
5500
6i
so
5500
Fig. 7-8
with h 2
The curves
1000
and
a(A) for a reflection etalon
6500
air/Ag/MgF2 /Ag/G
and different values of /r t The spacer tuned by the simplified condition
for ^ min = 5500 A. Tuning in first order.
e(X)
..>
306
The numerator may be put

with the notations (7-33),
may be
AD sin (^ e +
into another form, noting that (7-32),
written as
e)
+ BC
= BD sin e
sin ( c
Squaring and manipulating properly one eventually has for the numerator of (7-37)
+ VE 2 -
= +E|cos p
To choose
the correct sign we consider the case of a purely dielectric

n. If (7-37) is to indicate,
Then e = it, / = tc and e =
for example, the minima of 01 at the obvious values e = 0,2ti when P =
= n, 3n, ... and the cosine of p is negative, we must evidently write
first reflector.
EcOS
J^- =
dx
where p
<!;
<j;
,, e
[A - B
x for
cos
^max and i
(7-38)
,',
Vp
x for
&(% e) will be a maximum (minimum), if cos p ^ 0.

Considering now the absolute value of (7-37), the numerator
a constant value E cos
<!;
Mmin
will
have
for both kinds of extrema.
Z
The denominator is inversely proportional to !F taken at the value e
decreases
However, we must bear in mind that with this expression fixed,
with the thickness of the second metallic layer and can in fact vanish whilst
its denominator still has a small finite value. It is more proper to say that
.
the denominator in question
is
inversely proportional to the energy internal
transmission coefficient for the spacer layer.
When
its
value
is
low,
we speak
of resonance inside the spacer, see sect. 5.3.

Now, if 0tmia lies at least approximately at the resonance values
= 0,2;t, (7-38) shows sharp reflection dips.
In-between there are
flat
reflection
maxima.
common
situation with transmission filters viewed in reflected

in reflection if the second metallic layer is
changes
light. Almost nothing
made infinitely thick so as to obtain a reflection etalon proper. This is
because q r 5 r incur very little change with respect to the values present
This
is
in a reasonably
monochromatic transmission
remains practically the same.
We
filter
and the denominator
thus cannot expect to produce
flat reflec-
by sharp reflection peaks inbetween) by simply

suppressing the ^"-function which otherwise forces 0t into the shape XS'
some absorption, where 1 3~ is something we do not want. It turns out
tion dips (accompanied
that absorption has overtaken the sharp peaks so that 1%
unsatisfactory (See the a-curves in Fig. 7-8).
s4
is
again
307
One may even think of the second interface as of a perfect mirror and
then clear that the shape of the reflection fringes need not
be in any
it is
relation to the position
To
first
and shape of the actual transmission fringes.

achieve transmission-like fringes in reflection a modification
of the
layer
is
required.
Amplitude manipulation
A straightforward argument
Airy sum (2-30a). Both geometric
structure
and the
reflectivity
is
to supress the
first
reflected ray in the
series (2-30a), (2-30b)
then have the same
function
m must inevitably offer the possibility
of sharp peaks.
Fig. 7-9
qualitative view of the mutual position of

transmission and reflection peaks obtained by
suppressing the first reflected ray.
Making ^ =
The sequence
e = D =
and also
where the odd multiples (implying
cos p < 0) correspond to minima, the even ones
to maxima.
By (7-38), what is at the even multiples is sharp, and it
is now the
0.
peaks.
The
situation
in
our calculations, one has
e is
is
now
depicted in Fig. 7-9. There
complementarity between
3T^ % and
T rem he.,brought down to

of .^ remaining.
0, n, 2n,
^min
is
now maximum non-
The dotted line indicates that

zero by heavy backward metallizing, the peaks
.
308
The
peaks will in fact be sharp only
reflection
is sufficiently large.
ClQr'
We
if B, i.e.
the product
thus have the following postulates
on
the
first reflector
q'i
q' large
l
(or small),
(7-39)
Systems of this kind are called asymmetric reflectors (asymmetry

concerning performance, not build-up). They represent maximum violation
of a theorem valid for all-dielectric systems, where the

incidence reflectivities must by principle be equal.
IM
HI
and
left-
III
01
right-
12
111
in
III
In
111
Fig. 7-10 Scheme of the embedding necessary to

asymmetrize the reflections of a metallic layer 12.
In layer systems involving at least one metallic film this is no longer so,
but the drastic conditions will not be met without severe design effort.
They are clearly not fulfilled with a simple reflection etalon. One has to
sandwich the first metallic film of appropriate thickness between additional

(mostly, but not of necessity exclusively, dielectric) layers serving a two-fold
purpose: (/) to antireflect the input face () to keep up or enhance the q l
.
The second requirement is of importance when the design has recourse to

a weakly reflecting metal such as chromium and/or extremely low thicknesses
of the
first
metallic film.
The new subsystem may be schematically considered according to

Fig. 7-10.
The medium
01 plus
layer
12.2
We
It is
is
identical with that of the spacer layer.
constitute a front extension of the original simple metallic
plus 23
is
the rear extension.
consider purely dielectric extensions.

useful to detach the layers
extensions, because in terms of the
and 2 from the bulk of the respective
split-filter
techniques applicable during

the design, they serve to tune in a proper
interfaces
309
way
the interactions between the
01-12 and 12-23.
The condition for zero reflection is essentially given by (7-36a, b)

with the simplification that the one-prime system is purely dielectric now.
This means g0l = 1> Yoi = 2d 0i and it must hold that
Qoi
0i3,
2<Pi
<5oi
2d01
S 13
In,
/odd
(7-40)
where the meaning of the double-subscript notations is evident.

These conditions determine the front extension alone, but a deeper
theoretical insight is needed into the problem of choosing a suitable thickness
for 1 2 and a suitable design for 2 plus 23 so one may obtain not only
q 03 =0,
but also e 30 large enough and, in addition,
of
the
complete
etalon
max
large enough for the peak to deserve its name.
A complete theory of this is beyond our intentions. We refer the reader
to Kard's original papers [12], [13] which paved the
way for asymmetric

be commented on here
on the basis of some of Kard's formulae which will be presented without
reflectors.
Only the
of the design
critical points
will
proof.
The
basic equations for the asymmetric reflector are

003
a 03
=0
1
e 30
a 30
2t cosh <p
t(2 cosh <p
(7-41a,b)
t)
These relate g 03 q 30 and the corresponding transmission t

03
an important design parameter tp, defined as *)
,
(7-41c, d)
t 30
via
cosh <p
P,
tp
where
1
/a
a'\
The angle cp remains constant for both directions of propagation and,

more important, it is determined by the properties of the metallic film
alone, independently of any front or rear extensions,
and also of the outer

computed once and for all for any embedding
of a single layer, depending only on its thickness, not on the embedding.
A table to this effect, 7-4, is shown for Ag and Al taken at X = 5500 A.
<p changes much faster for Al than for Ag.
media.
It
may
therefore be
*)
We adhere to Kard's notation. The quantity tp is not to be confused with our
phase angle <p. We elaborate more on <p in Sect. 8.3. a', x' are taken as in 6.2.
310
Table 7-4
Kard's function <p(A) for
Ag
(0.16
3.36j)
and Al
5.45j) at
5500 A.
Al
Ag
*A
(0.8
coshcp
cosh<p
<P
0.0081
35
1.000 001
0.0000
1.000 033
75
1.000 013
0.0031
1.000 705
0.0376
150
1.000155
0.0176
1.012 283
0.156
225
1.000 823
0.0405
1.071
460
0.376
300
1.012 787
0.0746
1.277 965
0.729
400
1.010156
0.1420
2.270 239
1.460
shows a graph of the function (7-4 lb). No material specificaThe parameter is partwise variable and we may
observe the relationship between q 30 and t 03 on the condition that (at one
design wavelength!) q 03 has somehow been reduced to zero and that a certain
<p results from the choice of the metallic material and its thickness.
If e3 is plotted downwards, then the space below the parabolas and
Fig. 7-11
tion has yet been made.
the diagonal t 30
t 30
t 30 (plotted upwards) represents the absorption a 30
may be changed
independently of 
0) requires
low. a 30 then increases.

t 30 may bs decreased to any small value by choosing q 23 sufficiently
large. However, with too small values of t 30 , the
max of the composite
P'1.5 is
0.1
0.01
Fig. 7-11
Graphs of the function q 30
with dependence on
003
0. <p is
r,
compatible with
a variable parameter.
BASie-iWETAL/DIELECTRIC DESIGN UNITS

etalon would
fall
backing reflector
311
off proportionally to the small difference
falls
by which the
short of the 100 percent value. Therefore, the require-
ment of a small
t 30 should not be pushed too

ence with t 30 of ^?m3l towards an optimum
reasonably high values.
far.
Fortunately, the converg-
slow and we
is
may
stop at
Very powerful, but somewhat lengthy formulae which we refrain

citing, yield relationships between a chosen t
30 and the value q 23
required to bring about the transmissivity of the whole system 03 just to
from
when it is aditjonally front-extended by a system obeying (7-40),

thus reducing the value g 03 to zero. The theory simultaneously secures for
030 the value corresponding to t 30 by one of the curves in Fig. 7-11 (using
this value
the proper <p for the case).

Table 7-5
Some
asymmetric
design
Ag 225 A and
T 03
parameters
reflector
with
a perfect rear
for
thickness
the
of
reflector.
0.1
0,2
0.4
023
0.896
0.781
0.513
S30
0.809
0.639
0.359
<5?
0.998
0.998
0.997
Table 7-5 indicates some values for a silver film 225 A thick, taken
at
in MgF 2 embedding. We shall document the design on
5500
energy
coefficients only, leaving aside the
phase shifts, which are of course needed

(The latter specification is now needed for the
computations leading from t 30 to p 23 <p is independent of this and for the
in the actual calculation.
given thickness
amounts to 0.0405.)
The value max is computed for a perfect supporting reflector, because
the values t 03 are high enough to make this idealization safe.
The 0t
it
tia%
are indeed high with t 03 as large as 0.4. The other criterion

is of course
the sharpness of the peak. This calls for a high
and
thus
the
values t 03
e 30
should not exceed about 0.15.

As a numerical example let us choose for 23 a 5-layer reflector (HL) 2
with n H = 2.35, n L = 1.38. Further let n = 1.38. Then
= 0.849 and
2
q
23
by table 7-5 a value
t 03
=0.15 may be
expected.
312
The coupling of
80.684,
With
i.e.
this
A2 =
12 requires a phase angle
this reflector to
1235
<p 2
for the design wavelength 5500 A.
backing of 12 system, 13 as a whole will have a
reflectivity
= 0.8683. To fulfill (7-40) a 5-layer front reflector with H = 2.2,

L = 1.38 in the embedding n = 1, 2 = 1-38 will do. The coupling layer
must have q> = 150.78 i.e. Aj = 2300 A.
q 13
The asymmetrized Ag
film of 225
now
thickness
has the following
performance
q 03
a 03
*03
=
=
=
0.0024
e 30
0.864
a 30
*30
=
=
0.7412
0.126
- 1373
^^N\^
/
r
6
\fo3
.2
i
Fig. 7-12 Dispersion of q 03
and g 30 of a
asymmetrized for A
Let us
with a
finally place this
reflectivity
requires n 3 h 3
We
hr
2405 A
70
reflector
5500 A.
modified reflector onto a fully silvered surface
0.938.
(<p 3
A A
sooo
5000
WOO
The tuning
157.6).
Now
must remember, however, that
for a
maximum
the design
all this
is
at 5500
complete.
has taken place at one
design wavelength. The addition of a. number of dielectric layers introduces

dispersion of q 03 q 30 (Fig. 7-12) and other important quantities. The
asymmetry of the reflector may be expected to break down sooner or later.
,
Fig. 7-13
shows that soon
is
the appropriate word.
The
reflection
peak
has the expected shape, but severe sidebands due to dispersion of asymmetry
spoil the
whole
filtering effect in reflection.
much more
sophisticated approach in the design of the extensions
would be needed to improve on
this.
Obviously, the reflectors 01 and 23
would have
to be achromatic in amplitude
313
and
in phase.
Moreover, their
coupling with the metallic layer would have to be achromatic. This cannot
be done otherwise than by eliminating the coupling layers altogether. If

we regard them as spacers between the reflectors 01, 12 and 23, the new
design would have to be spacerless (a term
the induced transmission
filter,
see
[2],
Ch.
we borrow from
5.).
for the achromatic reflectors. Their constant phase
to the singular values
or n (such as
we
of tuned achromatic reflectors, Sect.
the theory of
This poses a further problem
must not be confined
shall later encounter in the synthesis
9.3),
but the design must be capable
of meeting the requirement of any phase change upon reflection so the

internal complex reflection coefficients seen from the inside of layer 12
have the same (and moreover constant) values as those occuring in the
one-wavelength design by the above given procedure. These problems are
yet to be solved.
The procedure described turns out to be free from dispersion problems

in mind transmission-like spatial fringes in reflection. Observing
these in the design wavelength, q03 remains constantly zero and it is only
if
one has
the variable 2q> 2 in the spacer layer that changes because of a change of
n 2 h 2 across the wedge

Fig. 7-14
Such a
film.
shows the
profile
of a spatial
1-st
order fringe of this kind.
situation has been experimentally demonstrated
by Koch,
[14].
5000
Fig. 7-13
The
reflection
peak of a
etalon with asymmetrized

spoiled by dispersion
first
The same
reflection
Fig. 7-14
reflector,
Figure 7-13 viewed in monochromatic light
shown in Figure
7-12.
reflection etalon as in
with the spacer

5500
shaped so as to observe
slightly
spatial
wedge
fringes.
bright fringe in reflection appears.
3J4
His asymmetrical
first
reflector is
made-up of a chromium
which
film,
lends itself better to single-sided antireflection. Altogether three dielectric

layers (of unknown design) were sufficient to bring about a disproportion
>
Ql such that transmission-like fringes appeared in a Fizeau wedge.

In fact, the asymmetrized chromium film was moderately free from
dispersion of q'r , q'l so that a bright spectral fringe was observable in white
ek
light (although
tion Q'R
with some background owing to the slight flaw in the condi-
0).
Phase manipulation
Another approach to transmission-like
Then by
(7-13)
<2>
0,
fringes is to
and the condition (A)
suppose
m=
0.
in Table 7-1 for the
extremes yields their locations at the cardinal points 1=0, jc, 2jc, ..
Again, if a maximum falls in the even multiple of jc it will be sharp. In
fact, even <o = jc, implying $ = /J =
or tc*) seems to promise the same
.
thing.
In order to gain
more insight
with respect to the fact that sin
into this, let us study the condition (7-32)
0. It
then reduces to
BD sin e = AD sin e
We
(for cos
discard the possibility that sin e
A = + B.
imply the impossible condition
= 1)
(7-42)
= 0, because (7-42) would then

(The minus sign renders the case
meaningless, the plus sign requires q'l q r = 1, which is unattainable.)

Therefore, we must suppose (7-42) to be fulfilled by sin e = 0.
yet to be decided
which of the values e
0, 2n, ...
compatible with the starting assumptions that

(7-31)
we must suppose
,
For
To
(o
these
"
it
this with (7-43a)
or (7-43b),
always holds that d
The
result
tions are possible.
=
=
It is
. . .
is
In regard to
0:
0, 2tc
re,
3tc,
(7" 43a ' b)
*-
3tc
d'
two types of condition let

y [see (6-1 3a)]. Combining
we obtain
28
2d
jc.
tc,
converse.
investigate the consequences of these
us consider that
*)
27C...fore
'-
3jr...for
\n, .*is
or
alternatives to exist with to
[0,
"
the alegiance
tc
two
o=
or e
or tc for to
=
tc,
2d'
=y
=y-
2d'
(7-44a)
(7-44b)
jc
= tc depends on whether Pz ^ Q
in (7-13).
Both
situa-

Let us
now compute
in the notation
of
315
Sect. 6.2
Vl - Vl = IVl - Vl e-
jra
2ja
= g e
In the cases (7-43a, b), respectively, this reduces to
[Vl <g <
where
1,
and g
l e-
J<0
]
=g
is real:
This can only hold in the situations summarized in rows 2 and 4 of
Table 7-6 (where z
written for
is
For reference to the earlier case of

added containing an admissible
rows 3 and 5 see p. 318).
t K t h ).
amplitude manipulation a sixth row

situation in the
first
column
(for
is
Table 7-6
Conditions for the reflection extrema lying in the cardinal points f
0, n,
2k and
compatibility with reflection peaks.
o < t
to
a a' = o,27r,
Ve Re L = s <
3
=0
<
Jt
...
o<Tg(i-V^)(i VeZ)
+ V^rPl =
3 = 71
<
T + VsrPl) = * (inadmissible)
(
=0
realizable
with:
0)
=7C,37t,
TC
2Sr< 2VeêZ
with:
= 3_d'
o< VeRe L r = s< r

3 =
(i+V<fc)(i+Vei>-
realizable
(0
...
sa+Ve*)0-VeL>
= 0,
t = #,
y = 28
8'
= 0)
=
d
3
o (and
gR
0,TT
only these situations that are compatible with the extrema lying
It is
in cardinal points (
We
zero or
inadmissible
first
it.
0,
it,
2n
....
consider the implications of e
it,
independently of
<o
being
316
The
reflectivity
function (7-30) then assumes the
form
DC S
4 = g- ^
(7-45)
A-Bcos
We now
making
prefer direct analysis to
specifications in the
former
general results.
We have
&M _ (AD-
[A-
dx
the extrema indeed occuring at sin
Taking the second derivative
4 _
The sharp extrema
will
0.
at the extremal points
one has
(AD-BC)cos e
[A-Bcos e ] 2
dx 2
The type of the extreme
BC)sin
Bcos] 2
occur in the resonance points of the denominator.
will
depend on the inequality
AD ^ BC
In the
tion
first
case the points e
maxima equal
0,2rc,
(7-47a, b)
. .
will
accomodate sharp
C- D
~
=
A B
The
flatter
reflec-
to
(7-48)
minima
C + D
A+
will
be located at e
it,
3n,
If the inequality (7-47a)
. .
(7-49)
..
is
reversed to (7-47b), the words
and minimum are exchanged.

The condition (7-47a) leading to a sharp peak
<
[K Al&
.
V Cr
qIq'k
is
maximum
written out in full as
(7-50)
The quadratic equation
in
317
the inequality (7-50) has the
g determining
roots*)
< ve R/eL
VeL<?R
g must
lie
If g R
outside of this interval.
<
must hold that
it
gL ,
either
>
if Qk
< Vg L e R
or
(7-5 la, b)
ft.
< VeZe R
g
is
> g > VeR /e L
(7-51c)
required.
Considering
now
the case to
0, e
tc
in Table 7-6,
(7-5 la, c) are automatically fulfilled with
and
>
any t
0.
>/e R (? L
Hence
at
3n secures a sharp peak.

in the condition of the first column implies e = 0.
Taking to
The analysis of (7-30) is then identical with that of (7-45) if D is taken
negative. The second derivative (7-46) turns out to be always negative at
in the condition 6
n,
t,
0, 2%,
thus giving sharp peaks at these points.
We thus come to the conclusion that the
(though not neces-
sufficient
sary) condition for transmission-like fringes in reflection
For
to
and
it
g =
simultaneously with (7-5 lc)
when
sIqkQl
>
0.
+
We
T>
is to
0.
which cannot be fulfilled

therefore have sharp dips at
which are exactly opposed to the transmission

0, 2tc,
or n in this case. However, if
and are symmetrical, because $ =
(7-51b) and yet having g =
possibility
of
fulfilling
there
is
a
Ql>
the cardinal points
. .
fringes
<
V^r^l +
t as required
to have a sharp peak in
When m #
qk
0.
because
0,
by the case
0.2rc. It is
reflection with to
n there
is
therefore not impossible
7t.
a way of obtaining reflection peaks by securing
This was analysed previously. Again, the fringes are symmetrical
Q =
0,
which implies
<P
0.
must be emphasized that we were only

e involving <5 R <5 L y and other angles,
but we have taken no heed of the accompanying amplitude or energy coef-
At
this stage
of the analysis
discussing the angular parameters
ficients.
In other words,
it
co,
we have proved
that the condition to
does not
violate physical laws and secures sharp reflection peaks, but we are unable
*)
From now on we assume
results to
some
the supporting reflectivity g R
extent at the cost of the conditions being a
the actual values of g R obtainable. Evidently,

parameters of the first reflector.
little
we may drop
all
1.
This will simplify the
more
stringent than with
the primes denoting the
318
to sythetize the corresponding
first reflector. This is still an open problem.

some constraints on the energy coefficients following
from the requirement that any extremum e must lie between and 1.
The postitive sign of 0t t is evident from (7-29'). It remains to study the
conditions for the sharp maximum by (7-48) to be less than unity. Inserting
from (7-29) and again taking, for simplicity, q'r = 1 we have
We may
at least find
(V-s) 2 <0 from which
<g <
\/Qk
it
may
be deduced that either yjg^
y, writing
y =
These conditions must
-y/g L
finally
yfoi, or
^<
is
with (7-51) which actually
a peak.
have a general admissible interval

sIq*
valid for q r
-y <g <
now be combined
ensure that the sharp extremum (7-48)
We
slol)
<
q l If q k
.
- y <g <
q l then there
Ve R /e L < g <
is
vWr
(7-52a)
the additional possibility
V^ + y
<
(7-52b>
ensuing from (7-5 lb).
The contrast of the
reflection peaks
^ma,
J-D/C
^min
For high contrast B
is
is
+ D/C
U
I
B/A
- B/A
to be only slightly less than A, while
should be
much less than C.

To illustrate
this discussion, we shall present several examples of a

general character: the energy coefficients will be chosen directly so as to
intended manipulations of the reflection ourves and simultaneously

not to violate the optics of metallic films. The actual design of the first
suit the
layer (n l
A,) will remain unspecified.
The basic example may be taken over from a paper by Cownie, [12],
which discusses these problems in somewhat diffetent terms but the angle
here denoted as at remaining the decisive factor for the shape of the reflection
fringes.
According to Cownie, a reflection peak of high contrast
will
be obtained
with
qr
0.2,
ql
0.4,
0.2
and, of course,
to
0.
(7-53)
We
319
then have in our discussion
g e jv
- Ve^J
(t
2ja
0.083
e<
2a+ *>
(7-54)
hence
The
jc
28,
inequality (7-52)
is
fulfilled as
0.08,
part of it being only tight, because
The
*)AD <
<5
dL
0.08
<
0.083
-e>
<
0.283, the first
^max will be very near unity.
assumes the form
reflection function (7-30)
where
0.207
1.40
-0.0742 cos
-1.27 cos <
BC. The corresponding reflection peak
is
shown
as a solid
curve in Fig. 7-15.
Keeping the choice
(7-53),
but assuming
<o
it,
we must
write instead
of (7-54)
g ej " =
(t
v&) e
2j0
0.483 e
2j8
(7-55)
hence
0.483,
2d,
<5
<5
-co
With the new value of g the right-hand part of

important, also the left-hand part of (7-52b)
The
The
is
violated:
(7-52a) and,
Vsr/^l
case cannot yield a peak that would be sharper than the

reflection curve
is
Jt
more
0.707
> g.
minimum.
given by the formula
(0 =
-0.431 cos
1.40- 1.27 cos I
0.434
Fig. 7-15 Reflection peaks and dips

produced by manipulation of the phase
angle to to the values
or
iz.
-la* -eo*
S,
-so*
so'
izo'
r-2X
iao'
320
where
AD >
BC. Indeed, a reflection dip
is
obtained, as documented by
the other solid curve in Fig. 7-15.
We
shall
now
construct a third example, where the reflection peak
produced in the conditions

(7-5 lb)
It
and
to
= 0.783, which is greater than

+ y = 1.447 - 0.633 = 0.814.
The
is
the inequalities
e.g.
y/Q K iQ L
0.5.
Then g
0.5
0.707 and smaller than
reflection curve is
0.814
KQ ~
and
fulfilled
(7-52b).
obviously sufficient to choose
is
0.283
being
Jt,
AD =
0.98
is
slightly less
but a reflection peak
The conditions
is
1.40
-0.701 cos
-1.27 cos {
BC =
than
The contrast
1.033.
will
be poor,
clearly visible (dash-and-dot curve in Fig. 7-15).
(7-52a, b) for a realizable
from the various

among the q'r q'l and
structure of g, as evident
g may be combined with
the
of Table 7-6, this resulting
cells
some inequalities
t. These are the "realizability"
rows in the same table.
With this we end the discussion of the reflection etalon. The analysis
of its extrema is not only important for filtering techniques, but also for
the interpretation of measurements with the Tolansky-Fizeau fringes, as
shown in [15] and elsewhere.
More design scope is available in the problem of extrema with three
or more metallic layers, but this is beyond the intentions of this section.
in
We
quote
of Ch.
ref. 11
for this purpose (Bd.
I,
p. 231).
7.1.5 Laser cavity
One of
the
modern
techniques where
it
uses of the Fabry-Perot type sandwich
is
in laser
serves as a resonance cavity, providing through the
partially reflecting walls
a feed-back mechanism for the generating medium
enough amplification results in oscillations.

Although the exact formulation of the cavity problem is three-dimensional, useful basic information can be obtained by adhering to the
plane-wave model and to the method of Airy summations.
In this approach the laser cavity is an extremely thick etalon, the spacer
until
medium
exhibiting negative absorption so that the attenuation factor
greater than unity.
We
gain and write
G'
it
as
shall accordingly
= G'(v).
It is
call its
is
energy version single-pass
a function of frequency exp
( K(v)
d),
32 i
where d is the length of the cavity and K(v) is the absorption coefficient
of
the pumped medium (computed by some of the methods of
quantum electronics for a Doppler-broadened line). It becomes negative
when population
version is brought about.
As a rule, the band-width of the optical amplifier (i.e. the width of the
transmission fringe at the given resonator length and the given
mirror
reflectivities g) is much smaller than the Doppler line
width. G'(v) may
therefore be considered constant, equal to G'(v
) where v is the centre of
the Doppler line, when analysing the gain-vs-frequency curve of
the laser
cavity.
This cavity gain function G may reasonably be identified with

the
energy transmittance of the Fabry-Perot sandwich. As a straightforward
generalization of (7-2) for the case that the spacer has
4G' and
factor
2rtc
Wv
g'
g,
d'i
g"
pv, Si
7l
(1
g;
<P(v)
*(v)
'
pv
(7-56)
is
occurs for
an amplitude gain
and writing InX'^nd
-q, we have
2^^
n r>VÂ
r>
gG
) + 4gG sin 4>(v)
The maximum gain
it
5*
(l-g) 2 G'
and
y=
Mit,
2
_ (l-g) G'
<\2
(i - eG')
M integer.
(7-57)
The resonance
frequencies are
therefore
Vm
M --1)!L_
(q negligible)
(
and
their separation is
"M+l
where practically n
result in separations
1.
- v
VM =
2nd
Cavity lengths of 100
cm and
10 cm, respectively,
by 150 and 1500 MHz.
Referring to the formula (7-24) for the half-width and to

(7-57), we
eG' is now the effective reflection factor so that the result of gain
see that
is
to decrease the band- width.
however.
and nd
We may
The
difference relative to (7-24)
is
small,
a typical band-width 0.5 MHz for g = 0.99

100 cm. The resonance lines are therefore extremely fine relative
state as
to their spacing in a one-meter laser.
322
Generation of light by stimulated emission

First, there is the evident
associated with the values
resonance condition
qG'
which renders
is
(7-58)
(7-57) infinite. This will actually never happen, because
linear effects with large
non-
cause the magnitude of K(v) to
field intensities
decrease. This cannot of course be predicted in the purely interference
theory of the cavity.
Second, owing to random fluctuations of the working conditions for

laser, its action cannot depend on a singular state such as defined by
a gas
(7-57).
We must expect generation to be present in an interval of frequencies
around a resonant frequency v M
(this in its
turn lying well within the Doppler
line), provided that the corresponding line has a peak
substantially
Crmax
greater than unity.
To check
Let qG'

qG'
1,
however,
is
>
and
Gmax >
uninteresting, because
typical intervals.
> 1, even
Gma% tends to
G'
for
the
relatively small value G'.

If,
<
1.
on the other hand, qG'
This, together with
its
>
the condition for
Gmax >
isgVG' <
precondition leads to the interval

1
G'
Fig. 7-16
1,
<Q
<z=
1
(7-59)
VC
Resonance curves for the gain of a
laser cavity.

Fig. 7- 16a
tion
is
is
a graphical display of these inequalities.
that for a given G' the reflectance q
<
323
This
An
intersting implica-
must not be too
great, otherwise
in contradiction to the simple reasoning of geometrical

optics, according to which the gain will improve with the product
qG'.
Gmax
1.
is
shows the profiles Gmaxfe) at two different values of G'.

These actually show the sensitivity to the resonance condition. For a given
Fig. 7-16b
threshold value,
Gmai
,, h
the tolerance
on g
is
larger for larger G'. It
may
be shown to approximately equal
<?
'
G'-l
VGmax>th .G'
the second term being an increasing function of G'.
similar tendency holds for G' variable and q fixed. The single-pass
gain G' for a laser of given type can be slightly varied by the pumping
power. The smaller G', the narrower the interval of practical resonance.
These are typical differences between, for example, He-Ne and ruby
lasers.
7.2 Dielectric-coated metallic mirrors
In 1947 Messner,
[16],
presented the idea of enhancing the reflectivity
of metals by adding some
dielectric interference films onto the metallic

surface (so called Verstarkungslamelle.) This of course required the mirror
to be produced on the first surface of the substrate so that technologists
at
once began to think in terms of protecting
layers. In fact, in the first
years, the aspect of protection prevailed over that of enhancing reflection
and no more than a single layer would be used on a practically massive

metal. It must be admitted, however, that the mere fact of bringing the
reflecting surface from the rear to the front of the surbstrale already meant
some 5 to 10 % in favour of the method.
Multilayer overcoats became of importance in connection with metallic
mirrors where some residual transmittance was needed, such as with FabryPerot interferometers or filters. The contribution of pure interference to the
basic metallic reflection enabled, for a fixed q, the thickness of the metal
to be smaller, thus reducing absorption in the whole system. This led to a
higher S~max for the same line width, which is determined by the reflection
from the spacer. Alternatively, keeping the metallic base fixed,

the dielectric overcoating reduces the line width thanks to an increase of
q
factor q seen
324
while &~ma% remains constant, because by (7-29) and with respect to the
results of 6.4 it is equal to the square of the potential transmittance of the
single mirror,
which remains unchanged by applying the overcoating in
question.
Examples of such improved Fabry-Perot type
are
filters
shown
in
Fig. 7-17.
Another motive for the use of multilayer enhancement
some spectral
examples. Aluminium is the
is
The
the lack of
violet
and
highly reflecting metalic surfaces in
regions.
ultraviolet are typical
best substitute for silver,
but even then
it
compares unfavourably with the standards
set
by
silver in
the routine applications of the visible spectrum.
Unfortunately, it was not possible to rely on all-dielectric interference

mirrors owing to the presence of slight absorption in the materials serving
as the high-index components.
In
fact,
we must
discard most of the verified materials refracting by an
index higher than 2.0 and put up with as low a value as 1.72 (A1 2 3 ) for n H
The low-index components do not suffer from absorption, but dispersion
.
magnesium
brings, for example,
fluoride to the rank of
Si0 2
(1.46).
Many
needed to obtain the same q, the inherent absorption

of the H-layers then invalidating the performance of such a reflector in
interferometric devices. A compromise is then sought in combining metals
more
and
layers are then
dielectrics.
aluminium have probably

the ultraviolet and in the visible
Dielectric-coated front-surface mirrors of
been paid the widest attention both in
50
6fy(LHf(LL)(HLfA9 G
GAgLH(LL)HLfig6
\ h-SOO
\, h ~ 300
-î
-j
6000
5000
Fig. 7-17
Combined
5000
6000
metal-dielectric interference filterscomputed
transmittance.
As already mentioned,
spectrum.
oxidation, atmospheric tarnishing
Ample
Fabry-Perot type
An
filters
case protection against
higher than corresponding to a bare
literature is to
a good review being available in the book
ed by Turner,
latter
and scratches was the dominant aim,
much
while reflectance was not pushed

(unoxidized) Al surface.
in the
325
be found on the subject,
[17].
with dielectric enhanced reflection were describ-
[18] (see also [19]).
unorthodox case of metal-dielectric combination is a type of cold

first described by Turner on the occasion of the 1949 Marseille
mirror, again
conference,
[20].
This time the dispersion of the metallic base
drawn
is
into
play.
Germanium
in the region
is
below
marked
for behaving like a moderately reflecting metal
1/an, while in the infra-red
Taking a layer of germanium some 200 A

in the visible
to enhance
it
ranks
thick,
to 90
its reflectivity
it
about 60
with a sufficiently flat top to
behaves in the visible spectrum
reflector, while seven, or so, purely dielectric layers
reflectance level at the risk of
marked
like
make
the
a metallic
would reach the same
tinting.
interference mirror acts as a high-pass or a low-pass
same time
dielectrics.
spectrum and only four layers of the type 1.38/2.35 are enough
mirror look white. Hence
An
it
among
reflects
filter
at the
Taking the former function, one can obtain a cold

mirror. Using many layers to make the top wide and the white reflection
stable in series production, one obtains a commercial all-dielectric cold
mirror. What does an overcoated germanium offer apart from the white
(see 3.5.1).
reflection in the visible
spectrum?
The dispersion of its optical constants helps with the required application and renders the combined stack all-dielectric in the infra-red, so that
an almost orthodox pass-band develops as would correspond to a dieletric
5-layer. This would never happen if the base layer kept its metallic character
in the potential pass-band.
We shall now very briefly explain the mutual interaction of the metallic
film with
its
overcoating.
The key point
is to find the proper matching of the first

can be done by considering the numerator of the Airy formula
r+r"el
rV'ej(
*"- x)
layer.
,., 2
\r\
(The corresponding energy formula has already been mentioned in
This
(7-60)
7.1.4
326
One must
distinguish between n
positive, its orientation being described
With regard
to this
we then
odd or
To
even, respectively.
reach a
maximum
A = m
I
H
71
For
r'
5".
<
r'
>
when
r'
maximum
or
r"
0.
is
is
minimum
x =
requires 5"
the converse
always
absolute
mn, where
true.
of q the optical thicknesses must be matched by
)-r>
JT'
b "\ X
"1,
seek the
value of the numerator, which for

is
5
by
m=
1, 3, 5,
...
for n
<
nt
(7-61a)
m=
0, 2, 4,
...
for n
>
nt
(7-61b)
Some doubt may arise as to whether the manipulation of the numerator

is justified when one notes that the tendency for the magnitude of the
alone
denominator
is
always opposite to that established in the numerator.
We leave it to the reader to show that no conversion can occur in the compete
fraction (7-60).
The
use of the condition (7-6 la)
protective layer (such as a hard
and
it is
is
MgF 2
required that reflectivity
typical in a situation
film)
A/2, the
maximum
where a single
applied to the metallic surface
not impaired. Thinking in the simple
is
terms of protecting a bare glass surface in
and A t
is
this
way, one would have b"
reflectivity equalling, as
we know,
=n
that of bare
5500 A, with, for example, r\ = 0.8, x =

= 5.45 and n x = 1.38, we have 8" = 152.1 and A t = 0.923 1/2 (in the
first order). A slightly less than A/2 layer is therefore needed. Transformed
over the monitoring practice of the workshop, it is simply the A-half condiglass.
Taking aluminium at A
tion.
Computer-analyzed curves are shown in Fig. 7-18 for the
first
three
orders to document the degree of increased selectivity and the value of the
minima. For didactic reasons the aluminium was taken without dispersion,
because we only want to follow the salient features of the overcoating.
The
horizontal dashed line represents the reflectivity of a bare airjAl
boundary.
It
may come
as a surprise that the low-index layer not only
decreases but also increases the reflecting power of a metal. This
is
simply
accounted for by the fact that the positions of the extrema determined by
(7-6 la) for 5
0,
n never coincide with the points x
0, 2tt at
which alone
the formula (7-60) yields the reflection of bare substrate.

It is
seen that the increase over airjAl reflection
the proper matching of the layer
decrease toward a
is
minimum, which
is
unimportant, but
necessary to evade a possible important

is
83 %.
left
327
There is yet another point to be considered: if the Al surface were

without protection, then the spontaneous growth of an A1 2 3 film
with refractive index 1.66 would tend to antireflect the mirror. The
would be reached with h
700 A,
much
surface actually stops
its
minimum
The ageing of
value being 75 %.
the
sooner (at a geometric thickness between
50 and 90 A), but even so the
reflectivity
degrades to a value around 88 %.
%
l/Af
SO
v-x
t/-v-/-/'
85
\>
Y'/
81
tooo
5000
Fig. 7-18
MgF 2
6000
reflection-increasing films of the first three orders
aluminium
0.5
The complete gain

%.
in using
7000
on an
substrate.
MgF 2
is
therefore 3.5
instead of only
Recourse to condition (7-6 lb) must be had if one plans to evaporate a

like 1/H
H(cL)M/G. It is clear that in the first place it is necessary
system
to secure a
maximum
partial result at the H/(cL)
in (7-60) the cumulated reflection coefficient will
the following layers
may go by
thickness matched by (7-61 b)
combination the factor
Due
is
boundary. With
have a phase S
r'
>
and
the A/4 condition. In the zero order the
is
slightly less
than
1/4.
For the
MgF2 /Al
0.845.
to spurious losses there
is little
sense in using
more than about
four dielectric layers on a metallic substrate reflecting 90 %. The ultimate

reflectance then is about 96 %.
328
Some
7.3
induced-transmission systems
In this section we shall be concerned with single metallic films the

absorptance of which is manipulated by outer dielectric extensions in accordance with the tendencies established for the quantities a/t and W in the
general theory of Ch. 5 and Sect. 6.4.
7.3.1 Pohlack's beam-splitters
The
is
first
exploitation of
due to Pohlack,
what was
index of the substrate medium, which

r2
exp
(j<5 2 )
As a
in (4-55c).
changes and one
later called
[21], [22]. It consists in
may
seek
is
equivalent to changing the factor
result, the inevitable
minimum, or
its
induced transmission
changing the effective refractive
at least
absorptance ratio
make
it
oc/t
smaller than
the value corresponding to the usual air\glass embedding. This can be done
for various metallic layer thicknesses, and various beam-splitting ratios
may
thus be found with the absorption mitigated.
In numerical studies where n was varied directly, a general tendency

g
could be discovered to the effect that a marked reduction of a was achieved
only with large values of the substrate index, mostly exceeding realistic
bounds.
Pohlack suggested the insertion of one or possibly more A/4 layers

between the metal and substrate, thus producing (at the design wavelength,
at least) a high effective substrate index
by means of realistic index combina-
tions.
that the tail of the
reduces to either of the forms:
v'" ( - i
^">/f(i"i)V
V (V
1
f*
V* =
("^ /('
Only the
and
first
MD D 2
1
...D,V f
"""
n 2 n 4 ...n,_ lN/ g
)>
new system matrix
ViT-
""*" "'-'^
<" m
for
even
columns operate in the evaluation of the R-coefficients

assume values corresponding to a backing medium
fR , q r obviously
with refractive index
ja.
fR
has a modified numerator 2
v |i/ g
but forming the energy coefficient t r
329
instead of the usual factor 2,
=-|/ji\
"0
4a
the equivalence
"o
of the /j-substrate again becomes evident.

These considerations are valid at one wavelength where the inserted
layers are A/4 thick. This considerably simplified the computation, but two
latent questions remain to be answered: (i) is the quarterwave thickness
optimum for minimizing <x/t (ii) what is the spectral behaviour of the
design ?
The first remark anticipates the matching procedure described by the

algorithms for maximizing the potential transmittance. In fact, the inserted
XjA stack is an approximation of the matching systems of Sect. 6.4. Never-
350
Fig. 7-19 (a) g(A), t(A), a(A) functions for a single
hA
chromium film
and a ZnS-A/4-rear-extended film (vertical hatching),
absorptance functions for the two cases and the minimum
(horizontal hatching)
(b) inevitable
UOO
a/r function possible.
330
theless,
remarkably useful improvements of metallic beam-splitters were
achieved by Pohlack with single A/4 high-index layers.
The design of a prescribed beam-splitting ratio requires the knowledge

of the g(h), x(h) and a.(fi) curves for the given metal-H combination at the
design wavelength. An example of such curves for chromium (single and
back-coated, n = 2 3j, n 2 = 2.35, w g = 1.52, ja = 3.5, X = 5500 A) is
shown in Fig. 7- 19a, b, from which the following table may be extracted:
Table 7-7
Typical working parameters of single and simply transluminated
chromium
layers
of different dividing ratios.
hk
q/t
Cr
1
0.22
0.44
0.34
0.772
0.33
0.66
0.02
0.03
0.31
0.31
0.38
1.225
74
0.435
0.435
0.130
0.299
0.247
183
0.405
0.202
0.393
1.945
162
0.530
0.265
0.205
0.774
0.771
72
oc/t
T )mi
:2
A
2.5
Cr
1
124
0.02
Cr
2:
Cr
(The transluminated
layer, because
ZnS happens
2 reflector degenerates to a single dielectric
to reflect 32
% in the
A/4 condition).
The present approach does not control the degree by which a/t has
been reduced to a potential minimum. Let us additionally make the check.
For a beam-splitting ratio g = t realized at the maximum potential
transmittance of the device it must evidently hold that
Q
l+pS'n
py
(7-62a, b)
i+py.
Let us compute, on the basis of Fig. 6- 14a, the values q and t for the
as a function of h:
j8 = 0.5, 1, 2, regarding
three ratios
f^
331
Table 7-8
Working parameters of maximally transluminated chromium
hk
beam-splitters.
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0.329
0.314
0.285
0.256
0.218
0.180
0.138
0.105
0.658
0.628
0.571
0.513
0.437
0.361
0.276
0.210
=T
0.493
0.478
0.444
0.408
0.360
0.305
0.246
0.195
0.662
0.646
0.616
0.580
0.528
0.468
0.390
0.320
0.331
0.323
0.308
0.290
0.264
0.234
0.195
0.160
0.5
We may now
compare Pohlack's beam-splitters with the maximally

It is natural to perform the comparison
transluminated chromium layers.
on the same
q-
and
r-levels*).
nesses to be 50, 150
Then we
and 250 A,
find the corresponding optical thick-
The minimum
respectively.
values
100
,0
?
%
75
f.
'
25
__,
,r
50
-^-ZZZT"
500
100
r
1.
600
Fig. 7-20 Spectral characteristics of a
air/Cr
100
700
chromium 1:1
air/Cr/glass system, metallic thickness 124
50
75
~~T~
A,
(2)
reflector.
simple
transluminated
A/4 ZnS/glass system, metallic thickness 74 A. (Dispersion of

chromium not
*)
ot/r
considered).
Increasing the levels one would obviously
work with
thinner
Cr
films, the
thus tending to a purely dielectric state. The comparison would be unfair.
system
332
extracted from Fig. 6- 14a are inserted into the last
The simple A/4 coating turns out
column of
table 7-7.
to be surprisingly near the
optimum
attainable.
This, together with ease of manufacture, has predetermined

splitters
of
this
beam-
kind as viable induced transmission systems.
Figure 7-20 documents the spectral behaviour of the second mirror.
There
ratio
layer
very
is
is
little
dispersion present and an almost constant
maintained on the 45
would act
as a "half-mirror"
dividing
whereas a non-treated chromium
level,
on the 30
% level.
This figure simultaneously answers the question of
how
serious the
problem of exact matching was. By scanning the spectrum with an inserted

fixed layer one actually tries different tunings. No significant improvement
can be observed in a across the visible spectrum and the A/4 condition may
be regarded as accurate enough.
7.3.2
The induced-transmission monochromatic
The
filter
beam-splitter discussed in the preceding paragraph operates
on
the princple of induced transmission but
it is not a full-bred device of this

kind because no front extension was applied to maximize transmission
(the design being satisfied
extension alone).
by the values q
t there were after the rear
Chromium being only moderately
reflecting,
a single A/4
H-layer was sufficient for this extension, which also secured a fairly A-insentitive situation.
Taking a highly
reflecting metal,
such as
maximum
silver
or aluminium, and
in f and !P,
is led to a symmetrical
embedding of the metallic layer by stacks of 7,8, or so, alternating layers.
The need for these relatively high numbers is easily seen by roughly inter-
designing for a true
one
preting the matching as antireflecting the metallic core.
The complexity of the
dielectric
embedding introduces
dispersion into the phase condition of the matching of
much
significant
the
same
character as that discussed with the theory of the asymmetric reflector.
However, in the present

practice
shows the
case, this turns out to
be a virtue, because as
rapid spoiling of the matching in the vicinity of the
design wavelength gives rise to a transmission peak which turns the device
into a
monochromatic
mized
filter.
In
at the centre of the
fact,
peak
the very
will
work
same mechanism
in favour of
that maxi-
away, which means enhancing potential absorptance. The result
is
further
a trans-

mission
333
with extremely good rejection outside of the pass-band.
filter
Another advantage of
this filter is
freedom from transmission maxima of
other orders.
Maximum
40
transmittance attainable in the visible spectrum
for a half-width of 50 A.
in the ultraviolet
filters is
where
films for the Fabry-Perot type
For
[17].
full details
is
about
potential sphere of interest for these
it is
difficult to
obtain highly reflecting
filter, [23].
of the design the reader
is
referred to the
monograph
production-oriented treatment of the induced transmission
given in
is
filter
[24].
References
[1]
Ch. Fabry and E. Perot, Ann. de Chim. etPhys., 12, 459 (1897).
[2]
Z. Knittl, Czech. J. Phys., 8, 285 (1958).
[3]
L. G. Schulz, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 41, 1047, (1951).
[4]
L. N. Hadley and D. M. Dennison, see ref. 7. in Ch. 1.

A. Hermansen, A Theory of Interference Filters, Kong. Danske Videnskab. Selskab,
Math.-Fis. Medd., 30, No 6, 1 (1955>.
[5]
[6]
K. M. Greenland, and C.
[7]
Ch. Dufour, Le Vide,
[8]
N.
[9]
R. Blythe,
[10] J.
[11]
J.
Billington, Journ. de Phys. et Rad., 11, 418 (1950).

480 (1948).
Sperenskaja and G. N. Rautian, Zhurn. Tehn. Hz., 11, No4, 620 (1952).
/.
Opt. Soc.
A. Dobrowolski,
H. Schroder,
3,
in:
Am 34,
336 (1954).
Am., 49, 794 (1959).
Auwarter, Ed., Ergebnisse der Hochvakuumphysik und der
/. Opt. Soc.
M.
Physik dunner Schichten, Bd.
I,
Stuttgart, 1957.
G. Kard, Izv. Ak. N. Est. SSR, t. XII, No 4, 359 (1969).

P. G. Kard, Opt. i Spektr., t. XVIII, No 4, 684 (1965).
H. Koch, Transactions: Optik u. Spektroskopie alter Wellenlangen, Akademieverlag,
[12] P.
[13]
[14]
Berlin, 1962, p. 139.

[15]
[16]
A. R. Cownie, Journ. Opt. Soc. Am., 47, 132 (1957).

R. Messner, Optik, 2, 228 (1947),
Macdonald, Metal-Dilelectric Multilayers, Adam Hilger, 1971.

A. F. Turner, Journ. de Phys. et Rod., 11, 305 (1950).
M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 2nd edition, MacMillan, 1964,
A. F. Turner, see ref. 46. in Ch. 3.
[17] J.
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
H. Pohlack, Ann. Phys. (6), 11, 145 (1952).

H. Pohlack, Jenaer Jahrbuch 1954, Bd. I, 276 and Bd. II, 430.
P. W. Baumeister, V. R. Costich and S. C. Pieper, Appl. Opt., 4, 911
R. J. Holloway and P. H. Lissberger, Appl. Opt., 8, 653 (1969).
[25] P. Duffieux, Appl. Opt., 8,
329 (1969).
(1965).
p. 349.
334
Problems
7-1
Prove the equivalence of
common
(7- la)
and
denominator, interpreting
2
g and introducing
t'
cos
to
by putting the
(7-3)
t'
q' q'
l r
on a
latter
2t \q'l q'r cos
as
the substitution
v q'l qr
g cos
x' sin to
y,
= g sin y
where
Y =
7-2
^r
<5l
Prove that the half-width of two identical
36
7-3
less
than that of a single
F P
tandem
in
filters
is
layer.
Design the scheme for computing and plotting the contours of constant
(equilateral hyperbolas) and contours of constant ^"
(curves
max
of opposite
curvature
F P
than
the
l^yhyperbolas)
for
asymmetric
Deduce from the qualitative knowledge of the

optimum filter having a maximum
^"
r
given
and
f
minimum
^"max
2
2 for given
max Pursuing the
analysis in concrete terms for Ag and having the true ^"max = const,
curves you would find that with h t given and evaporating the second Ag
film you reach a maximum 3~'max for h 3 < h t which is slightly larger
than that corresponding to symmetry h t = h 3 but the accompanying
(/*!
h 3)
contours that h t
filters.
h 3 furnishes the
Chosing another symmetric combination h l = h 3

the same iV 2 could be attained with a ^^(ft, h 3 ) > &~'m!a Symmetry
W"2
is
also larger.
is
7-4
always optimum.
Generalize the condition (7-22) for oblique incidence, taking into

consideration that for the metallic lyaers
in the transmission
maximum
of a
F P
8 S Predict the changes
filter
in (collimated) oblique
<5
incidence.
7-5
Show
the equivalence of the conditions for 0t
(7-36a, b) with those
due to Schroder,
as stated by Eqs.
[11].
Hints:
Keeping our notation except for the symbols g 1 . lt

plitude condition
7-6
=rc
(a)
Q^g'igl
T = tltR = t'.
-<5 R - $i + y.
ding that
i
is
1.
It is sufficient to
The key
The problem of finding the

etalon without having to
prove g
to the phase condition
values
first
then substituting into (7-30),
Schroder's am-
= g 2 QlQ'Ri
is
min-
the proof of
^max and Mmin for the reflection
calculate their positions
may be
by
(7-34)
and
solved by an expedient due
335
to Thetford-Bates-Macdonald ([17], p. 23).

that the inverse reflection function
0k
S?mSiX or
MmiB
It
uses the obvious fact
,{&) is single-valued if
Apply the procedure to the formula
the difference from the quoted case being that the
ray
incorporated into the one fraction of Eq. (7-30). (The proce-
is
dure
(7-30),
first reflected
is
straightforward, the quoted reference
it
not inevitable for
the solution),
(b)
= 1 {SI + ^") may be studied analogously

in (7-30), t't" + C instead of C. Note the inference that s/
own turning points unless t" = 0, when s/ = 1 St.
The extrema of s4
taking
has
its
When
{St
the
3T) m
and that
7-7
first
subcoating
^ = ^max +
it is
is dielectric, it
fmln
{St
can be shown that
$-) min
Slmin
^max
^max that secures sfmia in a dielectric-coated metal.

F P
sandwich
(a)
Prove that the resonance term of a symmetrical
(b)
can be written as cos y, where y is the

(<5 <p)]
[1 + #"sin
argument of the input admittance Y = Y exp (jy) of either half of
the filter seen from a central dividing plane halving the spacer
Trying a similar thing for the numerator of the ^-function of the
_1
same sandwich (assuming additionally

it
ni
"4) show, that
can be written as
q(\
where x
is
g)
cos
-2
the argument of an input admittance obtained
when
seeing an auxiliary film of amplitude reflectance ~Jg exp (ji?) from

a phase distance q> A/8, where q> is the phase thickness of the
spacer.
(c)
Using the above

trical
results, express
the energy coefficients of a
symme-
sandwich as
= (-rzj) cos2 y = y r 1 + cos 2y )

2
- e 1 8 ] cos22 y - e./i-gY 1 + cos2y
\l-Qj l + cos2x
\l-a) cos x
9-
(*)
(**)>
^
Use (*) to rededuce the formula for the half- width.

Note that (*) is a simple cosine function for 5" in the transformed
variable y, which is a function of q> formulated in the course of the
proof.
336
7-8
Modify for the input
side of
a system the procedure used in
7.3.1
when changing the effective index of refraction of the substrate medium.

Consider a simple A/4 extension in the front and rear with indices
and n", respectively, and write out separately for the p- and
components in oblique incidence. Show that choosing
ri
n'
n os/2cos(0 o ),
n"
n g ^j2cos(-j
secures equality of the effective characteristic admittances Yp
Yp
F"
s
standing
(This procedure
8.5.)
now
is
s-
= F\
s
for the outer media.
important for the subject matter discussed in
8
Specific computational procedures
The mathematical apparatus so
far evolved is fully capable of meeting

have also shown some examples of its use
conducted towards a design goal, but then we mostly modified the straightforward formulae for r and t so as to suit the given situation. Generally
any
it
We
analytical problem.
may be
expected that any deeper modification of a formal value opens
up new design
possibilites.
In the present chapter
we submit
to the reader a
selection of specific computational procedures.
8.1 Vlasov
Kard recursion formulae
Let us take the recurrent formulae (2-29a, b) and form the ratios
*R
fa
jgj
'IR'IIR
*R
may
'lI^HR
}
MR'IIR]
*IR*IIR
Introducing the notations a IR

relations (6-8) following
JJ
IRIIR
'
r IR /*, R , A, R
l/f IR ...
from the generalized principle of
and using the
reversibility,
we
write the above equations as
Or
fc
=*iR*iiRe
ir*iir e
lv
J,,
+
+
a, 1R A,t e
,
_j "
a IIR a*e-^
(8-1 a,
b)
338
These are essentially the formulae derived by Kard'va.
[1]
as a generaliza-
tion for absorbing systems of some earlier formulae due to Vlasov.
A number
of important papers in Russian thin film literature are written in
this
formalism.
Some minor modifications are to be added.

Kard introduces the so called reduced transmission
//n v+1 cos6> v+ ,\
n v cos6 vJ
yj\
having the obvious properties
The formulae
Further
it
S RL =
now
RL
rf
and dK
a
= dL
= r/d,
.
1/rf.
holds that
bL
(8-3a)
(6-8)
.*
which
\J\n v+l cos& v+l J
(8-la, b) are then again valid for
bR
and by
v cos0 v
//
R'
factors
is
(8-3b)
equivalent to (6-4b).
The
first reversibility
relationship (6-4a)
b R b+-a Ra*
may
then be written as
(8-4)
One of the advantages of the formulae (8-1) is
that during the recursion
process across the whole system the partial results in a and b are obtained
as linear combinations of given data.
that the fractions are set
By
It is
only at the end of the process
up
"R
using the formulae (2-17a, b) (2-18a, b) and (8-3a, b) one
may
establish the relationship
Sk
where Si +1
is
Building
builds
up
the system transfer matrix.
up S by continued
the quantities a, a*, b,
multiplication of matrices one essentially
b* introduced
in this section.
SPECIFIC
339
8.2 Kard's dual expansions for r/d and 1/d
Expansions of the
New
first
kind
formal aspects of multilayer computations will come forth,
if
we
put with Kard

1
-j-
cosh u y
-JL
sinh u
(or r
tanh u)
(8-6)
where
,
Obviously, (8-6)
on the
coefficients
only a different
is
v-th
= yln(n_
1 /y,)
way of
expressing the Fresnel
boundary using the reduced amplitude d instead
of/, but the introduction of the hyperbolic functions brings about

important
advantages in the subsequent manipulations.
In the
where
Gv_
new
t /V
is
notation the refraction matrix equals
the matrix
_,
/cosh
GM
- (sinh u
i/ v
sinh u\
cosh
(8
"7
>
The system transfer matrix S may therefore be written in the form

we replace each W_ 1/v by G v _ 1/v and multiply the whole result by
(2-16) if
V(n + i/ro).
Now it is
useful to note that for
that with any third index
any pair
i,j
G,"]
Gjj and, further,
G u = G
G,j
=G
X
.
Gh
(8-8)
Setting i = v - 1, j = v, v = 1, 2, ... and / =

or g, we may
express any refraction matrix as a product of two refraction matrices (for
the media v - 1 and v, respectively) in relation to any of the outer media.
For / =
or g, respectively, we shall call this left or right outer hinging.
340
We may now write

1
S = /-î-Gj; (G U 1 G
Il
The
(8-9)
or
associated products, which are actually outer-hinged interference
may
in general be written as
"
1
)(G Ia U 2 G ; )...(G Ik U k Gi )G I/k+1
matrices,
"
/cosh v sinh u v \ /e " v
\/coshu v
_
~
\sinh u v cosh u
-sinhu v \
coshu v /
e-^V-sinhu,
which may further be expressed as

cos
where
the unit matrix
is
)
G()
G(o)
+
= G( G(n
G() G(r)
v),
_
G() G(o)
),
=
=
G(
_
G(m
properties:
+
-
v)
(.""".)
t>)
which may be verified in a straightforward way.

These together with the structural representation of the interference
matrix as (8-10) enable important rules to be discovered in the continued
multiplication by (8-9).
We
book
[2],
refer the reader to
Kard's original papers, summarized in his
We
for full details of the derivation.
only show what the typical
manipulations are in the example of two layers.
We compute
G 01 [cos
 2
G(2 2 )] G, /k+1
where
G 0( = G( M( ),
G, /k+ i
G(u k+1 ),
Mj
lln^
k+1
yM y^-
SPECIFIC
Using (8-12) we obtain in the

cos
q> 1
cos
step
first
sin
2
G(m
2u t
2u 2 ) G(wk+1 )
2u 2
k +i)
G(2Hi) G(w k+1 )
G(w,
M k+1 )
G(w,) G(2j
G(tt k+1 )
q> 2 G(t/,)
G(w,
sin q>
341
2u t
u k+1 )
G(2m 2 ) G(k+ 1 )]
G(k,
2w 2
M k+1 )
where immediate indications are made of further use of (8-12).
The
respective arguments
may
be expressed as
+ "k+l =o- k+l

+ 2M t 2 2 + "k+i = u o 2t) + 2v 2
, + 2u x - w k+1 = v - 2v y + v k+1
K, + 2V 2 - M k +1 = 0 - 2t>2 + "k +
i
m,
r k+1
where now
t>
The
right
the
= ylnyv
general rule (to be derived by complete induction) states that the
hand
side of (8-9), apart
from the square
root,
may be
expressed as
sum of matrices
Ef
sin
cp
pi
sin
cp
sin ps
?2
^k- s
Cs
T(v
2v pi
(-l)'ty)
the possible 2* divisions of the
<Pi- -j_ < P*> 9i

= G if s odd.
q> qk _ s
0, 1, 2,
1,
.
2, ...
k)
(8-13)
k into two groups:
and T
= G
if
s even
and r
Referring to (8-5) and (8-7), one

will represent
b R or a R
if
may
the arguments (v
immediately state that (8-13)
2v Pi
...)
are related to
cosh or sinh, respectively, in place of the symbol I\ These are expansions
of the
first
kind for r/d and
1/d.
typical feature of these formulae is that the phase angles
<p v
are
342
number of
separately contained in a
refractivity parameters v v are
factors sin
(.
.),
cos
(.
while the
.),
cumulated in the arguments of hyperbolic
functions.
Expansions of the second kind
One may
also deduce dual formulas
exchanged.
where the roles of

v^ v -v
(o e")
"
<
1=TU (- jW ) T_1
which formally expresses the refraction matrix G as a transformation of

a phase matrix U with a properly adapted argument.
Writing
now
S =
y^-
T U(-j Ml ) T- 1
.
Ufo) T U(-ju 2 ) x
.
xT- ...T.U(-juk+1 ).T- 1

we
associate the T-matrices with the true phase matrices, obtaining
COS
^
T \U(cp ).7 = (\jsni(p
v
jsin<
cos<p v J
which may formally be written as a refraction matrix G( v) with w v = j<p v

For formal reasons let us also define <p = <p k + 1 =
so that U(<p )
.
and
G(j<p k+1 ) are unit matrices.
We may
then write in the former way [(8-9) written without outer
hinging]:
S =
and
in the
y^-U( 2 )
xUC-JWk + OGOVk + OT
...
G(j<p k )x
-1
(8-15)
SPECIFIC
343
Interpreting the latter equation as a transformation
following rule
may be
stated: taking the system transfer matrix
in Kard's formalism (8-14)
jv
S = TS'T -1
the
S expressed
and performing an exchange of arguments
v = 1, 2, ... k + 1; we obtain a
j<p v
which also contains the complete information on the system
and may easily be transformed to S. The two expansions (8-14), (8-15) are
dual in the sense that the phase and refraction elements ( -
matrix
0, 1, 2, ...
&; m v ->
S',
tively) are alternatively placed in the
U and G
matrices.
We shall now elaborate the dual expansion (8-15) into a more concrete
form, which will enable us to find the dual of (8-13).
Let us tentatively put
G(tv)
COsh
\sinh
w
w
w
sinh
cosh
In -^- so that
w
\ =
w)
2y/u'u"
/V +
~
V*'
J"" A*'
^" n'
~ ^"\
+ I*")
which may further be written as
This amounts to coming back to the admittance matrices

this time the "refraction indices"
angles
q> v
n',
will
n"
when wv is identified with j<p v

we may write (8-15) as
of the system
Using
(8-16),
s=
_A
f__I
'
V 2 yi
/l
e ""7 2
^'A
V -Wi)
^3
Mi
/S7
M2
We"'
\L IK(
-1A
j
(2-9),
!/A_\
T" 1
1
'"
//*_ /l
V
M.
AV
I
1
\/e u * +I
e-- + 'J
-MjA
1
but
be associated with the phase
rest
/l
V2
-1,
1-
344
now
our goal
It is
matrices
following values for the

\i\
Hi
Hi
J*k
to
make
this
resemble a product of interference
This can be arranged by setting w v
to be denoted as
1,
fi %
V-i
Us
/*k-l
/*k
this
w =
w3 =
cp v
H3
nA
0, it
^k + i
holds that
^ y+1
or
= e -ô + ^ + ...^)
0, 1,2, ...k
fi v
in
terms of the physical
<P
we have ^+1 =
of the layer system.
Writing in particular
the value of
The expression
"V
/i 2
1
A*k
w k = -=-ln-^_
This formula defines the so far free parameters
w2 =
j t
...
q> k
e'*,
the products of the \n'/n" type.
(8-17)
CJ
q>
Mv
now becomes
-{ 2
-h+J\
+1
e-""')(l -l)\
where
M =
cos v
JKsine,
cose v
j^ v sine v ,
are the converted interference matrices, e containing the refractivities,
fi v
the phases.
The remaining product

the equality
.}
lWl
(l
i0
{.
can be disposed of when considering
l/^ +1 \/e *
j
We finally have
1
S =
/HZrr
V
yo
JKsineA
>"..
v=i \JAt v
smev
cosev /
SPECIFIC
345
(The factor U($) is unimportant and if it
we simply compute
neglected
is
the transmission factor with the phase taken relative to the input boundary.)
of
We shall now write out in full for k =

dual expansion. Writing cos s = C
this
s lt
5>1^2^-'3^4
ej
*(^ s c 2 c 3 c* + ^c
i
s 2 c 3 c4
SjS2S 3 C4
/*3
A*2
cosh w v
/*3
-2j<pi
ifi.
r;
sinh w v
and
4f
"
-2j( 2 + 3)
_-2j(>l+>2 + >3)
Jff.
^2^4
g-2j>3
/*3
'
--2JP2
/*2
further
^4
--2j(î+ V3 )
C
y
'
c 2 s 3 c4 +
^2
'
Ml^3
= j
^4
-2j> 2
A*2
o
q
n
^l a 2 a 3 d
A*3
sin e v
/i3C 1
Sib2C 3 S4
PzPa
n c c
aj^^^
Pit1 * Q
cos e v
^2
/*2
Now,
S!S2S3S4V
H
/*l/*3
+ ^ 4 C C 2 C 3 S4
/*3
CiC 2 S 3 S4
>^1^2^3^4
1*2
S21
S v we have
/*3
7l^77
ev
siri
*-1^2^3*^4
"
Vl
SJS2C3C4 S C S C4
<C 1 C2C 3 C4
3 to illustrate the manipulations
-2.i(<l+>3)
'"
/<lA<3
Multiplying out by e j * or je J * and extrapolating by incomplete induct-
ion
we
aR
bR
state the following general rules
= Ixhuj
= Zxhw!
.xhM 2 --"xhk + i- ex P[ _ J(9'i <Pi---
.xhw 2 ...xhu k+1 .exp[j(<p 1
<p 2 ...
<Pk)] (8- 19a)
<p k )]
(8-19b)
rf
where xh means cosh or

of
sinh, in (8- 19b)
sinh.
Each term
an even number of
possible combinations, their
an odd number
The sums run over all such
in (8- 19a) contains

sinh.
number being 2 k
346
The
rules for
q> v are as follows:
taken positive (negative)
 v ,
cosh u t (sinh u t )
if
cosh u y+1 (sinh w v+1 ).
These are expansions of the second kind for rjd and
!/</.
8.3 Kard's theory of translumination
In this section
we
shall establish parallels
between
the* theory
of induced
and 6.4, and Kard's theory of

translumination of absorbing systems. The development of the latter will
not be systematic, but rather its main features will be drawn to the reader's
transmission, as already outlined in 5.2
attention.
Let us start with the input-side-extension theorem. The fact that

(1
q)jt is constant
may now
be written in terms of
----^- =
TR
may
This
TR
b R bt-a R a*
R
(8-20)
be proved by having recourse to the relationships
the invariance of (8-20)
is
known form
6.4,
we
shall
(8- la, b). Since
demonstrate the same
proof on the invariance of another expression, viz*)
U R e *=a R b R -a R bR
j<
(8-21)
With reference to Fig. 5-1, we front-extend the core HI by a dielectric

I and compute by (8-la, b) (with <p =
and writing, for simplicity,
= i a in, r = o 3 etc)
stack
ir
- ab' = (0l b'3 + a'.bîb.b, + a 3 a*)- ("i^s + a 3 b*) (b^ + a'3 a*) =
= (bX - a ia *)(a'3 b 3 - a 3 b'3 ) = a'3 b 3 - a 3 b'3
a'b
(the first bracket in the third line being (1
g)jx
for the dielectric
extension.)
We
*)
symbols
coefficient
adhere to our notation introduced in 6.2 and therefore translate Kard's

b to a', b' (meaning that the system is taken with negative absorption
o,
^#=
x).
*.
Further, a*,
b* are replaced by a'*
a*
etc.
For a
dielectric
SPECIFIC
The new
series
347
invariant will be of use in further computations.
It is one of a
of quadratic parameters introduced by Kard in his development of the
theory of thin films, two of which will be defined subsequently.
may be
Realizing that inevitable absorptance
&R&R
RR
written as
*R
may be
induced transmission
treated in the following way:
Adding the matching stack II, again conceived of as the spacer layer
/ + reflector D, Fig. 5-2, we compute by (8- la, b) (writing 
using
the subscript 2 for anything concerning the reflector D and omitting entirely
t ,
the subscript R):
= bb* - aa* -
=
I
b 3 b 2 e*
b2
2
(|
a2 a* e"*
b3
2
|
- a3
- a 3 b'3 )
a\b 2 e 2j *(o 3 b 3
- 1 =
- of ) +
o2
b*
) 2
^
a
+ 2 b*2 c~ (a*b*3 - a*3 bf) -
2
|
2
|
a 3 b 2 ej "
a 2 b* e~ j *
(|
Introducing the notation
the above result
b= /le*
t
= /le*.
\ t
may be put
form
into the
- ^-4 +2U -^ -cos(2? + a

TX - -T-TT
X
X
2
X2
Translumination
2q
and then
x3
finding the
now
a3
consists in
v 2 ) (8-22)
/i 2
v2
making the cosine equal
jc, +3jc,
...
to
1,
i.e.
(8-23)
minimum of (8-22) with respect to q 2

we recast (8-22) by introducing another two quadratic
Before doing this
parameters*)
coshp
*)
angle
The bold-type
q>.
Neither
is
q>
now
''*)
(8-24a)
= i-(bb*-b'b'*-oa* +
o'o'*)
(8-24b)
= Y^ bb * + bb
introduced
S system matrix.
is
aa *
not to be confused with the ordinary phase
348
In view of (8-3a, b) cp
light.
Further,
it is
is
independent of the direction of the incident
idependent of any front-extension, which, together with
the invariance makes it independent of any dielectric outer

extension whatsoever.**) Thus <p 3 for the absorbing core is identical to <p
computed
S
is
for the complete system
distinguish between S 3
It
matched for translumination.
invariant to front extension, but S R
may
easily
S 3R
be verified
and
from
SL
We
therefore
shall
S 3L , see (8-30).
(8-24a, b) that
cosh p
cosh tp
(8-25b)
S2
(8-26)
(8-25a)
t'
and
U2 +
These formulae
relate p
(1
and S with the orthodox parameters a and
Using (8-23) and writing

ac_
sinh q>
t2
g 2 )(cosh
may now be
(8-22)
+ S 3 (l +
~ Qi
Q2 )
t.
written as
- 2U 3y/Q 2
which assumes a minimum value

(8-27)
\ ^ /min
for
^=
S3-sinh y3
S3
(8-23)
and
(82g)
sinh<p 3
(8-28) define the rear extension for
<x/t
to assume the
minimum
value (8-27).
Inserting (8-27) into (8-25a) (with <p 3
which by (8-26)
is
U =
This condition
= <p !)
may be
(for the
R direction)
It is
sinh
<p
(8-29)
regarded as a criterion of translumination for any
outer-extended absorbing core.
**)
one finds
equivalent to
another kind of bilateral invariant; compare (6-71).
SPECIFIC
The transluminated system
as a
whole
349
will
have the following transfer
coefficients
(S 3
1
- sinhq^Q" 1
x = (1 - e^"" ) Q'
3
a = 2 sinh tp 3 (l - e^*" ) CT
3
(8-30)
where
Q=
The appearance of
front-extension
III
S 3L
sinh tp 3
S 3L indicates that the parameters
depend on a possible
to be additionally applied to the transluminated system
I,
II.
Carrying
out to obtain
this
maximum
transmittance,
i.e.
securing
q
0, amounts to matching the value S 3L to equal sinh <p 3 Looking now
at the condition (8-28) in terms of the L-direction means reading S 3 as S 3L
.
and
1
interpreting @ 2 r as 0il f r tne extension
i.e.
no further extension
is
regarded as some reflector
obviously implies g 1L = 0,
gR
needed to secure the translumination of the
The condition q
plus a spacer.
core III for the L-direction. This has already been ensured by antireflecting
III
II
There
III
a result
an
is
known from
6.4.
interesting consequence for the transluminated system
from
II resulting
(8-29).
By
(8-21)
must then hold that a K b R
it
= a R b'K which is only possible for r R = rK

transluminated system has
therefore the same reflectance q r = 0r whether the absorption coefficient
.
is
taken with
a'
= a
exp
+x
or k. Further
it
may be shown
that
x'
t exp (2cp),
(<p).
In conclusion,
let it
be stated that Kard's theory
is
pushed much farther
beyond these basic concepts, dealing with matters like external and internal
translumination and with the achromatism of translumination.
8.4 Circle diagrams
We have already become
acquainted with two graphical methods used

in the design of multilayer films vector summation and Smith's chart.
Both have been widely used on the designers' desks and in the literature.
There is an important version of graphical displays which has not enjoyed

such a wide popularity in the published literature, although it was already
developed in the mid 1950's.*) Apart from a principal description by
*)
Frank Rock
is
the reported father of the method,
[4].
350
[3], it was not until the 1972 paper by H. Apfel, [4], that
seems to have been confined to the sphere of unpublished front-line
routine work.
Berning in 1963,
it
Since the
method
mations involved),
offers
it is
a high degree of visualization (with no approxi-
of great help in conceptual designing of multilayer
systems, which usually becomes the starting point for further refinement
by
it
digital
computations.
We present a brief account of the method, regarding
as one of the specific computational procedures being described in this
chapter.
Let us carry out the following numerical experiment: having any dielec-
compute the
tric multilayer, let us
partial results of amplitude reflectance as
obtained by recurrence from the substrate upwards, taking these in reference

to the outer incidence medium. (Such a computation is a recommended
option with any thin film computing program.) Let us in addition extend
the monitoring of the partial results into the individual layers, dividing each
layer into, e.g., five parts of equal optical sub-thickness and refractive index.
Thus
lowed,*)
if
1/1.35-2.11-2.365-1.83/1.5
it will
is
the multilayer to be fol-
be visualized as a 20-layer system
refractive indices
l/[1.35]
[2.11]
[2.365]
relative optical thicknesses
The
[l.83] /1.5
20
= r exp jd as obtained in the phase angles cp =

measured in one complete layer of the basic pattern)
partial results for r
and
70, 90,
are
[0.2]
shown
10
(<p
in Fig. 8-1.
Obviously, the tip of the vector r describes circular arcs whose centres
and radii vary from film to film, but all the arcs form a continuous (though
cranked) contour.**)
It is
beyond the capacity of
this graphical display to
reveal that the centres of the arcs corresponding to a given sublayer
C2 ,C3
and
ment of the
it is difficult
division of the individual arcs into five segments

this will
*.)
This
minimum
is
become evident
to note
is
how
far the sub-
uniform or not. Details
in the analytical discussion to follow.
a tuned antireflection system due to Kard,
[5],
designed by the criterion of
quadratic deviation from zero in a certain interval.

are therefore encountered in the displays.
* *)
in the three parts of Fig. 8-1. Also,
of
{C l
C4 respectively) are not fixed in position, because the displaceCv is much smaller than the change of the corresponding radii
No
true zero points of q
Recalling the property of A/2 layers of being effectively absent, one
may say
hand that T(<p) must travel in closed contours returning to its starting value
a multiple of A/2. The interesting point is that the contours are circles.
for
before-
A equal to
SPECIFIC
We
shall
adopt a simple approach, directly aimed at proving what
seems to be an established
result r"
exp
j<5"
arc depending
fact: building
up a
further layer
on any
partial
whatsoever, makes the ensuing vector f follow a circular
one' and on
The addition of a
r'
351
the refractive index of the
with respect to the incidence
medium
is
+ r"expji^
+ r'r" exp j^
r'
(Ce
$ =
Co
,*
layer.
q>
5"
0.1
05
new
and amplitude reflectance

described by the formula
layer with phase angle
~ 01
c,
2<p
p'90*
0.1
-01
0.1
0.5
,*A
\J
\-0.2 C4
-0.1
jP'110*
\
0.1
Cl
\
-0.1
Fig. 8-1
Development by
partial results of amplitude
reflectance of a four-layer antireflection system in
three values of the phase angle
q>.
Tip of vector f
describes circular contours.
(8-31)
352
should be recalled at
It
seen from the
We
q>
exp }5"
is
the starting value as
whereas the starting value proper
layer,
from the constant incidence medium n
r" exp jd", seen

(8-31) with
this stage that r"
medium of the added
is
obtained by
0.
shall later find
in terms of r", for
convenient to express the absolute value r"
it
which (8-31) with
r"
ty
set equal to zero yields
r"
1
r'
(8-32)
r'"r'
However, the present discussion will proceed with f".

If the statement about circles is true, it must be possible to find points
(i ri) in the Gaussian plane such that
,
r-Z-Jn=bexpJP
with b a constant for
q>
variable. This will define circles
ance contours in the sense r"
is
<p
on
const, where r"
we might
value. Referring to Fig. 8-1
centres
(8-33)
is
which are
isoreflect-
the modulus of the starting
well assume that
r\
and seek the
the real axis. This will in fact be done, but the formulation (8-33)
taken in a more general form so we
may
seek the answer to the dual case:
constant, r" variable. This will throw light
on the distribution of the

nonuniform scale being
optical thicknesses onto the circular arcs, the
defined by the isophase contours
ty
const. These will again
be found
to be circles.
Inserting (8-31) into (8-33) the absolute value squared
[r'(l
t ^L'
I*
+
t
)cos^] t
+ 2 ;vwyj
+ r"(l
yx
2
+
r'V
2r'r"cos^
+
r" ) -r r"(l
i
yx -r r'
,
'
<[<
>?
is
2
r'
i
The postulate of a constant b 2 with (|, tj) fixed is equivalent to

part of (8-34)] being equal to
)smij/
jam
<//
[r
fractional
some other constant C.
We shall express this condition in two ways, differing in the way a proper
variable
is
factored out for the isoreflectance and isophase contours.
Taking
rj
we may
C(l
first
case
- C) - f(l + r' 2 )] cos =

+ r'V 2 ) - r' 2 - r" 2 + 2r'(l +
2r"[r'(l
write for the
x//
r" )
(8-35a)
'
SPECIFIC
353
and for the second case

r"\Cr' 2
+
Now,
of cos
ij/
2fr0
f/(l
if (8-3 5a) is
r' ) sin
zero.
(C
r'cos
* + 1 +
r'
must in
n_
cos
+ +
2r')
\//
(8-35b)
variable, the factor
Hence
(8-36)
turn be zero, which determines
its
'
2
r' )
= (1-C)r'
.,2
1 + r'
side
1)
to hold with r" constant and
must be equal to
The right-hand
2r'[(C
r"
- 2fr'(l +
+ r' 2 r" 2
r"
2
)
Inserting this value into (8-36) leads to the final determination of

{ as
1
may
This
easily
assumed for
tj/
be verified to equal the
difference of these.
r"
mean of
the extremal values of r
and n and the radius of the

Hence
circle
must be half the
-r
,/2
'
r
1
For a given combination n
jn x (i.e.
with
r' fixed)
conveniently defined by letting r* take the values

r"
by
(8-32)
and drawing the
(8-38)
,'2_2
2
r' r'
circles as defined
1, 0.9,
by
set
(8-37)
may be
computing
of circles
0.8 etc.,
and
(8-38).
The
diversion over r" secures that these circles pass through convenient
cardinal
values of the real axis (see the closed circles in Fig. 8-2).
Turning
now
to (8-35b) this must hold for any r" with
quantities fixed. Setting the
and third
first
coefficients
all the other

of this polynomial
in r" equal to zero leads to

1
Cr'
2
r'
2r'
which can only hold for
C = -1
,
<
-C
2r'
and we have
2
r'
-^T-
(8-39)
354
Setting the second coefficient equal to zero, with
and
taken as
determined, leads to
'2
1
cotan
(8-40)
\j/
ir
The
(8-39)
on
i/f
centres of the isophase circles
from the imaginary

by (8-40).
axis
and
lie
on a
their distance
vertical line at
from the
a distance
real axis
depends
16
5-
10
All these circles must pass through the point corresponding to r"
when r = r'. This yields for the radius the condition
[(r'
& + ft
Since in most applications

half-plane.
r'
2-li
<
_/2
t -I-'"
(8-41)
2r'|shnM
0, the centres are situated in the left
SPECIFIC
355
Entering the diagram with a certain starting value /-'"exp j<5'" plotted in
the rectangular system, one
is automatically on the r "-circle by (8-32),

whereas S" could be read off the positive real axis counter-clockwise along the
circle. This is not actually done, but the phase angle 2<p is laid off the starting
point clockwise in accordance with the meaning of
Fig. 8-2 Circle diagrams for: a)
incidence
MgF2
The
medium.
<p
scale
is
1.38), b)
ZnS
\j/.
2.35),
calibrated in multiples of
with air as the
A.
Fig. 8-2a,
b shows
typical displays for the 1/1.38
and
1/2.35
combin-
ations.
The
9-scale
may be calibrated in
terms of A/ A, a half circle correspond-
ing to 0.25.
For each isophase circle q> there is a symmetrical circle tc/2 <p.
The use of the graphs is straightforward considering that any of
the
356
partial circles
shown
e.g. in Fig. 8-1 is
contained (possibly by interpolation)
in the corresponding circle diagram for boundary l/n, v
1, 2, 3, 4.
For two-component systems the procedure consists in switching over

from one diagram to the other, correctly transferring the intermediate
results and advancing clockwise along the corresponding circles until proper
A/A ratios are covered. No renormalisation is needed, as with the Smith
chart, when crossing the boundary. The modulus of the final result is
squared to obtain energy reflectance.
03
02
y^
~~~\L
ai
-03
Oil
1 -as
?\
4B.2
02
0.1
1
0]
&(?)
1
-0.1
~r-
-02
-fi3
Fig. 8-3
Design of the simulated antireflection
bi-layer in terms of the circle diagram. Extension
into a four-layer.
When
the variable dielectric layer

(p
on
It is
the real axis.
is
not the top one, the diagrams of f
are again circles, but their centres
progressing with
do not
necessarily
immaterial in this case whether the overstructure
absorbing or not. The reader
is
referred to
[4]
lie
is
on how this may be

filter. The case of the
for a hint
proved by applying the matrix techniques to the split

variable top layer would of course be covered as a special case.
More complicated
if
the variable film
is
web-like patterns evolve from the circle diagrams
absorbing. This again
is
covered in
[4],
including
many
design aspects.
To
illustrate the potentialities
of the method
simulated antireflection bi-layer (2AR, see
with the established circles
2AR
case.
let
us
first
rededuce the
Extemporizing further
we shall find that the detuned antireflection

4AR, may be regarded as a certain extension
four-layer, described in 3.4.3 as
of the
3.4.1).
SPECIFIC
To
design
2AR we
shall
assume the
357
refractive index pattern 1/1.49
one wavelength, the L-material
The aim being zero reflection at

must pass through the origin. The other material cannot but start at
the bare substrate which determines the H-circle (Fig. 8-3).
The two known solutions for 2AR emerge clearly in terms of circular
arcs to be covered by deposition:
2.22/1.52.
circle
L-material
H-material
0-
II
Let us
now
concentrate
layer of the type 1/[1.49
2'
is
(A H
3-4
(A h
on
solution
2.22] /1.52, again postulating q
and extend
much
4.
The scheme
a four-
at the design
as possible to the structure of
obviously done by returning from 3 over
completing to
< AJ
> A L)
this two-layer into
wavelength and adhering as

This
1-2-3-4
therefore
once again to
2AR.
and then
is:
glass
0-1
1-2-3
3-0-1
1-2-3-4
H
L
a
It
remains to determine the optical thicknesses corresponding to the
The isophase contours are not drawn in the simple diagram

because the case may be fully determined from the knowledge of the basic
2AR design, as computed by the formulae of 3.4.1, having only schematic
arcs chosen.
reference to Fig. 8-3.
For the
refractive indices
under consideration one obtains by the form-
ulae of a 3.4.1
(p 2
Knowing
01
30.1;
<p t
1234
117.73
(8-42)
that a full semicircle over the real axis represents 90 in
one can immediately write

12
23
34
90
=
-
cpi
23
90
62.27
27.73
<p,
358
hence the two inserted arcs by which
The values
may be
(8-42)
and
90
is
55.46
301
2 x 30.1 =60.2
the
(8-43) determine the tuning of the
new system which
0.668
0.616
0.334
taken as unity, or by
first
The
4AR
(8-43)
described by the relative numbers
if
was extended are
123
1.31
if
2AR
layer
latter
is
0.51
0.47
0.255
taken as reference.
notation shows that the design
layer of 3.4.3, viz.
0.474
(Fig. 8-4) is very similar to that
between the two tunings
is
0.4
0.3,
is
very near the tuning of the
and, in fact,
just the
its
phase diagram
The slight difference

retouching needed to make the diagram
of Fig. 3-3a, case
2.
of Fig. 8-4 more symmetrical.
Fig. 8-4
Phase diagram
g(<p)
of the four-layer obtained by extension.
Tuning referred to
first
layer as unit.
SPECIFIC
359
8.5 Notes on non-polarizing beam-splitters
Recent years' development of laser-oriented long-path interferometry

with its increased demands on the factors affecting fringe contrast has
brought into focus the problem of beam-splitters that treat the p- and
^-components equally. This task is rather severe, because at 45 incidence,
which
is
the usual case, the Brewster angle situation
simulated in every dielectric system

visible.
This
is
particularly true of cemented mirrors.
how easy it is
M. Banning).
An
to secure g p
is
less closely
with q s
Problem 3-12
illustrates
high (interference polarizer after
analytical theory for the non-polarizing beam-splitter
given by Baumeister,
was
mode of observation (n n g & ).

Without much loss in generality one may
the given
pairs n v , n 2 repeated m-times,
i.e.
g s at
<p
consider a cascade of index
2m. The conditions
for n t
and n 2
then be stated in the following form:
w =
define
sec
o lsec
for
to y:
2
t
an auxiliary term
r.
Pi. 2
and the solution then
y m i^r
2m / VO,.2-
is
nl
4 sm &o i^==
2
n\
n sin
O
1
For the non-cemented mirror
P2
= + v/<?
leads to a negative n\ hence only

,
the case that either r p
= +Jq
rs
(possibly to occur
(8-4*0
\lw
rs
in
tc/2
Making use of our former parameters y, formula (3-20a), taken

even, and a, formula (3-22a), and introducing a quantity analogous
we
first
assumes a A/4 stack and derives the conditions
[6]. It
for the refractive indices to secure a prescribed level g p
may
more or
made up of materials conventional in the
~ _
2
-f
^/w
<
(8-44b)
n g) the solution with
Pt
based on a 2 applies. This corresponds to

(the usual case at 45) or r p
when above
the Brewster angle for
-y/g,
some of the
For the same mirror seen from the other side, P x with o t is
competent. The formulae yield the refractive indices in reverse order and
the sign distribution is either r = r s = y/g or r p = +Jg, r s = -y/g.
materials).
360
For 45 incidence part
a)
of table
Table
8-1 is obtained.
8-1
Non-polarizing index pairs computed after Baumeister's theory: a) non-cemented

plate, b)
cemented cube
= 45.
a)
minimum
1.815
2.034
2.120
4.476
3.139
2.672
2.541
"i
1.902
2.294
2.584
2.695
"2
6.043
4.089
3.446
3.267
being the absolute
in a
There
1.504
The phase diagrams of these

Jt/2, this
"i
b)
is
solutions have a
maximum
for the
common
point at
^-component and a
broad trough for the j-component.

an obvious demand for unusually high
<p
relative
refractive indices,
when the number of layers is small. This demand is eased, if the

computation is made for other incidence angles. A set of computations for
particularly
30
< o <
85 was systematically carried out by Mahlein,
[7],
the results
having been plotted in diagrams concerning the non-cemented situation

for both even and odd numbers of layers. However, explicit information
on the reflectance levels is missing and must be interpolated by checking,

with the exception of the 50
case. We can extract from Mahlein's table
that for a technological pair

reflection level
and
of 50
is
combined as
secured with
m =
(1.38 2.35) m 1.52,

1, 2,
3 for 6>
81, respectively. Unfortunately, these values are far
an unsplit
40.9, 72.4
from the
practically
desirable 45.
For the cemented beam-splitter the solution with even parity
as given
by (8-44a, b) breaks down since w = 1. This situation may be circumvented

through the addition of an extra layer on the outside, say n
k+1 = fi, where n
is a fixed technologically convenient value. Part b) of table 8-1 shows some
refractive indices for a 45 semireflecting cube if
n = 2.0.
SPECIFIC
3 61
Again, the results are technologically inconvenient and the situation

at other angles of incidence. Thus [8] reports on a cubic beam-
may improve
splitter
of seven XjA layers
1.7/1.515
working
1.35
1.515
1.7
1.515
1.35
1.515/1.7
at 50, this exact value being very critical.
One method of
obtaining cross-sectional points of the curves

q (A),
&(A) outside of the tuned condition seems to be the use of high-pass designs,
as discussed in 3.5.1, but considering now the highly oscillatory ripple
on the
low-pass side.
Further, instead of looking at
random for direct cross-sections of such

look for the cross-sectional poits of the equivalent
admittance functions Ytp (<p), Yep() of simple symmetrical periods allowing
of this approach. The parameters varied are technological index pairs
and
one
q(X) curves,
may
(with less efficiency) the tuning ratios.
The standard
ratio 0.5
0.5 seems
to cover the situation sufficiently.
Although there
more design scope
a randomness, too, in looking for these intersections,

opened for combining the periods thus found into
is
is
systems with various reflectance levels.

In addition to using some periods
= Yesll
and
II
with equal
Ycpl = Ynl
one must also take care of two further factors:

(i) the equivalent optical thicknesses of
the periods alternated should
be at least approximately equal to odd multiples of A/4. This may
be helped
by repeating some periods 2 or 3 times.
êpii
matching of outer media must be secured. The corresponding

is provided by Problem 7-9.
As an example of a system synthetized in this way (as an extension of
(ii)
material for this
a germinal idea due to Costich,

l/'[(2.22
1.49
[9])
we may present
2.22) (1.7
1.38
the multilayer
1.7)
]"V
1.52
with relative optical thicknesses

[(0.75
n'
1.3,
m =
2,
and 56
where
for
n"
1.5
2.09
at
0.75) (0.61
and the
1.22
reflectance level
5940 A for
m=
0.61)
is
41
2
]
at
3, if unity optical
6250 A
thickness
is
taken as 1500 A.
This level
strictly
may be slightly varied by modifying the values ', n" from
matched condition. Thus
ri
1.7,
n"
2.22,
m=
2, yield
the
a cross
362
section on the level 30 % with a

by new overall retuning.
slight shift in k,
which may easily be redressed
The number of layers required in these solutions is rather great and the
tuning will demand sophisticated monitoring, because the cross-sections
occur at upward or downward slopes of tightly packed maxima of the
p- and 5-curves. However, there seems to be no other way, if readily available
indices are to be used in beam-splitters of this kind.
The same method applied to the cemented case gives the curious,
though highly logical, answer that, with the orthodox indices of refraction,
the equality g p = g s may be secured at nearly zero level only.
The inherent limitations of the cemented case due to Brewsterian
reflections may be overcome only by having recourse to combined metal-
dielectric systems.
patent
(n
0.07
simple
Following
[10].
D-M-D
design
this idea for the
4.2/ at 6328
A) by ZnS, one
is sufficient,
as indicated
by the
symmetrical embedding of
is
silver
lead by trial-and-error numerical
interpolations to the solutions
A2
A!=A =
=205A;
1590A;
qp
=& =
48
%;
=3%
or
=A
The method
absorption
may
References
[1]
P.
=540A;
also
Qp
q,
G. Kard, Opt.
Spektr.
t.
IX,
No
1,
[7]
95 (1960).
P.
[8]
[6]
[4]
%;
P.
W.
(1957).
Baumeister, Opt. Acta, 8, 105 (1961).
H. F. Mahlein, Opt. Acta, 21, 577 (1974).

W. Baumeister, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 63, 494
P.
A (1973).
V. R. Costich, Appl. Opt., 9, 866 (1970).

[10] S. J. Refermat and A. F. Turner, US Patent 3 559 090 (1970).
[9]
4 %.
works with other metals, but the accompannying
[5]
[3]
40
not always be as low as desired.
G. Kard, book, see ref. 1. in Ch. 5.

P. H. Berning, see ref. 5. in Ch. 2.
H. Apfel, Appl. Opt., 11, 1303 (1972).
P. G. Kard, Opt. i Spektr., t II, No 2, 245
[2]

SPECIFIC
Problems
8-1
3 63
Divide
(8- 19a)
cosht*!
coshw 2
by
...
(8- 19b)
coshwk
and reduce the fraction by the product

Referring to (8-6) you should be able to
read the result as (2-36a).
Proceed similarly to obtain (2-36b).

8-2
Compute
the quadratic parameter (8-24a) for a single metallic film:

2
cos <p
n cosh 2m"
2
t\
+ x 2 cos 2m'
+ x2
Taking the expansions for a very thin film show that

2
8tc
8-3
Extend the proof for the
/hV
circularity of f(<p)
used in 8.4 to cover a
general overstructure (the variable layer remaining simple
and non-
absorbing.)
8-4
Show that the amplitude
transmittance yields in
its
turn circle diagrams.
9
Exact synthesis of tuned multilayers
It is the ambition of every applied science to arrive at its results in an
economic way, i.e. with a minimum of computations. If the problem allows
of an explicit solution, the amount of work is easily kept at a reasonable level.
However, many problems are of a complex nature, so that it is impossible to
simply revert the analytical aparatus in order to be able to compute the
parameters of the system from the desired performance. As a rule a qualitativ-
ely
new approach
is
required, deserving the
name
synthesis.
The
birth of
on the
by many workers.
A classical example of a technical science with a long analytical tradition
well
established synthetic procedures is network theory. For reasons to
and
be elucidated further on, many a formal parallel may be drawn between
cascaded lumped-parameter networks or transmission lines on the one hand
and multilayer film systems on the other. It should therefore not be surprisa synthesis
is
generally preceded
by years of
analytical activities
subject
ing that most of the synthetic procedures so far tried for thin films are transplantations or borrowings depending on the author's original profession
from network theory. A broad survey of these methods is to be found in [1].
In this chapter the reader will become acquainted with the essence of
the author's borrowings from what is termed Darlingtons insertion-loss
synthesis, e.g. [2], [3]. The procedure was adapted for dielectric thin films
in 1967, [4]. Further (mostly unpublished) results achieved by the author
and his co-workers are also described here.
Before embarking on the subject some general remarks on the approach
may be
useful.
The
synthesis
we
are aiming at
is
of the so called exact type, where
all
the design parameters chosen as variables are computable by a set of
365
algorithms once the performance specification is given. Except for the

matching problem, nothing is left to approximation. This is in contrast to
approximate syntheses (one of which was described in 3.3) or to the methods

differential correction, where the set of algorithms is replaced by a wellorganized trial-and-error convergence to the desired result. We might
of
term
synthesis
it
by
large-scale analysis,
[5].
form expressions to work with.

the problem to dielectric multilayers with
Clearly, exact synthesis requires closed
This will be achieved
if
we
restrict
equal optical thicknesses. Then we are confined to the variation of refractive

indices which, in the present state of the art, still seems to be the less convenient alternative to the variation of thicknesses. Nevertheless, the sacrifice
in versatility has lead to the elaboration of mathematical formalism of
The keystone of the method is conversion of the
considerable basic interest.
transfer coefficients to the
form of rational functions.
9.1 Principles of the procedure
9.1.1 Transformation of the formulae

In network theory, a
number of design procedures
for lumped-parameter systems

circuits
became
available for certain transmission-line
thanks to a transformation introduced by Richards,
films are essentially optical transmission lines, the
may
originally developed
[6].
Since thin
same transformation
be expected to open up a useful synthesis formalism for the optics of
thin films.
Let us therefore make

s
jco,
co
= cotan p
where <p is the usual notation for a phase

concerned mainly with the interval ^ = js(l s )~ i ,

2 )~*;
s
and the interference matrix of a single layer is obtained
in the variable
<o.
form
Mv =
COS
^'
-S7
yjn v sin<p,
(where normal incidence
is
5mfl,
co$(p v
assumed).
M=
J
=!___(- *'"*]
*v >
'
(9-2)
366
Taking now a system of k tuned layers, s t = s2 =

sk = s, and
applying the rule for continued multiplication of interference matrices of
the type (9-2), the resulting system matrix is of the form
. . .
The elements
are the following polynomials
ti
P u =s k + Ns k 2 + iVftV- 4
p 12 =
Npy- + N$s k - 3
P21Npy- + n<8s*- 3 ...
k
p 22 = s + jvay 2 + jvav-* ...
...
...
each ending in JVg,

is
JVffi
or
(9-3)
A^^j,
^k/i-iJ. according to whether k
even or odd.
The
from the
N\8 =
i
of these functions are real numbers and are formed
coefficients
refractive indices in the following
I= ,
n,
n3
5-
-J-
=2
ii
= l ni2
n2
...
n3
nk
=3
-3
i2
-2
=2 u=
.n,
"i 3
n,n
13
n*
To form N$,
...
w,n
i"k
n2
...
k-i
n.nj
ni3"5
MV =
2_
*- H
n2
14
(9-4)
W k-2k
+ -- +
k-i
J246
all
the j in the corresponding

X
JVff_L+_L +
These combinations of refractive indices

[7]
Mi,
nk
2
+ ...+=- +
ia
ii
n,
manner:
and are here denoted by the
definition see below.)
original
first
JVft*
are inverted, e.g.
"k
appeared in Pohlack's work

,b)
(For a recurrent
symbols JVkav

reflection coefficient is obtained
The
'(>)
Pn +
where n
and the
from the interference matrix
J
P21
"Sit +
"0
"o
real coefficients
(a)
aN (b)x
fiN ky
N
kv +pN
= 1.
= n^
i?
with the square of the modulus, the numerator
ij s
=
=
./o.
for v even
1/n()>
for v
k
equal to (-l)
shall
odd
2(s
l)
k/2
be primarily concerned
may be multiplied by exp jd' =
k /2
(-l) k which is unimodular for the purely imaginary

then have the more homogeneous result
= jca. We
i)
/'()-
few >,*[liv
The reflectivity and transmissivity formulae

forms
(9 ' 5)
'_J
=0
f is
we
divided by the same denominator. Since
^ aj^
of the expansions are
Similarly, the transmission coefficient
(s
?
-^22
as
n g are the input and output indices of refraction, respectively,
a vj
367
(9-5),
are thus brought into the rational
Manipulation of these rational functions
(9-7).
is
a salient
feature of this kind of synthesis.
The simple character of the transformation

correspondence
between
r, t,
or
and
5, d-versus-q>
curves
7t.
is
r, f,
any
extremes,
8, d-versus-s plots.
and
The mutual
minimum in the neighbourhood of <p =
Putting
s'
Ijs
(9-1) secures
jc/2,
a one-to-one
ripples
slopes
of
the
distortion of the
maximum for <p =
one can have an undistorted view of the situation
even in these areas.
The
artificial
nor proportional
we
regard
<p
frequency s introduced by (9-1)

to, the optical
neither identical with,
as the independent variable in the optical
possible in dielectrics -s
formation.
is
The new
and
<p
However,
if
problem which
is
frequency cjX contained in
(p.
monotonic trans-
are identical except for a
functions of s are the optical analogy of the system
functions of network theory which, evaluated for s
= ja>,
yield the system
frequency characteristics. Although we shall occasionally refer to some

deeper analogies, most of the following material should be accessible to
any opticist as a sequence of more or less straightforward mathematical
operations serving a well-defined goal.
368

sometimes convenient to deal with the rational functions (9-5,7)
their root factors. Denoting the common set of poles
by
an
d the zeros of (9-5) as z x z2
Pk
zk we may write
It is
pa terms of
ii
Pi
n (s-p
v
n (s-p )
v)
'
The poles and zeros are either real or they form complex conjugate
The coefficient i'(s) has a fc-fold zero at s .= - 1.
The conditions of physical realizability (to be discussed in a later
pairs.
section) require that the
without zeros on the
Re
{P*}
9.1.2
<
0.
No
constraint
strictly Hurwitz, i.e.

or in the right-hand half of the j-plane:
placed on the zeros of (9-5).
is
Energy relations
We
regard as the object of the synthesis the squared modulus of f(s)
or, equivalently, i'(s),
both being related by the statement of conservation

Q
denominator polynomial be
jco axis
typical manipulation of
with the squared moduli of
(njn
) t'
network theory
(9-5,7). Instead, the
=
is
(9-9)
not to operate directly
so called modulus functions
are defined
R(s)
f(s)
r(-s),
T(s)
= -2s. ?'() i'(-s)
coinciding with q and t on the imaginary axis
(i.e.
(9-10a, b)
in the optical interpret-
but not in the whole j-plane. The last point is irrelevant and the
advantage drawn from this procedure is that we immediately obtain the
ation),
poles and zeros of (9-10) by simply taking those of (9-5,7) and their mirror
images along the jco-axis. If zv = a v ja> v are, for example, a pair of zeros
of (9-5) then z and -z v = -<r v jco v is a quadruplet of zeros of (9- 10a).
These are displayed in the j-plane with quadrant symmetry. Of necessity,
any zeros on the

It is
which
jco-axis
must be of even
multiplicity.
evident from (9-10a, b) that the modulus functions are even in
may
s,
be stressed by writing R(s 2 ), T(s 2 ). In addition, in the physically
relevant case, s
= (jco) 2 =
-co 2 . Interpreting
<o
as the transformed optical
frequency, one speaks of frequency characteristics, which in their turn are

even functions of to. It is in this context that the complex modulus functions
R(-s 2), T(s 2),
are often written as

R(co
369
the frequency characteristics then being
T(w ).
),
We now
2
T(<o ) not
come
from
problem of determining R(co 2), and

pole-and-zero plots, but from the rational functions
to the alternative
their
(9-5,7).
Denoting any of the polynomials involved by y(s)
= gvs k ~ y
=
the
its modulus on the imaginary axis is obtained by taking y(s) x

x y(-s) and evaluating at s = jco. (Obviously, we work with the modulus
square of
functions of the separate polynomials.)

I
y(s)
\l
(.gl
Thus
= g co + (g - 2g g 2 ) co 2 *- 2 +
~ 2g,g3 + 2g gt) o> 2 * + ... +
2k
+
In turn, making
(gk-i
"
2gkgk _ 2 )a)
gv = av bv
coefficients of the
(\
= I G v t 2(k ->
v=
Eq. (9-11) defines, through the g v , the
power functions
- v)
q(co)
(9-11)
2(k
- Rim 1 ) = ZFv o>2(k_v)
Z to
-'
r(<)= r(<u 2 )
n
= 4-^
"o
ZK^co
*-*
ZE vco 2ik
- y)
(9-12a, b)
where
0, 1,
E =
al
=
E2 =
ax
Ek =
2?i
k and
a2
2a a2
2a t a 3
E =b
F = Oj
F2 = b\t
2a a4
Fk =
2b<Jb 2
2b t b 3
2b b 4
b\
K =
}
(9-13)
370
Due
to Eq. (9-9), the
and F
(or a v
and b v for that matter) are not

,
independent and must obey relations of the form
Fv +
4 g /
# = Fv
(9-14)
This relationship would appear to be a limitation in the matching

process for
q((d),
but actually the law of conservation enables synthesis
to be carried out in terms of transmittance.
matched
from
the
{F
v } may
v
theory
in
network
This
is
used
realization.
term
be
called
in a certain sense
and
the
configuration
predicts
both
the
to denote that part of synthesis which
has
curves
been
matching
of
parameters of network elements once the
Since the
are the
quantities are constants, the only parameters to be
The subsequent process of
finding the n v
accomplished. Since the topology of optical films
inevitably of the cascade
is
type, realization reduces to the computation of the {n v }. This requires

knowledge of both a, and b v , which in their turn are determined by the F
and
Eq. (9-14)
is
the key to finding the F once the
Fv have been determ-
ined by transmittance matching.
suppose {} and {F} are given and describe the next steps
of the realization process. Matching methods for {} will be discussed
We now
later.
9.1.3 Finding the
The
first
ay , bv
step in the realization computation consists in finding all the
physically possible functions (9-5,7), which have the quadratic moduli

solve algebraic systems of the kind
(9-12a, b) on the imaginary axis.
We
(9-13) with the left-hand sides given. This cannot
elimination, but the following
Regarding
(9-1 1) as
method
is
a polynomial in
be done by elementary
known:
*
co
2
,
its
roots are
by
definition
the negative squares of the roots belonging to y(s). Therefore solving
Gv
k-v
0,
tfv =
1,2, ...,*)
(9-15)
v=
=
by any of the orthodox methods providing for complex roots, we set sv
%
obtain
we
j
= yf= r Multiplying out (G ) C* - jj (s-s2 )...(s- k),
by comparison the required gy Some precautions must be taken when
combining the various s v quantities, since the resulting polynomials are

bound to have real coefficients. Therefore, we must always combine complex
roots so as to form conjugate pairs.
371
First let us apply this process to Eq. (9- 12b) yielding {}
- {a }.
v
From the
purely algebraic point of view, there are 2 possibilities of combin-
ing the s v However, the condition "strictly Hurwitz" imposed on the

.
denom-
inator polynomials leads to only one permissible set of roots, all having
negative real parts.
The* procedure of Eq. (9-15) is repeated in Eq. (9-12a) after the Fv

computed from the Ev by (9-11). Since there is no
objection to a zero lying in the right-hand half of the .y-plane, we have more
quantities have been
possibilities.
Then
pairs.
same power
Suppose there are A^

there exist 2
kl+k2
(We
characteristics.
and k 2 complex conjugate
real roots
possible combinations of the b v yielding the

shall see later that the difference lies in
the phase behaviour.)

Alternatively, adhering to the factorized
form of the modulus functions,

from the given frequency characteristic T(co 2) and use the
energy balance for the modulus functions on the imaginary axis setting
R(-s 2 ) = f(s) r(-s) = 1 - T(-s 2). We then compute r(s) according to the
we may
start
following rule: factorize the rational function
- T(-s 2)
and divide its

two groups: those in the left half (or on the jo-axis as
regards the zeros) and their negatives (which necessarily exist). Then f(s) is
factorized from the left-hand half poles and from zeros of both halves of the
poles
and zeros
j plane
into
taking only conjugate pairs at a time.
9.1.4 Inversion of the JVk
JV>
Having obtained a compatible
jV(a)
fszA
set
bD
we
*> =
easily derive
from
^+A
(9-6)
(9 _ 16a> b)
with the same convention on a and /?. By inspection of (9-4) it follows that
the
k , must be positive. This imposes the necessary (but not sufficient)
condition of physical realizability a v b v > 0.
We are now faced with the problem of inverting the system of functions
N$, N>
to find the n v .
The
solution will be given in terms of a recursion
sequence.
For any
positive integer v
in inf, identical for j

all
>
v.
0, 1,
we
define the sequence

v with (9-4)
N$.
it
0, 1, 2,
. .
and having zero elements for
372
we
Also,
define the alternating pattern
nv
^^
{u,
jT
nr
-1
/*, ft
H=\\
...inint'}
odd
for v
(9-17)
for v even
we may
Expressing algebraic addition by a column scheme
p-Wlifi-i HN?l l/v _ 3 Ai-^'ii/,-*
^N<"2 1/v -i
jr(a)
Aî/.-i
MV-2
iV^t/v-3-
v(a)
M (a)
*r(a)
v*rite
/Âî/o
(a
_>
v
1/t
^1^0 = 1,0
r(a)
jvrta)
q q
The first row contains the scalar product of {/*} and {iV^j/v-i-j}.
appropriately chosen according to Eq. (9-17). It is easily seen from
being
fi
1
in the last nonzero term of this product is always equal
Eq. (9-4) that n
to n v , independent of the parity of
sequence
for
Aî^-x-j
any k
we
if
{JVj/\_j}
{n t
carry
out repeatedly for v
it
...}.
In an analogous
by a
starting sequence {l/i,
for
in Eq. (9-17).
n
Both
In the second
row we
find the simple
shifted by one column. This scheme defines the
1, 0,
v.
1, 0,
these schemes follow
2, 3,
the
N& could be defined
with the parity pattern reversed
...}
from the
way
N$
starting with
rules inherent in the multiplication
of the transformed matrices of Eq. (9-2) and in the formation of the poly-
nomials
(9-3).
N$. The
problem of inversion
requires an algorithm for finding the Ni 2 in given the N}. It can be shown
that any fixed set {N$} induces exact values in its predecessor set {A^yj}
which may be computed without the previous knowledge of the intervening
Let us for the
moment
consider the
a
sequence
{/z}.
The required n v
is
obtained as a by-product.
known quantities as
unknown quantities as A^/.-j-j = u3
For the purposes of this reduction write the

Ni'l-i
qt ,j
0, 1, 2, .... v
flU
0, 1, 2, ..., v;
aT
1.
We
then have
_i
"!
\m2
...
/z' v _ 3
Mq
lit
...
U v -4
-3
-2 v-l
4v-3
?v-2
?v-l ?v
9l
9%
The pattern is valid for

and / specified as + 1
(9-17)
the
/l
-2 ^'"v-l
even or odd with
for v
odd and
-1
it
interpreted according to
for v even.

Taking
\i
# /o from tne nrst column and introducing

obtain after rearranging into equation form
ql
respectively,
we
( j"
= -1
qv
-i,
2 ,...
,_!
v, i
odd
for
Now we may
v is
v.
odd or
even:
...evenv
easily solve for
"o
4o
obtaining in both cases
0-lo)
+^2 +4 + ;
4o
From
+u
"o
u1
= ?o"o + "oi;
oi = o?2 - ?o2;
= ?0?3 - 0 M 3
"03 = 0?4 ~ tfo ^ etc
W K_ 2 = 0?v-2 - 1o u y-U
<lo u v-l = fttfv
ov-i = "o?v
? v-2 = 9o0v-2 - "o"v-i;
?0 M 2
Odd
q2
depending on whether
tfotfi
...
"v-2
Multiplying out by q or u ,
obtain the following system of equations ending in two
for even
different ways,
~u
Qo
<Zv-l
into the
it
we
remaining ones
where
373
the separate equations
"2
=
=
/*
(?2
"v-2
v(tfv-2
"i
M v _!
where
fi
and
known
n are
q^ =
"o
qo
9i
+
+
(?o/o) (?i
-1
=n
_1
(?v-l
"o)
Pi<li
"o)
i)
"v-3>
"v-2>
to be
q2
g3
+
+
q*+...
g5
...
odd
\l/v
even
This solves the problem of finding the predecessor set

given {N>} and simultaneously determining v
procedure for v
k,
A:
... 2,
1,
By
{JV'L'i/j}
to any
repeated use of this
the inversion
{N$}
- {n v } is
acomplished. The refractive indices are obtained from the substrate upwards.
It
remains to verify whether a similar procedure using the
ing with the
We
N$ (coexist-
N$ according to (9- 16a, b)) would result in the same set
{}.
confine ourselves to stating that the inversion along both channels
possible
and unique provided the a v b v

,
satisfy the
energy relations.
is
374
9.1.5
Some remarks about
Although our
t(A),
the matching methods
final interest is
a desired spectral transmittance function
we usually start from a suitable x-versus-q> plot, which is a more universal
definition of the performance of a dielectric multilayer. In the rational
function method, presuming tuned multilayers, this plot must be a function

symmetrical about the value <p = jt/2. In accordance with the transformis further projected onto the oo < to < oo interval as
an even function T(co 2 ), suffering unsubstantial distortion with respect to
t(cp) in most of the useful range , Aq> = n/4 or more.
The matching problem consists in finding a realizable function (9- 12b)
which is a close approximation to the desired characteristic T(co 2 ). Generally,
this is a vast field of numerical mathematics.
ation (9-1) this plot
Things are simplified,
if
the typology of desired functions
to a few characteristic plots, for which matching
is
then
is
reduced
made from an
arsenal of only a few prototype functions.
A common
T(co
2
)
to be
flat
feature of
many
synthesis problems
in a certain range about co
is
and
the condition for

at a certain level.
Depending on this level we have the antireflection or the semireflection

problem, the flatness of T(co 2 ) securing spectrally neutral (achromatic)
performance.
These two problems
will
now be dealt
with by two separate approaches
in the approximation phase, illustrating all the typical manipulations of

this
kind of synthesis. Their elaboration for the optical case and computation
of tables of refractive indices are due to A. Kucirkovd [8] and K. Kuznikovd [9],
respectively.
9.2
The
antireflection
9.2.1 Butterworth and
low-pass
problem
Chebyshev approximations of the
filter
Being interested in broad-band antireflection systems, our ideal transis of a square-topped form, shown in Fig. 9-1.
mission curve
Owing to symmetry about cp = rc/2, or co = 0, it is sufficient to consider

only one half of this curve. Confining ourselves to the positive co-axis and
using the language of network theory, we are formally confronted with the
375
.0
Fig. 9-1 Ideal transmittance curve for
a broad-band antireflection system.
as
p
f-*P
t-ay?
a>.
design of a low-pass
filter.
Two basic approaches
of the Butterworth and the Chebyshev

approximations
in
Fig. 9-2a,
to this design are in terms
explains
rough sketch of these

the terms maximally flat and
functions.
equiripple used in conjunction with these functions.
Referring the reader to any basic text
we immediately
on network
theory, e.g. [10],
[1 1],
write the prototype Butterworth frequency characteristic as

1
G k (o> ) =
2
(9-21)
+ dk<o 2k
where dk determines the value of Gk at the cut-off frequency to = 1. We

choose this to be 0.5 so that d k = 1. With the order of the Butterworth
polynomial B k = 1 + co 2k increasing, the approximation to the ideal curve
Fig. 9-2 Prototype curves for Butterworth (a)

filters.
and Chebyshev
(b)
low-pass

376
is improved in both the pass-band and stop-band. The

transition region
becomes steeper.
With reference to the antirerlection problem the property
Gk (cu 2
is
for
<
co
as
increases
of main importance.
substitute s = jco in (9-21) (with d k = 1), we see that the

continuation in the whole complex plane of the frequency
function (9-21), i.e. the corresponding modulus function, is
If
we now
analytical
2
GJ-s
) =
V
'
(9-22)
K
}
l+(-l)V k
and the poles are given by the roots of the denominator

2v+l
j
2v +
__
Tt+jcos 2v +
1
= _ sin
2k
pv=J .e
2k~
2k-
0,1,...,
(9 " 23)
thus the poles are equally spaced on the unit circle in even multiples of
n/2k, these multiples being laid off the -t-j-axis.
An approximation
pass-band (Fig. 9-2b)
is
more uniform coverage throughout the

one using the Chebyshev polynomials of the first
that gives a
kind defined by the recursion formula
pk+1 (co)
2P k (co)
- P^^co)
(9-24)
1, PôJe co, (see e.g. [12]). For

^ 1 these polynomials oscillate between the values +1 and 1,
for co > 1 they increase monotonically towards oc. For our purposes we can
only use polynomials of even order, having a horizontal tangent at co = 0.
the starting functions being
((o)
co
These are polynomials in
co
2
.
Defining a small ripple factor
2
,
the transmission function
Gk (co 2 ) =
l+y8
between
oscillates
able
and
value
may be
2
(e /2).
and
(1
e )
(9-25)
+ P 2k (co)]
[l
-1
as 1
2
,
which
is
physically reason-
interpreted as double the oscillation around an average
377
Since the Chebyshev polynomials also obey the formula
+ P 2v (co) = 2P v2 (a>)
(9-25)
often written as
is
2
=
Gk(-'>
) =
Z
1
Putting
co
s/j,
we
L
T^TT
( 9 -26)
P?(()
obtain the corresponding modulus function as
ok (-* 2 ) =
Its
^7-77
t
l+e^Pfc/j)
J.
(9 - 27 >
poles are determined according to the formulae (see e.g. [19])
where the value
4> is
Re (p v )
Im (pv )
sinh
sin

+
2v
cosh
)
1/e
(9-28c)
A comparison of (9-28a, b) and (9-23) shows that the poles of the

Chebyshev approximation lie on an ellipse whose horizontal and vertical
semi-axes are sinh 2 <P and cosh 2 #, respectively. Obviously, they may be
deduced from the circularly distributed poles of the Butterworth case.
9.2.2 Frequency transformations
A problem
open
in our
approach to the approximation is the fact

(9-27) have a constant numerator, while (9-7) has a binomial
expansion there. In other words, while the modulus function (9- 10b) has k
that (9-22)
still
and
1 and k zeros at s = + 1, the absence of any variable in the

numerator of (9-22) and (9-27) may be expressed by saying that they have
a 2&-fold zero in infinity. This difference is obviated by having recourse to
zeros at s
what network theory calls frequency transformations.

Consider a complex function As), where the variable complex
frequency is s = a + jco. Assume a new complex variable p = + )r\
related to s through the functions X, W;
p =
X(s),
F(P)
(9-29a, b)
378
mapping the complex plane
A
It is
upon
=A
(s)
the plane
a l<F(p)]
p and
conversely.
= A p (p)
evident that if p and s correspond by (9-29a, b) the values
are equal.
Then
The frequency transformation brings about a
A and A p
s
redistribution of the
function values in the complex plane.
Let us
now
in factorized
express the
two approximation functions
(9-22) or (9-27)
form
Gk(-s =
2
[C(s
- sO (s-s2 )...(s-
s 2k)]-
(9-30)
where the poles are given either by (9-23) or by (9-28). C is the coefficient of
the highest power in the polynomial used (in particular C may equal 1 with
the Butterworth polynomials).
The transformations
^V^'
(9 " 31a ' b)
jd7y>
= +
evidently have the property of turning infinity in s into the points s"
= j.
Moreover, they preserve quadrant

function,
so will be the transformed
modulus
a
was
symmetry, so that if (9-30)
and
infinity in s" into the points s
function obtained by inserting (9-31b) into (9-30). This already yields
a function with the proper numerator,
viz.
(1
,_ sl 2 =
C(s"
Sl Vl -
s" )(s"
s2
*" 2
T
- s" z )
V'l
(s"
...
s 2k
VI -
s" )
(9-32)
Owing
to the quadrant symmetry of the poles s t
ator
again a rational function which
is
CB\s"
s'l)
(s"
may by
-s'...
s2
s 2)L , the
written as
(s'
j^)
where B is the normalizing factor of the new rational function.

of poles is written as a v ]b v so B" may be shown to be
B" =
EC 1
*v
blf
denomin-
+ 4aXH
(9-33)
If a quadruplet
(9-34)
v=l
another fact to be respected. As a> tends to infinity, <j - or 2it so

that light is effectively incident on a bare substrate with a transmissivity
There
is
4n n g
("o
g)
379
This should be the result with any modulus function eventually used for
exact synthesis.
Now
since
functions (9-22)
B" and C in (9-33) are uniquely determined by the starting

and (9-26) and by (9-3 lb), we have no possibility of making
{B"C)~ l equal to t g unless we introduce another degree of freedom. This

consists in first transforming (9-30) by
=
a'
and using the value

exists, since
Gk(<o
2
)
co
at
which
y real
(9-34a)
Gk(co 2 ) assumes the value xg
changes from
to
We then stipulate this frequency co
as
o<
00
(Such a value
and
1.)
to be transformed to infinity by the
next transformation of the type (9-31) -writing now s' for s- which will
then completely bring the modulus function to the optically reasonable
form.
Thus
s
where
s' is
= jco =
1/y
s'
(9-34b)
the value obtained from (9-3 la) if s" -the final optica] variable
is of course + j, so that (9-34b) yields
tends to 00. This
With
(9-34a), (9-30)
It is
only
now
that
l/<o
(9-35)
assumes the form
G k (-s' 2 =
)
[('
we apply
y Sl )(s'
(9-31b)
ys 2 )
...
and obtain
(s'
ys 2k
)y
(9-36)
(9-30) in the factorized
form
Gk (-s" 2) =
(*-'
>
(9 . 37)
where B" is a normalizing factor different from that of (9-34) owing to the
presence of y in the root factors of (9-36). The procedure guarantees
Gk(CO)
=
CB"
Tg
(9 " 38)
Since the preceding transformations of poles are always carried out with
a limited accuracy only, (9-38)

these values
is
will not be fulfilled exactly. Comparison of

used for checking the accuracy level.
380
remains to assess the effect of these transformations on the funda-
It
mental features of the original approximation chosen. By shifting

infinity
i.e.
we
co
to
loose the possibility of independently specifying the bandwidth,
the range of
<o
in which, for example, the Chebyshev approximation of
To some-extent this may be

by the order of the approximainvolved (see (9-26)). But these are parts of
a given order exibits the equiripple property.

influenced by the
tion.
The
number of layers
ripple factor e
2
,
too, is
used,
i.e.
design specification rather than design factors and one usually puts up
with that bandwidth, as computed from the t g
The
redistribution of the poles
t(oo) condition. (See below.)
quite drastic, as seen
is
from
Fig. 9-3, to
be
explained in the next paragraph. Despite the substantially changed picture

after the transformations, the essential feature
of the design,
band region of almost constant
is
transmissivity
a broad-
is
<
1.
the transformation (9-1) induces only small distortion for
9.2.3 Antireflecting a
i.e.
retained. This
s
because
germanium substrate
The formalism so far evolved will now be applied to broad-band

germanium plates in the infrared. (It will be seen from the
antireflection of
role high refractive indices
assume throughout the exact design that the
choice of the ir-domain yields a better working field for the theory.)
Taking the
tivity
refractive index of
of the substrate
is
determine the refractive indices for

designed by the maximally
Fig. 9-3
shows the
mation (curve
ripple: e
original
1)
0.01,
loci
flat
Ge
to be typically n g
4.0, the reflec-
The goal of the synthesis will be to

the total number of layers k = 3, 4, 5, 6
0.36.
or the equiripple approximation.
of poles for k
6 for the Butterworth approxi-
Chebyshev approximations of different

0.02 and 0.05 (curves 2, 3, 4, respectively.) Both the
and
for three
and the frequency-transformed contours are
indicated. (Similar
Some of
the corresponding
graphs obtain for the other layer numbers.)
frequency characteristics are exemplified in Figures 9-4,
of the optical variable
q>.
(They were computed as
Q(q>)
2
5,
6 as functions
x((p), where
= cotan <p.)
determined from the matched function k (co ) using co

Obviously the Chebyshev approximation leads to a broader pass-band than
x(cp) is
the Butterworth matching. Nevertheless both ways will be followed.
For the equiripple approximation the pass-band is conveniently

2
i.e.
 for which x = 1 e
2
It is evident from Fig. 9-5 that, for a given order k of the approxie
defined by the extreme values
Fig. 9-3 Distribution of poles for
381
a six-layer antireflection system
before and after frequency transformation. Curve (1)
approximation; other curves

ripple factors e
90
120
Butterworth
Chebyshev approximations with
0.01 (2), 0.02 (3)
iso
and 0.05
(4).
tao
Fig. 9-4 Butterworth frequency characteristic for antireflection layers with
3, 5, 6.
382
Fig. 9-5
Chebyshev frequency
characteristics for
an
antireflection four- layer
with different ripple factors.
Fig. 9-6
Chebyshev frequency
a ripple factor e
characteristics for antireflection layers vîth
0.05
and
layer
numbers
3, 4, 6, 8,
383
mation, the band-width 2A<p increases with the ripple factor

the width of the tolerance channel
i.e.
with
Enlarging this channel
1.
mean easing the strain on the multilayer system, since

an increase in the band-width. Analogously, the same holds true
2
for e fixed, and the number of layers increasing (Fig. 9-6). More comment
on these interdependences will be given in the section dealing with semidoes not necessarily
it entails
reflectors.
To
resort to
some conventional extreme value at the edges of the band. Whatever
this value, the
band-width increases with
k.
Being in possesion of the poles (and zeros, at s

mission modulus function
we may
so
one must
define band-width for the maximally flat approximation
T{
2
),
we
= 1)
of the trans-
factorize the function
find all the zeros of the reflection
case of the antireflection problem, these zeros
modulus
lie
T(
2
)
functions. In the
on, or very near, the
+ yo axis (depending on whether we deal with the Chebyshev or Butterworth

matching). There
left
and
is
no occasion to
distribute the zero
right halves of the s-plane, as
mentioned
tation of obtaining substantially different solutions.

consists here only in the
for the equiripple.
of the results
number of layers used and
We refer the reader to
is sufficiently
[8]
complex pairs
earlier,
The
in the
with the expec-
variety of results
in the tolerance channels
for the full tables.
The essence
presented by the following two designs using
four layers: The common feature of the results is that the refractive indices
form an increasing sequence of values nested between those of the incident
and emergent media. This calls to mind inhomogeneous layers which can
be approximated by homogeneous layers of stepped profiles (see Ch. 10).
Numerical analysis of the index profiles obtained with more layers
show that continuous curves interpolated through them converge to an
exponential for the Chebyshev case or to something like a sinusoidal halfwave in the Butterworth case (Fig. 9-7).
Table 9-1
Synthetized antireflection designs for germanium.
matching
"l
"2
"3
"4
AIR
1.092
1.544
2.590
3.663
Ge
Butterworth
AIR
1.253
1.686
2.380
3.200
Ge
Chebyshev, e
0.01
384
We may further anticipate the following:

were varied, but
still
if the type of approximation

observing the condition of a broad pass-band, the
would still be a monotonically increasing function of"depth.

The exact design method thus essentially aims at the inhomogeneous
layer as the optimum broad-band antireflection unit.
profile
There
yet another interesting point about the numerical solutions

obtained here. Inspection of the tables shows that pairs of refractive indices
is
situated symmetrically about the central optical depth of the layer system
have a constant product: n t nk = n 2 n k - t = ... = n This pilaces the results
g
.
in the
same
class as the deltoid type solutions, arrived at
of discrete points.
We have seen in 3.3 that these
the zeros if the sequence of indices resulting
duct
made
is
to increase monotonically.
by the method
are well-behavejd inbetween
from the
rule of constant pro-
Now we know
that the equiripple
or the maximally flat designs are special cases of these well-behaved solutions.
There remains the practical aspect of how to make the films required
by theory. Since there has never been an embarras de choix in thin film
technology as regards the materials, one must have recourse to mixing of
materials or to equivalent designs.
The
latter are
used in
Chebyshev designs, the ultimate numbers of physically

Ge and MgF2 lying between 30 and 40.
[8]
for
some of the
different films of
Fig. 9-7
Continuous
through the index
by Butterworth
(b)
intej-polation
patterns!
(a)
obtained
and Chebyshev
approximations
total optical thickness
9.3
The
semireflection problem
We shall now use the rational-function method for the design of

achromatic beam-splitters. Since there was no essential difference in the
results for the Butterworth and Chebyshev approximations in the previous
we shall confine ourselves to the latter. By choosing a very small
we may after all simulate a flat curve. Moreover, a frequency transfor-
section,
ripple,
385
mation performed directly on the energy function t(co 2 ) (instead of the

factorized form of the amplitude coefficient i(s)) leads to some interesting
algebra resulting in a very useful expansion for
This will
1/r.
now be
in-
troduced.
9.3.1 Pohlack's expansion
As Pohlack showed
and
in 1952,
Chebyshev matching
its
the inverse transmittance
[7],
may be
expressed in the form

1/t
i.e.
= Ak0 + Ak2 A 2 + A k4A 4 +
+ A k / 2k A 2k
A=
cos
(9-39)
<p
an even polynomial in a properly chosen variable A.

The coefficients A k / 2v) v = 0, 1, ... k were stated in terms of the
as
N$, being therefore functions of refractive indices.
quantities written as N$,
However,
their definition
was rather involved so that a general algorithm

A k / 2|) due to some matching
for obtaining the refractive indices out of the
was not given.

The expansion (9-39) had served the purpose of a limited synthesis,
based on the simple condition Ak2 = 0, leading to a class of flat semireflectors.
Our
This will be discussed in a later section

present interest
(9.3.4).
exact synthesis, exploiting
is
all
the coefficients
of the expansion (9-39). Its relation to the rational function

be found by introducing the transformation
2
co'
A2 =
1
Then
(9-39)
may be
t(co ) will
(9-40)
+o> 2
transformed into
1/t
= X Hy co 2 7(l +
v=
2
2\k
co )
(9-41)
where
Hn =
v k0
A k0 +
H2 =
Hk
Q
=A +A
Al
k0
Obviously, the set of equations
k2
(V)
(V) A
*k2
+ Ak4 +
may
easily
(9-42)
k,
. .
(V>
A k/2k
be solved in both directions.
386
Comparing
and
(9-12b)
identical with the
Ek _ v
we note
(9-41),
multiplied by n /4n
g
A k2v
open for extracting the n v from the
that the
quantities are
so henceforth the
E v by
via the
way
is
using the algorithms
stated in 9.1.3, 9.1.4.
We
match the polynomial (9-39) td> any curve

Our present interest is to interpret it as a Chebyshev
are of course free to
compatible with
its
type.
polynomial of even order.
From
different use will be presented later,
wo
the general theory of Chebyshev polynomials
recall the
recursion formula (9-24) and the fact that they secure the equiripple property
only in the interval <
+1>,
1,
oscillating there
+ 1 and
between
-1.
Outside of this interval they converge to infinity, their asymptotic behaviour

nearing a hyperbolic cosine.
For reference we give some of the

2
4
n
n
a + a2 C + a4C +
aC
Pn (0 =
P 2 (Q =
P4 (0 =
P 6 (0=
P 8 (0 =
P 10 (Q =
2C
32C
128C
4
6
8
512C
10
first
even polynomials of the type
2k:
8C
+
4
48{
256C
(9-43)
1280C
18C
+ 160C - 32 + 1
+ 1120C 6 - 400 4 +
50
The corresponding geometrical patterns shown in Fig. 9-8 iire inverted

about the horizontal axis in order to better conform to our purposes.
-1
= V, the upward and downward trends for V are
In fact, writing
obviously the same as for q, only the absolute levels differ in 4hat V = Q.
-r
Pn(Q
Taking the plots of
then secures an essentially concavi curve just
as in the case of the g((p) or R(co

oscillate
between
e,
>
2
)
functions. It being prescribed that t
0, the inverse function
is
required to oscillate
between
Vmi =
While
the
mean
is
the
(t
mean
_1
fi)
Vmax = (t - e) _1
(9-44)
*
extrema, V = Tq is different from
and
value of
its
value
v=4(v + vmax/ =
*
The
difference
systems. Moreover,
It is
is
'
To
not significant unless dealing with high-reflecting
V is
not needed in the matching process.
evident from the plots in the Fig. 9-8 that the value of
at the
edge of the equiripple interval shall always have to be a Vmin while that
at the centre of the band will be identical with Vax if k is odd or with
Vmin
if
even.
The
total
always being one trough
The matching
number of troughs and peaks
less
consists in a vertical shift
there
1,
and a change of the
oscillations
for the function V. In addition, there
vertical
about zero to those required
must be a change of the horizontal
A assuming the value + A w for the edges of the equiripple
band, the corresponding Chebyshev polynomial

V(0 =
(Obviously, the
is 2/fc
than peaks.
scale in order to transform the
scale such that for
387
first
is
that
all this is fulfilled
by
- Vmax) P2k (0 +
y (V
-"in
exploited to
1.
setting
+ Vmax )
min
(9-45)
coefficient is negative, as anticipated in Fig. 9-8.)
X" "\
*ff)
/
-Iff)
AV
V/
-I
tl
K-2
A
VV
\r \
-%(0
k-1
*1
k-3
\
+1
1
-*(0k
f-7
-w
Graphs of some even-order
Chebyshev polynomials.
Fig. 9-8
\
\
k-k
''l
kS
388
Vmin and the band-width are not indepen-
The tolerance channel Vmax
dent, being both involved in the condition of a clear substrate: for

(i.e. 
the Fresnel trans-
is
mission air/substrate.
To
find the relationship
between ripple and bandwidth
from P 2k(0
to single out the absolute term
V(A)
where
= Vc +
(Vmin
A
A
+ +
4
- Vmax )f a 2
it is
expedient
in (9-45), writing
a4
A 2k \
...
a 2k
-^J
(9-46)
V = V^,,, for k odd, and V = Vmin for k even.

= V g we derive from (9-46) the following equation
c
Setting V(l)
A2k + a2 A 2k-2 + a4A 2k_4 +
...
a 2k
(9-47a)
where
_
_2
->
'
a
a
^g ~ ^c
V'man - VY min
For a given
/Vmax.
v _
~\V
x mjn
'
>
fc
Odd
feeven
K. CVCI1
C y -4/b)
Aw the band-width in wavelengths is computed as

n
= y + A<P
Y -A<p
A'
(9-48a)
where
cos(|-A<i())
= Aw
(9-48b)
All the typical features of a matching are illustrated in Fig. 9-9.
For a
and number of layers k, we may

and find the corresponding Aw by solving the
algebraic equation (9-47a). However, it is more convenient to regard A w
as given and solve (9-47b) for e, inserting properly from (9-47a) and (9-44).
specified transmittance level t
try different
We
e,
compute a
then have the simple quadratic equation
\(<*
1)6 +
r (T g
r )
d
0,
fe<^
^n
(9-49a)
where
a2
2
_,_
a4
-71-
At
_,_
a 2k
tS-
(9"49b)
389
Matching a Chebyshev
Fig. 9-9
k-3 To -0.$
polynomial.
v-c
V(Aw)-Vmin
V(t)-Vf
Besides the purely computational simplification
we do not run
that
factor
and
it
into exaggerated band-widths
also has the advantage
by choosing the
from natural photometric experience. For example, with four
0.5
we have
width of the order
for the innocent value e

5.
We expect this
0.01 (1 percent) a
to impose too great a strain
ripple
layers
band-
on the
system.
more tactical to go from A w towards

we show some values for t = 0.5, A w =
=0.7 (band-width 1 3) for various k:
It is therefore
As an
1
2)
illustration
Aw
and
by (9-49a,
b).
0.5 (band-width
Table 9-2
Relation between layer
Aw =
0.5
A w = 0.7
The
ripple
number and
ripple for
two
different bandwidths.
2.5
0.02
0.001
0.00009
1.3
0.22
0.037
0.006 2
is
exceedingly small so that
we have
6.10
-6
0.001
10" 6
0.0001
practically flat trans-
mittance curves.
To show how the prototype functions (9-43) are adapted by the matwe present a table of the coefficients A k / 2o corresponding
ching process,
to the
3 half-mirrors:
390
Table 9-3
Coefficients for
Chebyshev expansions of
1/r
matched for q
0.5
and
Av =
^,
A kl0
0.7
with different layer numbers.
^kO
Ak4
^k2
Ak8
^k6
1.776 52
1.947 692
0.870 49
2.009 258
0.326 65
1.777 69
1.998 526
0.097 17
0.991 58
3.247 83
3.303 91
2.002 436
0.025 20
0.411 49
2.351 40
5.484 32
A k0 is essentially equal to Zq =
1
2.418 64
0.5
_1
2.0,
4.477 07
but in fine detail
it
must
correspond to either of the values (9-44) according to the parity of k,

with
being dependent on k.
9.3.2 Tables of synthetized semireflectors
The above given procedure was
systematically applied in
[9]
to the
design of semireflectors on the levels 0.3, 0.5 and 0.65 with bandwidths
and
3 each, observing the multiplicity of solutions as regards the various
zero distributions. Non-cemented
reflectors
on
glass,
ng
1.5,
and
at
normal incidence were considered.
One complete
concerning a
set
of solutions
is
exemplified by the following table,
2 band-width three-layer half-mirror.
Table 9-4
A
Aw =
case
complete
0.5,
set
"o
"l
of synthetized solutions for a three-layer half-mirror.
1.5
1.
"2
"3
o
O
0.954
0.751
0.398
4.108
1.060
1.470
0.365
1.021
1.415
3.766
1.997
1.571
-o
o
2
o-
391
The corresponding zero plots for the four cases are shown
neously. The sketch is schematical, the actual values being
zt
The
poles are in
Pi
Cases
+9.067
all
cases
and
-2.273
= 0.69743
61, z 2 3
13,
p 23
-0.751 18
simulta-
0.235 33
+ j 0.21485
Although
framework of the present theory
the outcome of a need for sign-reversal in the
3 result in refractive indices smaller than unity.
this is physically unacceptable, within the
may simply be interpreted as
it
Fresnel amplitude coefficient of a particular boundary.

discard these solutions so that even the full tables
kl+kj
We
may have
do, of course,
less cases
than
as defined earlier.
Full tables of this kind will be published here only for one representative
case, already singled out for
Table
9-3.
These are summarized in Table
9-5.
become clear in the section on extremum phase reflectors

other reflection levels and other band-widths will be covered to a limited
For reasons
(9.5),
to
Table 9-5
Refractive indices of semireflectors synthetized for g
1
/l
3).
=
k
0.5, /l w
0.7 (bandwidth
Various zero distributions considered.

0.7
0.5
1-5
serial
"3.
"l
"2
"4
1.349
3.915
3.664
1.884
"5
number
1.095
1.591
4.309
3.897
2.123
1.616
1.029
1.189
1.797
4.605
1.117
1.306
4.526
1.962
1.378
4.500
1.816
1.646
4.068
2.307
1.719
1.537
1.009
1.067
1.279
1.974
4.821
1.119
1.139
4.416
2.460
1.618
10
1.092
1.842
4.741
1.595
1.677
11
4.184
2.457
1.816
1.581
1.512
12
392
extent, giving only solutions with zeros in the left half-plane.
The
structure
of the complete tables would be the same as that to be traced in 9-5: one
inevitable high-index layer
this
high index
On
is
somewhere
the other hand, having
high index
is
in the system. In the case chosen
placed in the input layer. (Tables 9-6a,

all
b).
the zeros in the right half-plane, the
located in the output layer. These are the
first lines
in each
^-section of the full table 9-5: proceeding downwards, progressively
and more
the
left,
real roots
until finally
more
and/or complex conjugate pairs were transferred to
Re(zv )
<
for all
v.
This gradually shifts the high-
index layer to the front. If there are breaks in the diagonal rule,
some non-physical solutions were discarded.

Now, from the practical view-point of the
it is
because
visible region, these results
are disappointing, because (possibly with the exception of the 0.3-level)

the maximum index exceeds the limits of technological realizability. The
maximum values could be plausible in the infra-red, where, of course, the
substrate should be
a band-width
4.6
germanium with n% = 4.0. A set of half-mirrors with

(A w = 0.85) is presented in Table 9-7.
Table 9-6a
Refractive indices of semireflectors synthetized for q

0.7 (b). Zeros in the left half-plane only.
m
0.5 (a),
A w = 0.5
*
0.3, 0.5, 0.65
Aw =
and
A =
=h
ng
1.5
serial
"l
"2
0.3
2.533
1.682
13
0.5
3.523
1.787
14
0.65
4.662
1.870
15
0.3
2.640
1.805
1.547
0.5
3.766
1.998
1.571
17
0.65
5.087
2.157
1.589
18
"4
"5
number
16
0.3
2.713
1.901
1.598
1.513
19
0.5
3.931
2.169
1.652
1.519
20
0.65
5.385
2.398
1.692
1.524
21
0.5
3.981
2.296
1.728
1.548
1.505
22
0.65
5.613
2.607
1.796
1.560
1.506
23
393
Table 9-6b
Av
= 0.7
"o
ng
'.
1.5
serial
"4
"5
"l
"2
0.3
2.608
1.750
24
0.5
3.664
1.894
25
0.65
4.900
2.008
26
0.3
2.707
1.880
1.577
27
0.5
3.897
2.123
1.616
28
0.65
5.314
2.328
1.644
29
"3
number
0.3
2.806
1.989
1.644
1.535
30
0.5
4.068
2.307
1.719
1.537
31
0.65
5.684
2.603
1.779
1.545
32
0.3
2.829
2.061
1.702
1.554
1.508
33
0.5
4.184
2.457
1.816
1.581
1.512
34
0.65
5.845
2.818
1.905
1.601
1.516
35
Table 9-7
Refractive indices of half-mirrors
0.85 (bandwidth
A =
k
0.85
4.6).
on a germanium
substrate synthetized for
A^
Several zero distributions considered.

0.5
"o
l'
"g
serial
"2
"3
"4
number
1.120
1.710
7.327
36
5.227
4.584
4.199
37
4 -
1.532
7.076
4.115
4.316
38
5.460
4.763
4.323
4.094
39
1.021
1.098
1.360
2.294
8.718
40
1.194
1.076
5.613
5.588
4.311
41
5.405
4.806
4.389
4.150
4.040
42
394
Independently of
the computed results could be of interest for

more versatile methods exist for the preparation
this, all
the microwave region, where
of a prescribed refractivity.
1.0
t1.0
-r-\
r~
-i
1.0
1.0
?
=a
) curves of synthetized semireflectors.

A w = 0.7
:1
*
k
-^
90
=2
k = 3
=4
180
:2
fc
n r
I
-i
0.5
180
t1.0
90
Fig. 9-10
Aw =
90
1.0
T"
90
fl
180
tp
=2
=4
=l
26
32
180

It is
results
their
now
395
proper to show that "the curves are there".
was made
in Fig. 9-10. Obviously, all the reflectors
performance prediction.
refractive indices are slightly
It
makes very
little
selection of
conform with
difference if
some of the
rounded off to assume some technologically
significant values or to coalesce for simplicity with their neighbours,
be
it
a film or a substrate. Changes as large as 0.2 are quite acceptable with
when a change of reflection level is

recommended in all cases.)
become comprehensible in view of an interpreta-
the exception of the "heaviest" film,

risked.
(An
individual check
These tolerances
tion
we
shall
now
will
is
give of the results contained in Tables 9-5, 6, 7.
Inspection of these reveals that the high-index layer
embedded
is
in
monotonic sequences of refractive indices sloping down to the outer media.

Interpolating smooth curves through the index profiles, it is as though either
of the two patterns in Fig. 9-11 were followed, where the edge distance
g A e ^ A, A being the
We then essentially
(which
is
of the system.
have Fresnel reflection on a discontinuity 7 W "

achromatic!), with free propagation of the electromagnetic wave
through the adjacent, roughly exponential inhomogeneous layers from, or

towards, the outer media. This
is
trivial
design strategy, but in the terms
of the exact design, we are induced to believe there

arriving at a truly wide-band beamsplitter.
homogeneous
layer established in 9.2.)
To prove our
mirror:
is no other way of
(Compare the role of the in-
1.096
proposition by a numerical example,
1.138
4.239
2.199
1.570
let
us take a 0.5
1.5
(not actually
contained in our tables) and plot the refractive indices as functions of optical
thickness in points l-j~,
Fig. 9-11
The main
odd, being the centres of layer intervals <vA 1;
features of Chebyshev-synthetized index patterns.
396
(v
1)
Aj),
and
parts
1/1
1)
shown
We
where
At
is
some
reference optical thickness
subdivide each of these intervals into, say, four equal
interpolate roughly exponentially (each time using three adjacent
(v
tion are
0, 1, ... 4,
Now,
from the basic
n-values
<vA t
for one layer.
>, A x =
profile) for the centres of these
Aj/4, v
0, 1,
... 19.
new
intervals
Details of such an interpola-
in Fig. 9-12.
eventually obtain the following index pattern
1.09-1.12 1.16 1.2 1.25-6 4.75 3.65 3.05-2.55 2.25 1.97
1.03 1.06
1.77-1.68 1.61 1.59 1.57/1.5 (approximately)
Fig. 9-12 Interpolating a synthetized five-layer pattern
following two exponential profiles of the type
Regarding
reflectance in
flat
this as
a tuned 20-layer,
dependence of
q>
27tA
_1
shown
by 20 layers
in figure 9-11.
we may compute
Ai. Fig. 9-13
its
a shows a
spectral
relatively
half-mirror.
now
above mentioned tolerances for the v are

do not destroy the principal function of the
sloping section approximating smooth admittance matching of the highIt is
clear that the
acceptable as long as they
index layer to the outer media.
There is yet another point to be mentioned. The patterns of Fig. 9-11

should be regarded as limits converged to when the number of layers is

increasing.
is
But for the discontinuity there
no
is
397
of layers, there
is
some scope
left
jump between ri and n" may be

an
n'
1.25
is
to Fig. 9-12
we
for constructive interference so that the
36 percent of the energy. The rest
now
level.
relatively smaller. In
adjacent to an n"
The ratio n'jn"

With finite numbers
reflection.
then solely responsible for the desired reflectance
6.0,
the
made good by
is
our numerical example
common boundary
reflecting
interference. Referring
see that a further subdivision (leading to
40 layers)
would bring us to a higher maximum value in the right-hand section, while

that in the front section would only increase negligibly. Taking this to be
n' = 1.3 and n" = 7.2 we have 48.2 percent of Fresnel reflection, only the
small difference of 1.8 percent being
on the very thin
for interference
left
films.
the
This tendency can in fact be noted in Tables 9-5, 9-6, where for a given q
high index increases with k.
maximum
In view of these interpretations it may be stated that the relative merit

of the exact design grows with small numbers of layers, when the one-
boundary concept breaks down and it is up to the general theory to say

what is good enough for the given specification.
Saying all this we must not forget, however, that we are dealing with
Chebyshev-type semireflectors, which may be only one of the ways of
achieving a broad-band maximum. An attempt was made in [9] to use
Lagrange's interpolation instead.
Setting
A2 =
z in (9-39)
and being
careful to distribute the
interpolation points in the interval <0, 1> in such a

oscillations,
0.5
one can
and k
arrive, for
13 671.2637A
10
k +
undue
example, at the following expansion for
85.1638A
22283.6299A 12
2229.0A
m
Phase diagram of a half-mirror
interpolated in figure 9-12.
928.9579A 6
- 20959.0811A 14 +
0.5
Fig. 9-13
as to shun
9:
T = 1.995 186 - 2.6848A

-
way
18
4830.8358A 8
10590.4033A 16
398
The following index
patterns can be extracted here:
Table 9-8
Some
half-mirror designs of 9 layers synthetized in Lagrangian approximation.
"l
"2
0.5
"4
"5
"6
1,
*7
"8
"9
1.5
1.026
1.035
1.033
1.074
1.137
1.118
1.022
1.204
3.585
1.165
1.714
2.382
1.987
1.144
1.187
2.408
1.104
1.722
3.291
1.567
1.367
1.488
1.572
1.537
1.503
1.524
1.529
1.0
Fig. 9-14
iso
Phase diagram of a half-mirror
synthetized by Lagrange interpolation.
fm
The corresponding spectral curve and distribution of interpolating

is shown in Fig. 9-14.
The refractivity level in Tab. 9-8 is now set lower than with Chebyshev
reflectors and there are some extremely low indices. This should pose no
points
problems in the microwave region.
Moreover, we note there

to
is
some
now
reflecting
is
edge so that
responsible for the
flat
no
trace of inhomogeneous profiles leading
it is
the thin film interference proper which
curves.
The second solution
is
particularly
interesting in this respect.
9.3.3 Oblique incidence

All the semireflectors have so far been treated in normal incidence.
Matching the optical thicknesses for oblique incidence (45 from the air
side), one makes the comfortable discovery that almost no change occurs
for q* = (g + q s ), i.e. for unpolarized light. However, one and the
p
same Q*(q>) curve for different solutions of a &-cell in Table 9-5 may suffer

from
of partial polarization, as exemplified in Fig. 9-15,
different degrees
concerning the
cell
399
4.
(The space-saving way of presenting symmetrical diagrams
is
used
again.)
Should the design procedure

oblique incidence then
with the
start
initial
assumption of
could be performed for one of the polariza-
it
tions only.
so
ISO iffiao
120
uoyfw
ISO
Fig. 9-15 Several solutions
from Table 9-5 (serial numbers 5-8) checked

matched 45 incidence. Observe different degrees of partial
for
polarization, although the
Let us have n
n g and
>
mean
value g
is
achromatic.
as outer parameters.
We then compute
the outer admittances

s:
Y =
n cos
0.707
Yg =
ng cos
Yg =
n g (cos
6>
1.323
P-
Y =
It is
n (cos
_1
with these values
obtaining a set
6>o)
1.41
l
0J~ =
Y Yg that we perform the

,
{Y v } of layer
The
admittances.
1.699
required synthesis,
actual refractive indices are
then extracted in either of the following ways:
Y = V 2 -
s:
P-
sin
6>
=> v
= Vyv +
n2
sin
2
O
(9-50a)
=
Vv
o sin
(9-50b)
(only the plus sign to be taken for
>
1).
OF THIN FILMS
OPTICS
400
The
last
formula
may
be converted to a concise form,
refraction of a ray with input angle
with refractive index pattern {n'v },
0'
= 20 o
o
=
v
0, 1,
if
we
consider
across a Active layer system

2..., where n'v
= Yv The
.
refraction law then gives

_,,
Y sin2@
sin 6> v
^sin0
2n o
and (9-50b) may be expressed as
nv
If
we
r-v
cos(-^-J
use these formulae with v
(9-50c)
and
=k +
g,
and n g
are automatically obtained.
Note
that for
=45 the
system {n'Y }
is
traversed at grazing incidence
in Holt is interesting
how
to see
these computations
converting a normal-incidence design to serve the
s-
may
be adapted for
or j>-component in
oblique incidence.
The normal design

be extracted from
0,
1,2, ...*
it
{} is
now
interpreted as
{Yv },
1.
Using (9-50a) for v
we must now
Ho
(n
write for
i4 sin
)'A
so that
^~The
rest is
"o
cos0 o
then computed by
liy
For
/^-polarization
(n
we have by
ô
2
n tan
)'A
(9- 50c)
"o os ~y~
n cos
and
H,
where 0'v
is
for s or p, that to
for oblique incidence will be written as
obtained from n
sin
&'
n v cos-^-
20 o = n v sin 0'y
s:
{/i v },

Taking, for example, design No 17 from Table 9-6a,
to behave like a half-mirror in either of the two ways:
s:
p:
401
it is
adapted
- 2.23 - 1.862/1.804
0.707/3.727 - 1.929 - 1.48/1.402
1.41/3.894
This may further be scaled up or down, respectively, so we may again

have air at the input. This is accomplished by simply dividing all the refractive
indices by the /i of the particular design. Such a change
does not affect
the Fresnel coefficients of the individual boundaries (nor the optical
thicknesses).
We then
have
s:
1/2.755
p: 1/5.264
If a better
ng were
Fig. 9-16
1.317/1.275
2.091/1.982
s,
the normal design
would have
resulting phase diagrams are
Normal
to be obtained for
to be biassed by taking a greater n
The
1.579
2.727
hown
in Fig. 9-16.
incidence designs for
0.5 converted to serve the s-
and
/(-components at 45:
(a) 1/2.755
(b) 1/5.624
1.579 1.317/1.275,
2.727 2.091/1.982.
9.3.4 Simplified achromatism by
MO*
A =
k2
We
have just seen that the exploitation of the full expansion

(9-39)
leads to broad-band beamsplitter designs at the cost of some
non-realistic w
v
There was no way of easing the strain on a system by allowing a

greater
oscillation s or using
more
films.
A simplified approach consists in defining flat A/4 semireflectors
in the
402
sense that at
postulate
is

due to Pohlack,
and
[7],
is
vanishes. This
equivalent to setting
Ak2 =
in the expansion (9-39).
is
(9-51)
vicinity
reflection curve at
The tangent of the
then zero and stationary, which leads to a
flat
q>
jc/2
top of the curve in some
of the central point.
A k2
a rather involved algebraic function of the refractive indices.

The reader may compute it by the procedures already given, but for reference
to some earlier papers we restate it in Pohlack's terms
is
^2=\{XW
Nkv (different from Aft
-i
- kN*k - 2Nk/k _ 2 Nkk )
,b)
in the present notation
-1
V(on g ) v
(9-51) may be solved by a trial-and-error sequence on an automatic
computer, where various nets of fixed and variable n u may be chosen.
where
) is
However, doing this alone would not be satisfactory, because the

reflection level of the beamsplitter is not under control. This is secured by
imposing the calibration condition
A tn =
"o
4rt
'
Fig. 9-17
(9-52)
-<-(tL
to
Nomogram connecting
the refractive
indices of a two-layer designed to satisfy

at various reflectance levels
a2 branch
<5
Ak2 =
= n,
o Y branch: 8
0.

(9-51)
and
(9-52)
may now be
empirically solved
403
by reserving
at least
two
variable refractive indices.
The reader
is
referred to [13] for a detailed description of such a proce-
IS
VMS
"1.36
Fig. 9-18
Nomograms
of
2 and
the condition
semireflectors achromatized
Ak2 = 0.
by
404
dure, starting with the explicit solution for a two-layer.
conveniently visualized as
There
for n t
is
and a
realistic
shown
branch
non-realistic
I,
The
results
may
be
in Fig. 9-17.
corresponding to one root of a quadratic
branch
II
given by the other root. Each of the
is divided by the intersection point with the q = 0-line into parts a t

and a 2 the a having the meaning of Sect. 3.2.3. It simply means that the
amplitude reflectivities at <p = n{2 are ^Jq and +s/q, respectively.
branches
,
%
50
25
~5
Fig. 9-19. Spectral reflectance curves for
a) 1/2.4
1.46
designs extracted
from
Fig. 9-18:
2.1
1.78/1.52, b) 1/2.25 1.46 2.4

1.46
c) 1/1.8
Solid
some
Tc/U
2.4
1.9/1.52,
1.87/1.52.
linenormal incidence, dashed linematched
at 45.

By appending
405
layers in the front and/or in the rear,
nomograms were
developed from Fig. 9-17 for flat-top four-layers. These were later recomputed to a form now published here in Fig. 9-18.
The scheme of computation was such that in the sequence
1
n 2 and 4 were partwise fixed, while n t was variable and n 3 was implicitly
determined by the calibration condition. Being of the same parity, this
fixed (see Ytf[ in 3.2.3). By numerical
meant keeping the product
n^
interpolation the zero point of the function

for a net of values n 2
Some
,n 4 the fellow n 3
,
A k2 (i)
was repeatedly found
being also printed as a
spectral reflectance curves for these designs are
result.
shown in Fig. 9- 1 9.
9.4 Other cases of matching
9.4.1
The
It is
sloping edge in Lagrangian approximation
a tempting design problem to produce something in contrast to

filters. We have already approached
the steep edges of low- and high-pass
an earlier chapter (3.4.6) and arrived at a solution in terms of a highly

detuned alternating stack for the cut-on and cut-off cases, respectively.
this in
was called the sloping edge.

We shall now look at the problem in terms of tuned multilayers.
If a solution can be synthetized, then owing to symmetry about <p = 90
one design will display the up- and down-edges simultaneously.
The opposite of the
Fig. 9-20
steep edge
Lagrangian interpolation of
a slope.
406
by the
Setting the goal of the synthesis

inverse of x
is
solid curve in Fig. 9-21, the
given by Fig. 9-20, the hyperbolic
the linear parts of
bows being produced by
In the bottom of the latter figure a set of g points is

indicated which have served for a smooth Lagrangian interpolation of t _1
in
t.
[9].
The corresponding expansion
T = 6.66996 - 9.78701A
+
11286.1321A 8
26337.3021A 10
15730.4663A
is
289.13955A 4
2731.91568A 6
37541 .0148A 12
+
16
3256.08924A
32517.2871A
14
18
From the solutions extracted the following one is of interest (Fig.
9-21).
The corresponding g(<p) is drawn by a dashed line in the right-hand half

of the figure. The left part was reserved for a study of oblique incidence:
the dashed line here represents g*> while q p and g a are shown in dotted
lines.
w
]
f
_.
0.75
..
\
\
*/
OS
y*
\?
.*"
$-<*
9 -o
\
\
0.25
/
Q
60
90
Fig. 9-21 Synthetized sloping edge in
1/4.941
ISO
wo
normal and 45 incidence. Design:
1.262 1.719 1.609 1.450 1.595
1.581
1.52
1.517/1.5.
9.4.2
The pole-and-zero
We
plot
were able to see in every version of the synthesis procedure so far
described that
it is
and zeros in the j-plane the

which is responsible for the spectral characteris-
the distribution of the poles
so called pole-and-zero plot

tics.
In a way,
we could
407
skip the matching of curves in the approximation
phase and manipulate the roots directly -if we had any insight into the
behaviour of the modulus function on the jco-axis. However, this is difficult
to obtain, because one has to geometrically interpret many factors of the
2
type, where q is a pole or a zero and s = jo, co variable.
q
In particular, in the antireflection problem, one would obviously tend
to place the zeros of r(s) on the imaginary axis, but there it no further
guidance as to the distribution of the poles. Working off-hand we could
|
run into such non-physical situations where q + x > 1 or even t > 1.

The distribution may be kept under direct control when the number
of layers is small, but the amount of work soon becomes larger than starting
easily
an ordinary matching process, which automatically keeps the pole-and-zero

plot within physical limits.
maximum
A
a
sum of
is
about the
method of organized manipulations within the pole2

2
or T(s)
based on the fact that the logarithm of R(s)
is
all
This
the type
E
taking
reflection-reducing two-layer
sophisticated
and-zero plot
is
to be tried this way, [14].
In (s
z v)
- Z In (s - p v)
the roots of the corresponding modulus function.
may be
in the j-plane
interpreted as a superposition of electrostatic potentials
due to a distribution of
infinitely
long orthogonally placed
wires with proper electrostatic charge per unit length. 2k positively charged
wires are
made
to intersect the j-plane at the zeros, 2k negatively charged
wires are placed at the poles.
This potential analogy, due to Darlington,
is
occasionally put into
practice in network theory, the problem being additionally converted to

that of a conductive plane to which point sources of current are applied.
The modelled frequency characteristic due to the given distribution of
poles and zeros is an exponential function of the measured potential distri-
bution.
The accuracy of this device
is
limited, but even the purely theoretical
treatment of the electrostatic problem gave
rise to
specific chapters in
network synthesis. The design of an antireflection system in terms of this

analogy is described in [15], however with no surprising results in the schemes
of refractive indices.
408
9.5 Phase-change-upon-reflection in terms of the zero

distribution
Let us take a pair of zeros in the
z*) evaluated
i + <*2 (Fig. 9-22)
{s
= jco
half-plane.
left
The product
(s
a.\
z') (s
<x'
Similarly, taking a real root in
In particular, for
f(s).
p =
0, P'
z)
yields a
z' = -z*, z'*

an argument
Transferring this pair to the right half-plane as

the corresponding product (s
Further,
complex term with the argument

both angles being dependent on co.
at s
co
2n
z'*) yields
&!
tx
= -z,
both positions, we have
-p
P'
a2
= at
so a x
a2
0, ai
a'2
In.
n.
These simple facts imply important rules for the phase behaviour of
Let us recall its factorized form (9-8a) where b ja obviously is the
Fresnel coefficient of the clear substrate r
j(J
s-/o
s=j<o
z'*
cC,t4e
Ujl-oCi
33?
SX
cj
0J
-7
Fig. 9-22 Mirroring
T
of root-pairs in the complex plane.
409
extremum-phase
Consider
because
all its
3Y
r(s)(m^d
arq
Fig. 9-23 Tendencies leading to

reflectors.
first
w =
0.
The denominator then
roots he in the
left
yields zero argument,
The complex
half of the j-plane.
of the numerator contribute either by
or by
2ji,
pairs
which may be disregarded
modulo 2%. There only

an odd (even) number of
for the evaluation of 5, this being important only
remain the contributions of the
real roots: for
these in the right half-plane, the contribution of the factorized term in

(9-8a) will be
itself,
7t
(zero), again
determines r(0):
Now, having
in
it is
(mod
2tc).
This, together with the sign of r
a real number with a positive or negative
mind the scheme of
Fig. 9-22
function 8(co) must be antisymmetrical about
co
we can
sign.
infer that the
can pass through
0. It
but as will
shown this sign cannot be determined from the configurazeros. What we can do, however, is to make estimates to as the
the values 5
or 8
2k with a positive or a negative
slope,
be subsequently
tion of the
amount of this
slope.
Let us start with an f (s) having Rcfo)

will
>
for all
v.
The function
behave in either of the typical ways shown in Fig. 9-23
8((o)
(solid lines.)
and denoting
remain unchanged, but 5' will be
Shifting a pair of conjugate roots to the right half-plane
the
new
different.
function by
For each
f'(s), \r'Qco)\
will
a>
5'
al
<x
This means that the slope of the function
2
<5(co)
will
be turned in a clock-
wise direction, decreasing for a positive slope and increasing for a negative
slope (dahed lines.)
similar transfer of a real root will bring about the
change (although ( /?)
may be
a smaller change than
same
(oc l
qualitative
<x
2 ),
depen-
410
ding on the configuration). In addition, there will be a change by n in the

vertical scale, this
not affecting the assesment of the slopes.
In view of this
we may say
that of all the designs corresponding to a
given modulus function, that with
maximum
have a
Note: This
The analogy
will
the zeros in the
minimum
be established
we
if
left
half-plane will
negative slope.
the analogy of what network theory terms
is
minimum phase
reflectors.
recall the following: in electrical circuits
Taking the phase angles
positive co-axis has a physical meaning.
>
all
positive slope or a
algebraically,
only the
<5(ci>)
>
>
and the starting design with Re (zv ) < then represents a maximumphase reflector. At the time when Bode (1944) introduced this concept into network theory,
it was current usage to define transfer coefficients by ratios of the input/output type. We
_1
e~J*, which changes the sign of the above inequality and
would then have to take r
one is induced to speak of minimum phase. Anyhow, we refrain from introducing these
<5'(co)
for
all to
concepts into optics, because they
on the whole of
fail
to describe the situation properly once
9.6 Rational function for tan
The
we operate
the co-axis.
qualitative conclusions
explicit analysis
<5
about
<5(<w)
can be supplemented by a more
of the phase angle.
Noting that
e
j
and
2ja
tan
2J
1
1
setting
^(s)=
^- = -^-,
we can
(9-54)
write
.
tan o
j/(s)-1
j/(s)
which
= jo)
(S
f(-s)
r*(s)
is
the rational function for tan
Inserting
from
tan d
(9-5)
is
f(-s)
f(-s)
5.
we obtain
+
Cq
Obviously, tan S
f(s) =
r{s) +
+ +
d3 s
-f-
C2S
...d 2k _
2k "
...
^-^
= jo
.
^2^5
a real antisymetrical function of to.
(9-55)

The
coefficients
of the numerator
may be
411
written in the
form
v+l
d
"v
~2Wg
o
2-,
ia)
(vN
V J *k/k + 2j-v-l
I
W (b)
-^k/k-lj +
(b)
(a)
-
)V
JV
""^k/k
+ aj-v-l^k/k-Zj
+
j=i \
1
I
j
(9-56a)
where
y=
/n
k even
\lln g
fcodd
(9 ' 56b)
In particular
di=
The
coefficients
^r (vN"
N ^- 7
1
of the denominator are
"-)
much more involved:
<
9 - 57>
there are
altogether four different patterns repeating every fourth coefficient.
We
from writing these out in full, because exact synthesis of tan 8 by

the formula (9-55) is hardly feasible. Apart from exercising much more
refrain
caution in distributing the poles of (9-55) without violating the realizability
of
r(s), there is
If the goal
no control over the eventual

of the synthesis
is
q((d) function.
achromatism, one
may remain
satisfied
with the results of the converse situation where exact synthesis of
was
in
some
We
cases accompanied
shall
make
by a
flat 8(<o)
limited use of the formulae developed here for estima-
ting the slope of 8(co) at the central point co

It is easily
q(<o)
curve.
0.
seen that
/d(tan<5)\
rf,
dc
c
*-o
(9-58)
The
simpliest of the c v
may be written as
Co
Since a k
is
/=,"
o
= a[Nk6k>] 2 - PlNftf =
always positive, the sign of c
in turn coincides with the sign of f (0)
Hence a
tan
b,
positive (negative)
dt
identical with that of b k ,
= bjak
(9-59)
which
implies a positive (negative) slope of
or vice versa, according as f (0)
It is
is
ak bt
0.
to be noted that the computation of (9-58) cannot be circumvented
by simply observing the distribution of zeros, as described in the earlier

is known, however, the change of slope with the shifting
of zeros is qualitatively predictable.
section. After (9-58)
412
Note:
Analogously to the simplified achromatism of q(o>) by A k2

one may contemplate simplified achromatism of S((o) by dt
(see 9.3.4),
again observing the calibration condition of a given
A k2 =
0.
An
attempt at
this in
terms of the variable
A k0
A =
and possibly
cos
<p is
=
= 0,
also
described
in the paper [16], dating before the elaboration of the rational function
method. Additional checks of the solutions obtained there show that all
the zeros lie in the left half-plane so that they essentially belong to the class
of functions recommended here for a flat 8(a>).
9.7
Some
physical analogies between thin films and electrical
networks
So
far
we have only
exploited the formal consequences of Richards'
transformation (9-1) and used the ensuing rational function approach for
the design of tuned multilayers. In this section
the physical analogies behind the
First,
common
we
shall inquire
deeper into
mathematical formalism.
some quadripole analogies based on the matching of transfer

The concept of insertion loss will then be
matrices will be established.
introduced as a suitable basis for electrical experiments simulating the
behaviour of an optical multilayer between the outer media.
9.7.1
The transmission
An
analogy
known
line
analogy
for a long time, [17], consists in the parallel that
can be drawn between the vectors E and
of an electromagnetic wave
propagating in a homogeneous dielectric and the instantaneous values of

voltage and current at any point in an infinitely long non-dissipative parallel-
wire transmission
line.
The corresponding
quantities
admittances of the media being

is
the series inductance and
The analogy
C the
obey wave equations, the characteristic

/
and
~j-> respectively, where
shunt capacitance per unit length.
to a dielectric multilayer
is
then a cascade of uniform
transmission line sections. Voltages and currents are transformed from one
junction to the next by a transfer matrix which
is
identical in
form with the
413
interference matrix established for thin films, if the characteristic admitt-
ances are interpreted as refractive indices and wire lengths as optical thicknesses.
The input admittance of such a multisection line is computed by

a recursion formula underlying the use of the Smith Chart. (This has actually
served as a pattern for elaborating an analogous procedure for thin films,
see 2.7.)
The
may be
multisection cascade
regarded as such a model of the
where both the wavelengths and the dimensions of the

media are scaled up to larger dimensions, but the relative behaviour of the
corresponding field intensities remains the same. By measuring the insertion
optical stratification,
loss
of such a network (see below) even the energy transfer coefficients
may
be simulated.
Now, we could
changing the input
follow the spectral behaviour of these quantities by
frequency in appropriate
electrical
However,
limits.
it would not be possible to simulate the effect of oblique incidence of the

light unless rebuilding the sections both in their specific values for L, C and
in their lengths. Refraining from this latter claim, the transmission line
analogy
may
be regarded as a
quency-true response.
Its
model, distinguished by a
fairly close
practical importance
is
limited
fre-
owing to the
large dimensions required for the line sections to simulate optical thin
films at reasonably
We
low analog
electrical frequencies.
refer the reader to [18] for full
mathematical details on
this
kind
of analogy.
9.7.2
The "monochromatic"
A
at the
compact
problem
electrical
in terms
LC -network
analogy
analog of a thin film will be obtained
of lumped parameter
if
we look
circuits.
Let us seek the chain matrix of an elementry T-network (Fig. 9-24)

with the aim of attributing to
its
that the resulting chain matrix
basic elements such impedances
may
matrix.
Z6
.
r
L
2i-
1-
v,
Fig. 9-24
An
Za Zb Z
,
formally be regarded as an interference
elementary T-network.
414

to start with the open-circuit impedance matrix z
ik
It is easiest
elements are (see

Z ll
A\
e.g. [19], p.
23 and 71)
Z2 2
Z*,
= Zb + Z
Z 12
The elements of the corresponding chain matrix
'
Z 21
whose
= Zc
z 21
are then
Zc
Zu
According to the reciprocity theorem of network theory
it
must hold
that
AD - BC =
(9-60)
Formally the same

tation
is true for the interference matrix, but the interprethe law of energy conservation rather than reciprocity in the sense
is
understood in
circuit theory.
In (9-50) the
first prerequisite is thus fulfilled for our intentions.

Further, the main diagonal terms must be equal, which implies
Za = Z b
A = D = 1+
so that
A,
A
B =
A. + 2 Z
Z
Matching now
C=
we may
infer that
convenient units
we
-=
= jn sin q>
should be a pure capacitance. In order to obtain it in

on this occasion switch over from the Gaussian
shall
to the SI system, writing the refractive index as
376.5 (ohm)
is
nY =
Zq
where
Z =
the wave-impedance of vacuum.
We then have
Z (ohm) ^
zc _
jnsin<p
If co
is
jeuC
the circular frequency fed to the analog network, the capacitance
must have a value
C-
nsinm
-7^-
( farad )
<9
" 61
415
Za is conveniently determined from the m'y term as the pure inductance

tan(y<p)
Z a = Z c (cos
<j
1)
= jZ
'-
= jcoL
so that
JW
otan^lyj
L
Owing
<w>
(henry)
to the validity of (9-60), the fi-term automatically assumes the
required form
sin
<p.
The equivalent T-network
is
now
complete, consisting of two identical
inductances in series laddered by a capacitance (Fig. 9-25a)'.

As a dual network we could derive a II-configuration according to
computed by the formulae (9-61) and (9-62),

of L and C and write Z / instead of njZ and vice
Fig. 9-25b. Its parameters are

if we
exchange the roles
versa.
Pohlack,
purposes.
used a cascade of the T-networks for demonstration
[20],
One may
also alternate
T and
n networks, obtaining then a more
regular distribution of L-and C-elements across the cascade.

It is
an obvious drawback of
the analogy
C fixed,
and the
In
is
there
not frequency-true,
is
no
this
lumped-parameter approach that
i.e.
with the material parameters L,
linear relationship
between the
optical frequency implicit in the phase angle

fact, there is
electrical
= 5- tan -?nL
and
to
T
i
co
cp.
relationship whatsoever, because co
no meaningful
would simultaneously have to change according to the two

co
frequency
T
'
-=-=- sin
Z C
relations
q>
'-
Fig. 9-25 (a) T-network equivalent to an interference

film, (b) II-network equivalent to
film.
an interference
(9-63a, b)
41 6
These functions
may
common
only have one
by the
point, given
condition
^ = ^k <l
cos
but there
(9 - 64)
no other degree of freedom to keep the functions equal at least

about <p e
Given n and cp e for which the analogy is desired, one computes by
(9-64) the compatible ratio CjL and then by (9-61) and (9-62) the requisite
is
in a small region
frequency
co
Obviously,
co is
-L
yjLC V
(9-65)
inversely proportional to the
Changing the optical variable
and
- %2
2n L
/l
C in order to satisfy (9-64).
It is
cp
impedance
one has to first
level chosen.
reset the values
only then that the corresponding
new
co
can be determined.
An
analog device where both the input variable and the design parais, of course, very unsatisfactory. We
meters must be kept under control
avoid at least one of these disadvantages,

are changed with
way
if co is
kept constant and
according to the formulae (9-61), (9-62).

that the analog cascade is contemplated in [21].
9.7.3
cp
L and C
It is in this
The "vanishing film" analogy
An
interesting modification of the Z,C-network analogy arises if
of the preceding section
is set
a layer of zero optical thickness, but the adantage drawn from this
the two functions (9-63a, b) have a
<p[
-j
for, say,
<
cp
<
cp e
equal to zero. This amounts to simulating
common
nf 10.
We
approximation
co(cp)
is
that
co(0)
can therefore expect a frequency-
true analogy for very thin ("vanishing") films.
Having

<p
2rcA<7
= -4^=
V2LC
The working range of

condition 2itAmax
<r
max
417
(9-68)
network
this frequency-true
is
given by the
O.lrc, i.e.
"min
(9-69)
20
which reads as follows:

then (9-69)
is
valid for all X
A min
if
maximum
the
is
>
the lowest wavelength to be simulated,
is
optical thickness to be accepted
A < Amax
A min and
and
(9-68)
We shall now slightly reshuffle some of the formulas stated above so

we may conveniently fix the network parameters in view of a desired analog
operation.
Expressing
L in millihenrys and C in
C =
*-
4000
376.5
microfarads,
0.0299n
we replace
[ohm
(9-66)
by
-2
(9-70)
We now use this formula to eliminate C in the expression

JlLC =
10
4.473 x 10" 5
Vl<mH)
C(/xF)
7.72 x 10" 6
nL
[sec]
(9-71)
Suppose we want to analyse an optical filter in the region between

-1
4
10 cm
and 3300 A = 3.03 x 10 4 cm -1 Then Amax = 3300:20 =
-8
165.10
cm and the product Amax a lies between Ama][ <rmin = 165.10 -4
and
A=
A,,,,
499.10- 4
The minimum electrical working frequency, corresponding to 10 4 cm" l

optical, follows from (9-70) and (9-71) as
min
165
7.7
10
"4
x 10 -*nL~
2133
nL
This formula serves to set the proper level of

venient fmin
with respect to a con-
With fm i in the order of 50 Hz and 1 < n < 3, L lies between 13

and 40 milihenrys. C by (9-71) is of the order of microfarads.
The other end of the optical spectrum will be obtained as the response
at
about 150 Hz.

All these are realistic values.
Now, as an isolated fact,

because there
is little
all this
would hardly be of practical importance

However, taking m
interference in very thin films.
418
identical networks, each simulating a layer of optical thickness
same
A/w of
the
one can have an equally good approximation for a
refractive index n,
relatively thick layer (Fig. 9-26).
In fact, carrying out this idea in the limit for m -> oo one is led to the
lumped-parameter model of a transmission line, where the L stand for the
distributed series impedances and C for the shunt capacitances.
Since the simulated optical index n
progressively be scaled
down
as
is
given by the ratio C\L, these
Lm = L\m, Cm = C\m
condition of constant immitance d istrib ution per unit length.

In this refinement process y/2LC decreases as \\m, but so does
which
to be used for
is
in the formula (9-68).
The
may
so as to satisfy the
A/m
relation between the
two analog frequencies remains unchanged.

The real point, of course, is not to fall back on the transmission line,
but to stop the limiting process at a reasonably low finite number of elementary Z,C-quadripoles designed to obey the
first
approximations
(9-67).
Fig. 9-26
9.7.4
improvement in the lumped-parameter analogy
further
obtained
if
of "vanishing film" networks.
rationalized-thin-film analogy
The
A cascade
the optical interference matrix
is
considered in
its
will
be
rationalized
form and if we adopt cotan <p as the optical variable.

Taking one film, it must be remembered that its interference matrix
- s 2 )~'A factored out in
is not strictly rational, owing to the term j (1
(9-2). This deficiency may easily be disposed of by taking two layers n jri
obtained
by
effectively
- n'jn as the formal minimum, one layer being
setting n"
n g The corresponding interference matrix

.
/AB\
'
\n'
is
n"J
then
its
419
A network with this chain matrix may be realized by

impedance matrix as
A
z 12
>
z 21
and then -following a procedure due
z 22
-q>
first
computing
D
-jp~
to Cauer, [22], -expanding these
rational functions in partial fractions.
In our two-layer case
t
z ij( s )
= 7~r
(n' +
we have
very simply
~>
"
n")s
\
a
2
-l,
2
s
-i\
n
+-
>
I
COT s + [kin I
(9-72)
r>
where
^^ ~ VT^l^n^
[k{j >>]
n'+n"\l,l)'
are the matrices of the corresponding residua, the notation bringing forth
the fact that one pole is at the origin, the other at infinity.
Without going into the
details
that the general condition imposed
of
realizability conditions
we only note
n k 22 -
2
k 2 ^
with equality: both types of poles are of the so called compact
type. This brings about a certain simplification in the further
process of
is
here
on the
residua, viz. k
fulfilled
realization.
can be shown that the partial matrices on the right-hand side

of
be realized by networks of the type shown in Fig. 9-27, where
f(s) = s or lis and the corresponding elements are
accordingly interpreted
as pure inductances or capacitances, ([22], Fig. 10-25.)
It
(9-72)
may
1:0
o-C
ra
Fig. 9-27
A loss-less quadripole for the
realization of a
f(*)
:f5 ff)
f(s)
component matrix
in Cauer's expansion for
[z].
tronsformtr
420
Generally, there
a freedom of choice for the real factors
is
r, r b , r c ,
depending on the transformer ratio a and the values of the residua.

is a compact one, then there is only one choice possible:
If the
pole
b (v)
ra
= rb =
The
rc
0,
kft,
fl
ifM
j=J^_ = i%L
horizontal branches then vanish
and we have
the
its
an L-
transformer.
remains to connect these two partial quadripoles so as to realize
sum of
series
or oo
essentially
or a C-element connected in-parallel with the primary of

It
their
and the
The connection must be in

scheme together with the element values is shown
impedance matrices
resulting
(9-72).
in Fig. 9-28.
The response of this loss-less network to electrical frequency co is

same function as that of the simulated two-layer in terms of the transformed variable cotan q>. The particulars of a suitable connection for
the
measuring
this response, as well as that
of the formerly presented analogies,
will be discussed in the following section.
Obviously, the last of the analogies

the variable
cotan
is
frequency-true in the sense of
with no limitation on the optical thickness. The
<p,
layer system must, of course, be tuned.
There
is
one minor problem to be solved. Going strictly by
- cotan q>
interpreting co directly as the electrical circular frequency, one
and
work with extremely low frequencies to cover the
<p x 50 or so, which can reliably be studied
mation used.
|
To
obviate this, a rescaling
may
optical interval
would
90
in the optical transfor-
be undertaken, keeping the products
coL and coC constant. Taking, for example, n'
2.35
and n"
1.38
one
can compute
C=
16.87 x 10
nF,
L =
100.9 x 10
mH
(9-73)
Fig. 9-28
A lumped-parameter network
equivalent to the rationalized two-laye r

interference matrix.
421
enough scope to scale up co by a factor 10 3 and to reduce

the parameters (9-73) by the same factor to convenient values. The electrical
There
variable
is
is
just
10 3
then
More
cotan
q>.
may be visualized as a cascade of two-layers for which

networks may be designed step by step. This has the advan-
layers
the equivalent
tage that the separate pairs are individually accessible in the analog
system.
one may
Alternatively,
of a system.
Its
start
from the complete interference matrix
expansion in partial fractions with complex-conjugate roots
leads to a longer connection in-series of networks like Fig. 9-27, where
again ra
rb
0,
but the vertical terms
may
be in-parallel connections
of L- and C-elements.
the analogy to optical transmission
9.7.5 Insertion loss
Up
to
now we have
dielectric interference films
indication of
how
established several possible analogies between
and C-networks as such, but there was no
to measure the physical behaviour of the latter in accor-
dance with the phenomena simulated.
We
shall take
a hint from optics, modifying
first
the usual definition
The input value may be regarded as a

when the layer system is removed
and n g is replaced by n
We then insert the system and let the output
medium assume its correct refractive index n g The transfer coefficient is
the ratio of these two output values.
of
and
t as output/input values.
special case of the output value, obtained

.
An
analogous situation in network theory
A voltage generator V
port
1
'
with internal resistance
Fig. 9-29
is
depicted by Fig. 9-29.
connected to the input

of a quadripole whose output terminals 2 2' are connected
over a load resistance R,
loss of
Scheme
for measuring insertion
a lossless quadripole terminated
in a resistance at both ends.
t is
422
One of
the transfer functions studied
V 2 /V
the ratio
is
It
may be
expressed by means of the chain matrix elements in the following way:

writing by definition
= AV 2 +
V!
BI2
(9-74)
= CV 2 + DI 2
Ii
the input impedance Z, of the one-port system 1 1 inside the

dashed rectangle, simultaneously making use of the fact that at the quadripole output 2 - 2' it holds V 2 /I 2 = R 2
we form
'
We then have
Z.
Yl.
'
Knowing
Zj
we may
Ji
Solving
now
(9-74) for
V2
V
T(.s),
is
by Kirchhoff 's laws
write
V
=
Rt +
reciprocity relation (9-60),
which
Ij
= AR 2 + B
CR 2 + D
Z
V = Vo
R +
'
Zj
V2
we
and making use of
finally
it is
"
75a > b>
Zj
(9-75a, b)
and of the
have
R2
RiR 2 C + R
(9-76)
D + R2 A + B
a function of s trough the A, B, C, D.
is
when
(9
usually denoted
It is
referred to as the transfer function. Evaluated for s
by
= jtu it
the transfer characteristic.
Now,
where
V 20
the insertion voltage loss of network theory

is
the voltage measured at the load
R2
is
defined as
V 2 /V20
with the quadripole
removed.
Writing
this ratio as H(s),
H(s)
To
it
obviously holds that
= ^/X<L = R + R 2
V 2 o/V
R2
i
T( S ),
simulate the optical input situation,
2T(s). Inserting (9-76) for T(.s)
we
set
= ja>
R2 = R
and interpreting the
and H(y)
resistances as the
inverse refraction indices (omitting the proportionality factor
),
we
find
that
V2
A + -^-D +
nB
(9-77)

This
is
essentially the formula for
423
the complex transmission coefficient
t,
of thin film theory: Thus, by measuring the insertion voltage loss of a network
whose chain matrix
is
one way or other equivalent to the interference
matrix of a layer system, we measure the f-factor of that system at some

equivalent variable.
Since
R 2 is a pure resistance, the insertion power loss is given by the ratio

?2
P 2 o maJ
where
= V
2
|
|V2|2/Rz
|V
/4R t
R2
/4Ri
= P 20max
+ R 2 )~ 2
= *** TG)
the
is
H(jo)
(9-78)
value of the power
maximum
R 2 (Ri
connected to the voltage generator. This
R2 = R
directly
^
R
generally taken
by the load
resistance
maximum
P 20 =
when
R2
assumed for
is
optical relation t
The formula (9-78) is the analogy of the
now
It is
= njn
\i\
2
.
expedient to introduce a formal reflection factor
= z j(j ) ~ R = i ~ Y i(*>
Z,(j) + Ri
Gi + Y,(*)
reflectance on a junction 1-1'
i
as if computing
Gl
= R -i
(9-79)
between two transmission
lines.
Let
Zi(j<o)
Then
the total
+ jXi(co)
Ri(co)
power dissipated by the one-port network
Pt =
R,(a))| I t
Vo
R,(c)
Rj
Since the quadripole itself
is
is loss-less,
Zi(jo))
must be
this
identical with the
computed Joule heat on R 2 i.e. with P 2

Computing P 2 /P 2 oma% is therefore the same as
directly
IRl
PlOmax
This
may
4R 1 R
Pi
be found to equal
+Z
|
(to)
i
(jC0)|
TQco)
2
|
so that
we
arrive at the
relationship
|r(jco)|
which
is
+^-|H(jco)| 2 =
K2
the analogy of the energy balance g
(9-80)
for dielectric layers.
424
9.7.6 Darlington's insertion-loss synthesis. Notes on the
conditions of readability
The
reflection coefficient T(s) just introduced
cannot be measured
hand we can measure the
optical q and t independently.) Its introduction to network theory by Darlington [23] was a formal step playing an important role in synthetizing an
2
Z-C-network with prescribed insertion-loss characteristic
H(jco)
on
a load resistance R 2 (We proceeded analogously by starting optical
directly as
an
(On
electrical quantity.
the other
synthesis with a given t(co) or T(a> 2 ).)
The first
step
is
to determine
r(jco
2
)
(or R(co
for that matter)
from
the corresponding energy balance (9-80) or (9-14), and to find from these
modulus functions the rational functions T(s) or
r(s).
were adequately described in the preceding sections
These procedures
9.1.2, 9.1.3.
However, we owe the reader an explanation of why the denominator

strictly Hurwitz. The reasons are essentially those of a meaningful energy balance and of damped oscillations in transients, if any. In
network theory these general requirements are expressed as the so called
of f (s) had to be
conditions of realizability.
They have a very concise form

as
if
one speaks of input immitances, such
Z (s) or Y (s) in our case, or, in other words, of the driving-point functions
{
of one-port networks.
The necessary and
sufficient condition for
physically realizable by a
network
is
that
it
be
such a function to be
positive-real.
This concept, introduced by Brune (1931), covers a class of functions

F(s) (not necessarily rational) such that
(i)
(ii)
by
We
F(.s) is real
Re{F(s)}
for s real
for Re(s)
Although seemingly very simple conditions, they are often replaced

sets of equivalent criteria apt for practical tests of positive-realness.
shall use
such criteria subsequently, when F(y)
is
a rational function
representing the immitance function of a pure LC-network.
For the moment we may use the general

on the poles of r(s).
definition in accounting for the
constraints
Let us suppose
(9-79)
it
to be a pole of r{s) such that Re(/)
should hold, for example, that

Yi (p)
+ G, =
Re{Y,(p)}
+ Gt +
ImlYiOO}
0.
Then by

This is in contradiction with
G >
and
Thus p must lie in the (open)

From (9-79) one can compute
real Y;(j).
Z (s) = Yr
(S
left
)=R
Re{Yj(/>)}
>
for the positive-
half of the j-plane.
|i^
-
(9-81)
r(s)
Having a
425
immitance function Zfa) or Y^s), the next

is to find the immitance matrix [z ik ]
realizable input
step in Darlington's synthesis generally
or [y lk ] of an LC-quadripole operating with a load 2 This was a procedure

we could skip in our search for the equivalent network in Sect. 9.7.4, because
we knew beforehand
that the chain matrix of our network
We
rationalized interference matrix.
must be the
could immediately proceed to the
expansions of the resulting immitance matrix and to extracting the configurations of the elements.
In the optical synthesis
from
r(s),
We
we
extracted the refractive indices directly
using a special algorithm.
could alternatively determine the input immitance by (9-81) and,
supposing the responsible network to be a cascade of rationalized transmission-line sections allowing the use of the
Smith Chart, we could extract the

An example for this in the optical
refractive indices using Riblet's procedure.

literature is to
Here we
be found in
[24].
shall study the input
immitance obtained by (9-81) from the
viewpoint of realizability conditions.
and
Interpreting in (9-81) F(s) as r(s)
V M_
=
-1
o 'Y.to
"g P 22(s)
*\i(s)
we have by
n g P 12 (s)
+ - y.Nff
+ Ngs*- + ... y b N$
2
is
(9-82)
n% yb = 1, for k odd ya = 1, y b = g
the input admitance function of a .ftLC-network, where the
only ohmic resistance

(9-82) will
njtftfs*-
where for k even ya

(9-82)
(9-5)
+ P 2 l(s) _
n/ + AfcV - + n N$s k 1
as n "'
become the
is
the load
R2 =
n' 1
If this
is
somehow removed,
driving-point function of a pure
LC
network with
interesting implications in the conditions fo realizability.
We
have two
or shorted (R 2
formal, but
making the output open (R 2 = oo),

The corresponding optical values are of course
possibilities: either
0).
we may
write
426
Y (s)
'
Yi(s)=
Energetically this
of energy. The point
"'-
(9-83)
forn
fei
a trivial situation: 100
is
is
for
-ri
=0
% reflection, no transmission
to apply the realizability conditions for (9-82).
By a theorem due to Foster, [25] the input immitance of an LC-network

is an odd rational function (with the numerator and denominator not
differing in degree by more than +1), whose poles and zeros lie on the jco
axis
and
alternate. This
purely imaginary roots
means for the /^(.^-polynomials that they have

an interesting algebraic possibility of generating
such polynomials by using the sequences
N$, N^.
/
'-*
na~
r^r
o-
K
\
ontpokinoa
r
s-ju
'0
^
k \
i-M
!
4
oneterv in->
-k
i-
Fig. 9-30 The pole-and-zero plot for the input immitances of a pure
LC-network formally corresponding to the functions (9-83) for a system
of 10 alternating layers.
An
example for an arbitrary sequence of ten indices
is
shown
in
Fig. 9-30.
The
origin
and
infinity are
always occupied by a pair zero-pole, or vice
versa.
The alternation rule remains valid even between the pairs {Pu,P 12}
and {P2 i, P22}' because these appear in the input immitances when the
system is seen from the other side.
For alternating systems nH /L /n H .. there is the additional property that
P12 P21 (when k even) or P tl = P22 (when k odd). These are consequences
of the rules
i\r(a)
J
'odd/even
ivr(b)
iv odd/even>
valid for the alternating systems.
r(a)
J, even/odd
r(b)
''H"L J> even/odd
427
References -9
[1]
E. Delano
in: E.
and R.
Pegis,
J.
Wolf, Ed., Progress
Methods of Synthesis for Dielectric Multilayer

Vol. VII, p. 69, North Holland, 1969.
Darlington, /. Math. Phys., 18, 257 (1949).
[2]
S.
[3]
W. Chen, Design of Linear
[4]
Z. Knittl, Appl. Opt., 6, 331 (1967).
[5] J.
[6]
[7]
Networks, MacGraw-Hill, 1964, p. 491.
A. Dobrowolski, Appl. Opt., 4, 937 (1965).
IRE, 36, 817 (1948).

H. Pohlack, Jenaer Jahrbuch 1952, 181.
P. J. Richards, Proc.
[8]
A. KuCirkova, Opt. Acta, 18, 577 (1971).
[9]
K. Kuznikova,
[10]
Filters,
in Optics,
Thesis, University of
N. Balabanian and
Olomouc, Czechoslovakia (1969).

Network Theory, John Wiley,
T. A. Bickart, Electrical
1969.
Network Synthesis, John Wiley, 1958.

G. A. Korn and T. M. Korn, Mathematical Handbook, MacGraw-Hill, 1968,
[11] S. Tuttle,
[12]
21.7.
[13] Z. Knittl
and M. Krai, Opt. Acta,
[14]
R. B. Muchmore, see
[15]
A. KuCirkova, Folia Fac.

t.
W. Hubner,
[20]
9,
295 (1962).
3.
of Brno, Czechoslovakia, Phys. 12,
Sci. Nat., University
de Phys., 25, 245 (1964).
Optik, 5, 128 (1950).
or
[18] see ref. 1.,

[19] L.
Ch.
XII, op. 7 (1971).
[16] Z. Knittl, Journ.
[17]
ref. 21. in
ref. 20.
Weinberg, Network Analysis and Synthesis, MacGraw-Hill, 1962.
H. Pohlack, Feingeratetechnik, 2, 499 (1953).

by H. A. Macleod, book, see
[21] J. S. Seeley, as presented
ref. 29.
in Ch. 3, p. 140.
[22] see ref. 19., p. 445.

[23] see ref. 19., p. 443.
[24] L.
Young,
J.
Opt. Soc. Am., 51, 967 (1961).
[25] see ref. 19., p. 209.
Problems
9-1 Repeatedly using the
column scheme of
9.1.4 prove that
(a)
^k/v-j
v
=1^-1+1
(and analogously for
0>
tf-^j-l,
and develop
V "~
- /"'
\ ljn
_j
^
eyen
N^-j)
9-2 Consider the index pattern {} for the

light
and L
directions of incident
successively the proof of the following relationships:
428
a)
Nk/even
for
7V R
forNk/odd
b>
<"">
b ">
JV{.
= Nt b)
b)
"g
c)
>lC0
where the poles of rR
(*)
are identical with those of r R
zeros are taken negatively.

fellow solutions of r R (s)
istic
q r (co).
= -^(j)
Hence
when
(s),
rR (5) is identical with
but the
one of the
realizing a given frequency character-
Note the implications

6r
0l>
<5r
<5l
t,
dR
dL
9-3 a) If a given pole-and-zero plot for r (s)
is enriched by an arbitrary pair

zk+i=Pk+i then nothing changes for r(s) but i'(s), as defined by
(9-7), obtains a controversial zero unless the pair was (1, - 1). The
only permissible extension of r(s)
Show
is
by the root factor (s
that the corresponding realization
is
extension by a tuned layer with a refractive index n

k+1
energy coefficients
q, t
an additional phase
remain unchanged, but the true
shift equalling re/2 for s
b) Using the result c) of problem 9-2
l)/(j
1).
the trivial case of rear
g The
i(s)
obtains
0.
show that the analogous extension
by a front layer with index n results in a factor (s + l)/(j - 1).

q and t are again unchanged, but 8 and d obtain increments re
and rc/2 respectively.
These are the optical analogies of phase-delay elements of network
The process may be generalised for more added layers.
theory.
10
Inhomogeneous
layers
Let us restate the results obtained in 1.5 for the solutions of the wave
equation in a
medium with an inhomogeneity of the normal
The phasor functions have
+
+ g(z)f^
dz
dz
type: n
n(z).
to obey the differential equation
f(z).w
(10-1)
and the wave equation then has the solution

aa?w(z) exp
It
f(z)
[}(cot
Gx)]
(10-2)
always holds that

2
- G 2 = 4"
= î(z)
(z) 2 C"
2
o sin &o]
~
c
h (z)cos 0(z)
(10-3)
whereas g(z) depends on the type of polarization.
For s-polarization
nent of the
For
field,
g(z)
and
(10-2) represens the electrical
w(z) being identified with V(z) of
/>-polarization
g(z)
dz
magnetic component, w(z) replacing v(z) of
and
compo-
1.5.
(10-2)
represents
the
1.5.
The remaining field component, if desired, is determined by using the

Maxwell equations (l-2a, b).
The second-order ordinary differential equation of the type (10-1)
is the central problem of the theory of inhomogeneous layers. The
approach to solving it is quite varied, depending on the type of the
functions g(z), f(z). The papers concerned with the propagation of electro-
430
magnetic waves in inhomogeneous media form quite a list. Many have

been motivated by high atmosphere problems; another important group is
written from the standpoint of electric transmission lines with continuously
It must be admitted that only a minority of the published
had purely optical motivation.
Closed form solutions of (10-1) are possible only for certain special
variable parameters.
literature
types of the function
(z). Recourse was therefore often had to approximComputer-aided solutions are also possible now.
ations.
We
a selection of methods which
shall present
may
be of importance
for the optical applications. Non-absorbing layers will be considered only.
10.1
The
WKBJ (geometrical optics) approximation
changes only slightly and smoothly across a path

comparable with the wavelength of light, then (10-1) may be solved by an
approximation method originally due to Liouville (1837), but later redisIf the refractive index
covered for physics by several authors. In modern science
under the acronym
it is
best
known
WKBJ (Wentzel Kramers Brillouin Jeffries method).
Consider (10-1) for the />-polarization and put

z
w(z)
where
(z).vKz),
F(z)
= expfi j-^dcl = /-^
(10-4)
This substitution helps to dispose of the
first
derivative in (10-1)
and one
obtains
V "(Z)
The bracketed
(t(z)
4 ^ 4i) v(z)
(i - 5a)
coefficient is equal to
2
i
2
e'
e"\
c
If
then
we now
Ae'
and
As"
introduce the assumption of slow change of s(z) and
may
s'(z),
be neglected and we obtain

V"(z)
f(z) \|/(z)
(10-5c)
431
Referring to the notations of
1.5, it
holds that
(10-5c) yields the approximate solution of the
\|/(z)
v(z)
wave function
V( o/ z)
an(l
v(z) for ^-pola-
rization.
The same equation
\y(z)
(10- 5c) holds for ^-polarization exactly, putting
V(z), because there
For the solution of
is
no
(10-5c)
first
we
derivative in (10-1) in this case.
further substitute
(z)
f VfCCTdC,
v(z)
-J= X(Z)
(10-6a, b)
V f( z )
which leads to the form
[5^V~T7rJ ^
1
f"
"I
(10 - 7)
Within the framework of our approximation the brackets equal unity and
there
is
the solution
exp (j)
the full solution according to (10-6b) being
V(z)
This
is
*_ exp (
J VfTOdC))
Even the
the sought approximation.
s-case
is
(10-8)
now
covered only
approximately, because the simplification of (10-7) implicitly concerned

(10-5) whatever the
Writing
this
v(z)
meaning bf
full by
out in
f(z).
we have
(10-3)
"(0cos[6>(0]df)
TTT^rTi ^f^T
c Jf
\
J
(io-9)
Vn(z) cos [(z)]
Considering that the integral
or plus sign
We
shall
The
will
is
denote these solutions as

full
an increasing function of z, the minus
obviously correspond to right-going or left-going waves.
solution
may
\|/
R,
L.
\)/
therefore be written:
s-polarization
E y = (^rVr + ^lVl)
exp
wt
n sin
<9
(10-10a)
432
/-polarization
Hy
J 8(0)" ^rVr + ^lVl^
where j/ RjL
The
ex P
wf
- ^- "o sin 6>
(10-lOb)
J> RiL are integration constants.
solutions (10-10a, b)
may
be interpreted as indicating that there
can exist independent right- and left-going waves in a weakly inhomogeneous

medium just as we are used to obtaining them in homogeneous media. We
shall see later in this chapter that
such a separability need not always be
possible.
Taking the part of the argument contained in \)/ we see that the concept
of covered optical path is maintained by taking an integral over the variable
product n(z) cos 0(z). In this respect the wave behaves very much as in
.
a homogeneous medium. However,
medium
amplitude changes even
its
if
the
non-absorbing.
is
There is a good physical reason for this in connection with the transport
of energy. Consider the wave in normal incidence. In a loss-less medium the
Poynting vector must be independent of z. There is a well-known balance
between
this vector
and the
transport, at the velocity v, of electromagnetic
energy stored in unit volume. In an inhomogeneous
medium
the velocity
is
variable, hence the amplitude of the
wave must also vary in order to keep the

flow of energy constant. This is described by the equation (written with
(10-9, 10a) for the R-wave in normal incidence and for time averages)
fe
v^'^
ar^
"
rI
const
The same
is the result with (10-10b), only z'\z) would be reduced with

3 (z) in the denominator.
In oblique incidence the balance

variable cross-section Sf lac
is
maintained for a continuously
cos <9(z)/cos
O of the light-beam. Although

changing direction and diameter, the beam retains its individuality and is
always at right angles with its portion of the equiphase surface.
.
In fact, taking the phase term for a right-going
wave
F=
xn
sin 6>
n() cos [0(C)] d
433
F =
the direction cosines of the normal to the
^,
Carrying
this
const surfaces are
D = (F'* + F'y2 f
-^-,
out and using the invariant n sin
n(z)
sin &(z)
we
obtain {sin 0(z), cos &(z)}, as expected.
WKBJ
for these intuition-appealing reasons that the
It is
sometimes referred to as the approximation of geometrical
solution
is
For a given
For a given A,
optics.
degree of inhomogeneity its accuracy increases inversely with X.
the applicability of the approximation covers a broader range of rates at
which the
refractivity
Consider
now
changing,
is
the
R-wave
which the approximation
is
if
the function e(z)
alone. If
it
valid, there is
is
monotonic.
propagates in a space troughout
no reason
for
an L-wave to form.
In other words, no internal reflection takes place in a weakly inhomogeneous
medium.
Note:
If the
path
is
long enough, then even with weakly variable (z) the product
may work down to zero values. This indicates total reflection. In atmospheric
some degree of reflection may occur even at normal incidence into a medium
n(z) cos @(z)
physics
satisfying the criterion of weak inhomogeneity.

is
The dielectric constant due to free electrons
here given by the formula
47r 2
nw 2
which expression may reach small positive or even negative values if the concentration JT
of electrons (of mass m and charge e) is sufficiently large or the frequency v sufficiently
low. Now, for positive and small, the approximation of geometrical optics is no more
valid, because a small e prevents us
in (10-5b).
from
inferring that Xs'
We cannot count with the absence
negative values, the refractive index
is
and Ae" small simplify things
of partial internal reflections. If e assumes
pure imaginary which
is
necessarily associated
with total reflection.
Some
10.2
exact solutions
10.2.1 Exponential layer
When deciding on the type of inhomogeneity, one can make assumptions

either
is
on
e(z)
or on n(z).
contained in (10-3)
The
first
case
linearly.
is
formally more convenient, because e
Besides,
the
dielectric
constant
is
in
434
a more direct relationship to the atomic structure.
We
shall therefore
understand the exponential layer to be defined by*)

e
exp
(oz)
may
In this case the equation (10-1)
be identified with the differential
equation
y"
(b
2cx
v ) c
The wave function
generating the Bessel functions.
for the s-case
may
therefore be expressed as
v(z)
^j (0 + v2 UQ;
where Jv and
tively, the
an
The
sarily
yv are
Bessel's functions of the first
on
order v depending
integer.
-y-
v-^ e*
and second kind, respec-
the refraction invariant G. It
is
not neces-
For normal incidence the functions are of zero
situation
is
little
(10-1 1)
order.
more
involved for the p-polarization, (10-1)
assuming the form

v"
The
first
derivative
is
ov'
f(z)
again disposed of by the substitution (10-4)
where T(z) now equals exp (\az). (10-1)
^( Z) +
[f(z)
is
now
converted to
+ l(i 2 ]*(z) =
(without any approximation being involved). The function v(z)
is
now
expressed by a combination of Bessel functions as in (10-11), only the

invariant
G2
is
G2 -
replaced by
w(z)
2
\ a
Kz)
Eventually the wave function
exp lJaz
j
This describes the magnetic component. The electric component
through partial derivatives of
is
this solution in
is
obtained
accordance with Maxwell's
equation (l-2a). Differentiating Bessel's functions leads to the same kinds of

functions with modified orders.
*)
happens to be unessential in the case

adopt it also in the case of the linear profile. In
sections, on the other hand, treating any inhomogeneity by approximation, we shall
The
difference between the
of the exponential profile, but

later
we
return to the definition via n(z).
two
definitions
shall
It is
now
435
important to note the following. Since the functions
/,
Y are
two components in (10-11) cannot be interpreted as belonging to

the right- and left-going waves, which is readily possible with phasor functions
real, the
of the exp (+jz.
.)
type. In fact, taking the real part of the full solution for
the s-case, one has the waves
îJv
cos
(cot
Gx)
<g 2
Y, cos
Gx)
(cot
which are symmetrical about the z-axis, but there

what is travelling to the right and left.
no information as to
is
Let us recall that in the case of a homogeneous

(10-1) constant (equal to
\jf
=V
exp
medium with
f(z)
in
we have
f),
(j
Vfz)
<#
exp (-j
y/fz)
and
V(z)
<g
exp (jGjc)
ij,
+ ^ 2 ipexp(
jGx)
so one can see the four possible waves
expj(cf
where the condition of being
No
such criterion
is
yjiz
Gx)
right- or left-going is decided
by the sign of VfV
extant in (10-11).
Rather, we have the solution corresponding to the general real solution

of the homogeneous case
s/ cos
V fz +
J? sin
Vfz
which describes the resulting standing wave, but may be

decomposed into
the two travelling waves. This is a matter of the
relationship between
goniometric functions and the complex exponential exp (jz).
An analogous relationship exists between the Bessel and Hankel
functions. The latter are defined by
m
where
(1)
It is
\z)
and
= / (z) + j Fv (z)
//<%) = yv(z) - j Fv (z)
(2)
denote Hankel's functions of the first and second kind.

then possible to replace the solution (10-11) by the equivalent
solution
V(z)
where "^ and
<,H\ l \Q
< are some other

2
The conditions under which
of opposite direction
is
<#
Hl \0
(10-12>
integration constants.
the decomposition into travelling waves
possible will
become evident
if
we
use asymptotic
436
expansions for Hankel functions. These are valid,
if
the argument
sufficiently large (the order of the function being sufficiently low).
It
is
then
holds that
1,
(0(|-)Pj(c-TV-l)
2
nl \Q *
The
first
(^Jexpj(-C +
y vn + 1*)
part of (10-12) then corresponds to an L-going wave, the
second part to the R-going wave. Both waves have essentially the same
form as that obtained in the WXBJ approximation. Even the conditions of
validity are identical: there will be a large in (10-12) if the
proportional to
or
if,
and
e'
for a given
a,
e", will
is
be
product Aa,
small (weakly variable refractive index)
small (geometrical optics).
In the contrary cases the asymptotic expansions are no more valid and
the concept of decomposition breaks down. This may be physically interpreted as due to the fact that with strongly variable refractive index the
elementary Fresnel reflections on the gradient of s are both ways too

numerous and too intense to allow of a simple expression for the contributions of
some R- and L-waves
In view of this
<|
refraction
and phase
it
in a given plane.
not be possible to work with the matrices of
will
in the theory of
inhomogeneous
films.
hand, the matrices of interference, transforming the total
importance in
On the
other
field, retain their
full extent.
10.2.2 Linear layer

In this case
a z
f(z)
we
shall
presume normal incidence only. Setting
we have
CO
where
az,
2
= b.-G,
b G
2
,
Introducing a
new

-^
*
variable
C
we
e(z)
shall seek, instead
az,
dC
a dz
(10-13)
of V(z), a solution ri(Q of the differential equation
1NHOMOGENEOUS LAYERS
437
Bessel functions of the order 1/3 are at
hand
to obtain
which by (10-13) determines V(z).

Again, the solution
is
obtained as a standing wave.
10.2.3 Notes on other solutions. Computer-aided solutions

Studying the literature concerning other profiles leads to an impressive
display of mathematical elegance achieved
when
by many authors over the decades

various inhomogeneous layers were being encountered in problems
of atmospheric physics, transmission line theory and theoretical physics

in general.
The inhomogeneities to be encountered in thin film optics depend en the

The linear or exponential profile may be a convenient
origin of the effect.
rough assumption for a natural transition layer or a model for studying the
nonhomogeneous films ever the spectrum. Sometimes
the need is felt of supplementing the linear profile by rounded ends so as
to make the first derivative smooth, the slope possibly remaining steep. The
basic behaviour of
classical
Drude
transition layer
also been solved in
[2]
and
on
glass is of this type
[1].
The case has
[3].
The technology of producing artificial inhomogeneous
layers
by simul-
taneous controlled evaporation of two materials leads to hyperbolic profile

or nearly so. These are discussed in [4] together with a broad survey of the
different theories of inhomogeneous layers. The hyperbolic profile is treated
here under the heading 10.6.
method now always at hand is the numerical solution by means of

It would of course be possible to solve (10-1) in this
a digital computer.
way
for any type of the functions
f(z), g(z),
further handled to obtain the reflectivities.
but the result would have to be
more convenient to approximate the inhomogeneous profile by a pile of homogeneous layers in the
same way as the area under a general curve is subdivided into rectangular
strips in the
theory of
Riemann
transfer coefficients thus
geneous layer
normally do.
if their
It is
integration. For reasons of continuity the

computed must converge to those of the inhomo-
number
is
sufficiently large.
Some
tens of layers
438
In this approach there are no difficulties in connecting the computation

of the inhomogeneous layer with that of further homogeneous layers. In the
general approach
some
extra considerations
ference matrices before such a connection
is
must be made on the
possible.
inter-
We shall elaborate on
this subsequently.
The idea of approximation by inserted homogeneous profiles may also

be considered in general terms. This will be dealt with in a later section.
10.3 The inhomogeneous layer as part of a layer system
In this section
we
are going to deal with the
boundary conditions
across a layer system including the case
homogeneous.
We have already
total field. This
some
in
geneous
when some of the layers are

noted that we must in general deal with
in-
the
means that the concept of reflection and transmission may

down, starting with a boundary between two inhomoHowever, the orthodox concepts can be generalized at least
cases break
layers.
for the case of the
WKBJ
approximation.
10.3.1 Generalizing the Fresnel coefficients for inhomogeneous
media
in the
approximation of geometrical optics
Let the boundary between two inhomogeneous media be placed at
The quantities relating to the front and

and 1. The law of refraction requires n sin
functions are by (10- 10a, b):
z
Zi
by
rear
media
will be indexed
n 1 sin l The wave
.
s-polarization
g = tfh = [^rVr(z) +
^L VL (z)] exp
*--&st>
( mt
^n
sin
xj
(10-14a)
(1(M4b)
^---js-ar
/>-polarization
H = pfy = D#RvR (z) + ^ Lv L (z)] exp (cot-^-n sin

j
c
-ijcoe
d3Vy
t-^,
oz
S z% =
c
-.
jcoe
dJ?v
^-2dx
x J(10-15a)
(10-15b)'
v
where (10-14b),
solutions given
To
for z
439
(10-1 5b) follow
by
from the application of
(l-2a, b) to the
(10-10a, b).
formulate the boundary conditions, these expressions are written
and
Zi in the
$(z) for V(z)
and
now be unified by writing

and replacing the constants si and ^
media. Both cases will
v(z), respectively,
by a common symbol
We then have
6.
#0R#R + ÔLÔL = ^1R#!R + ÎIÎL
(10-16a)
(10-16b)
8o(*or*'or
*ol*'ol)
Bi(i**'ir
#ii#'il)
where for s-polarization
^=
and
Jco
for /-polarization
80
The set (10-16a,

of incident
light,
= -
'
;
joEo(zi)
b)
is
9i
=
j<ei(zi)
now solved in the usual way e.g.
eliminating < 1K and <& ^.
We
for the R-direction
obtain
(In# 0R )'--^(In
0R *
0R
_
~
00
y-^
(10-1 7a)
(ln$ 0L
n$1Ry
9o
(In
*J- -^-(lnaW
1R*1R
<g
00
^*o*

9o
Both
coefficients are
determined by the logarithmic derivatives of the wave
functions.
There
is
a note to be added to (10-17a)
if it is
zation. Since the primary vector in this case
of (10-16a) must be reversed,

vector.
if it is
is
written for the ^-polari-
the magnetic one, the sign
to describe the reflection of the electric
440
It is
interesting to analyse the conditions for zero reflection. Confining
normal incidence we have
ourselves to
ln#RjL = lnV RtL = +j
= J _N/f-
(ln*R>L)
hidz -
-J-ln/(z)
TT
hence after using (10-3) and reducing
M_ /A_J!l\
v{j_
all
functions being taken at z
zx
This coefficient will vanish

the refractivity functions
i.e.
including the
first
if s
and the wave propagates
inhomogeneous medium within the
The
and simultaneously
ex
must be continous across
WKBJ
for the total field inside
L and replace them by I and II,
boundary
weakly
freely in a
an inhomogeneous medium
first
if
we
is
abolish the subscripts
simply distinguishing between two inde-
pendent solutions not implying separability of

the surfaces z
e'j
interference matrix of an inhomogeneous film
The pattern
Let us
approximation.
given by the equations (10-14a, b), (10-1 5a, b)
R,
ej>
the boundary,
derivatives. In actual fact this implies that the
vanishes as a physical obstacle
10.3.2
fields.
The layer being confined between

z 2 we have the following boundary conditions
consider the s-polarization.
and z
Ey = j/^zO + j/nV^zO.
i
H xl = - Wfa) +
j/nV.Kz,)]
Ey2 =
^,V,(z2 )
^ nV(z
H x2 = - [j/,Vi(z 2 +
)
2)
j/Vi(z 2 )]
(10-18)
Eliminating from the right-hand pair of equations the constants A,
and
A and
inserting into the left-hand pair,
we obtain
feHfe)
the transformation
441
where the interference matrix
V^Vu - v ul v^
is
-^-(v v n - V In V I2 )
I12
(10-19)
(VrnVix
v,^
v;n v12 ),
- v II2 v;
The quantity
a (z2 ) = v
I2
essentially the determinant
is
factor
reduced
v;I2
v;2 vII2
of the right-hand pair in (10-18)/ with the
\
1
In the theory of linear differential equations the expression
is
known
Wronski determinant. In the case of s-polarization when (10-1) has

practically no first derivative, this determinant has a constant value and
may as well be computed as A s (z x ).
as the
If
we
are only interested in the reflection coefficients,
the final computation
and need not be determined
note on the secondary diagonal
at
is
reduced in
all.
Having computed the

H-components by the lower pair of equations in (10-18), we implicitly use
the adopted conventions on the vector trihedrals in the electromagnetic
wave, which necessitates the characteristic admittance for the s-polarization
is
necessary.
to be taken with the
minus sign. The form of the matrix (10-19) therefore

requires this convention to be respected even in the neighbouring matrices
of homogeneous
films. If
we wish
to reduce this sign as usual, the secondary
diagonal of (10-19) must be taken with opposite signs.
Let us
now
take /-polarization. Comparing (10-15a, b) and (10-18)
reveals that a formally similar result will be obtained in the
("::)
i.e.
<>>
<:)
with the one-column matrices of the total
field
upside down. Further,
the -jc/co quantity will be replaced by jc/we where v

v
v
form
1,
2 for
E,
1,2.
Since the differential equation (10-1)

derivative, the
wronskian
is
computed by
now
effectively contains the first
Liouville's theorem, e.g.
[5],
Ap (z) =
vI2Vl
',
2 v II2
v,'
=Ap (zi)exp
^J^ Az
= AP( z i)
e(*i)
as
442
The
&^
interference matrix has a factor
Ap
expressed as
e(z iJ)
(z 1 )
A p(z
using the
e(z 2 )
(z 2 ),
which may therefore be
value uniformly with the
x)
.s-case.
and mutually exchanging the elements of the
Inserting into (10-20)
main and secondary diagonals so as

ation of the total field with
v,2V,'u
'-f-|j
P
\
to adapt the matrix for the transform-
in the upper row,
-rr-faiVna
C
obtain
J_(V] lV i2 - v,'^)
'
vIl2 v'n
we
s
Vi 2 v nl ),
-^(vnvia
(1 - 21)
v nl v,'2 )
|62
This completes the setting up of the interference matrices for an in-
homogeneous
layer of any profile provided the wave functions have been

found as exact or approximate (though not merely numerical) solutions
of (10-1).
Note: The interference matrix of an inhomogeneous layer

malism has necently been described in [32].
The exponential
As an
in Kard's for-
layer in normal incidence
illustration
of the above we shall
set
up the
interference matrix
of the exponential layer in normal incidence, using the notations for the
s-polarization.
In addition to the Bessel functions

for which
it
Jo =
The
Y we need their first derivatives,
holds that
insertion into (10-19)
>
is
= *i
*o
straightforward.
The determinant
is
evaluated on the basis of a theorem valid for any pair of Bessel functions
jy
(OYxo-m)Y (o =
v
Recalling the argument of the Bessel functions in (10-1 1) to be an
exponential function of
z,
we have
~&*-UC).
$=J
or
where for
Ci z is
443
0.
Hence
_rc_
taken as
1
at t
Denoting
we
obtain after some arrangements (including the inversion of sign in the
secondary diagonal)
M =yCi
io
io
'
(10-22)
-<5
\jn 12 Q,
where
2 = Jitfi) r (Ci) - / (Ci) Y&J;

y = / (fi) ô(C 2 - / (Ci) ^(W;
)
a=
/.(d)
J&J Y&J
^'(d)
J(Ci) ô(C 2 )
(C 2 )
t (C 2 )
(10-23)
This
is
the interference matrix used in
homogeneous -inhomogeneous
The
[6]
for the analysis of
some
thin film combinations.
WKBJ layer in normal incidence

In this case
we
insert the
R- and L-expressions
(10-8)
and
their
derivatives
z
into (10-19).
The
first
term in the brackets
is
negligible
and
T j^J(0dc]
^L-H/-^.p[
C
(10-19) then assumes the
form
"12
cos<p,
M =
"io
ljV M 1012
J
-
sm<p
n ioii2
^-COS<p
sin<i9,
"V
W 12
(the secondary diagonal adapted for positive s-admittances)
(10-24)
444
The phase
thickness of the layer
is
zi
where nh
is
the integrated optical thickness
The matrix
(10-24)
may be
and the mean
/\-jy/n 12
iV"io,
layer
that a weakly
inhomogeneous
layer
is
25 )
equivalent to three
layers with the following parameters:
optical thickness
nh
~7^T
1_
L V^Tll
which means
homogeneous
refractive index.
regarded as the product
ictive
n d
index
phase angle
7-nh
10
zi
A/4
3A/4
The fictitious
V10
for all A
Tt/2
3w/2
layers 2
and
3 are insensible to A, hence the
scheme cannot
be run with a standard programme.
10.4 Transfer coefficients of single inhomogeneous layers
We
shall
now
apply some of the preceding results to the computation
of reflection and transmission
on
single
inhomogeneous
films, confining
ourselves to normal incidence.
The exponential
monotonic
layer
may
profiles allowing
be considered as a basic representative of

of a simple exact solution. With the relatively
small total thicknesses of optical inhomogeneous layers, the exponential

sections differ only slightly
from
linear profiles.
As a second item
the
WKBJ
solution will be discussed. Finally the formulae for the practically important
transition layer will
be presented without detailed proof.

will be deferred to a later section.
Numerical examples
445
10.4.1 Exponential layer

Inserting the elements of (11-22) into (2-27a)
we
obtain
V io
"o
V "o
"10
\ "lO
"o
"10
has the same denominator, the numerator being Xan~
With a geometrical thickness 'h the integrated

exponential layer
n'[
1
.
optical thickness of the
is
h
nft
ndz =
n 10 exp(
= i!^[p(i-
fl
The boundary
(10-26)
ft)
Values n l0 ,n l2 given, a
oz jdz =
= 1( 12 -
ij
10 )
determined as 2h~
is
m(n 12 /n 10),
thus
Hh
where n
10.4.2
is
mean index of
the
" 12
lnn ]2
10
I*
In w 10
fcS
refraction.
WKBJ layer
The matrix
-
(10-24) leads to the formula
("oi2
(o"i2
~
+
" g "io)cos(?
" g io)cos<j!)
+ j(n
+ j(n
ng
- w 10 n 12 )sin(p
+ n 10 n 12 ) sin q>
ao-27)
For i the numerator is 2n \fn 10 n i2

These results may be considered as a direct extension of the formulae
(3-2a, b) for the homogeneous film. The formula for q resulting from (10-27)
.
is
attributed to
Formula
Meysing
(10-27)
(1941).
may be
interpreted in terms of the cardinal points.
446
The
Qn/z values are
equ al to
y/n~10 n l2
alent indices n F
reflectivities
.
Qn
f-
of homogeneous layers with equiv-
Further
where
ri
n,
"12
Q n are therefore different from bare substrate reflections and

holds that
(if
< n)
it
Qk
fact
for 10
Qo
(10-28a, b)
i2
The inequality (10-28a) is sometimes encountered as an experimental

when measuring supposedly homogeneous layers. Admitting a weak
inhomogeneous slope according to (10-28b) accounts for this.

In particular, if njn = 12 / 10 Q n = 0, which is a new possibility of
antireflecting a substrate with one layer. The point is to apply an ascending
profile with conveniently high boundary values n 1Q < n
12 > g and choosing
the optical thickness mX\2. An example for such a layer is computed in
Fig. 10-8b, although the method by which it is deduced there does not fall
under the heading WKBJ.
,
Note: The formula (10-27) is related with some older approximations for weak
inhomogeneities obtained, for example, by Bauer, [7]. The formal difference lies in the
value chosen for the mean refractive index, which may as well be taken as the arithmetic
or harmonic mean. Notes on this
may be found
in [8].
10.4.3 Transition layer
A model
of an ideally smooth transition between two media
called Epstein layers, [19]. It is defined (Fig. 10-1) in terms of e

infinite interval
(2
e'
s(
"
(
oo), e"
over a distance
difference e(0)
s"
e'
the so
( oo, +oo) by
')
( "
')
tanh
\
where
is
= n 2 over the
\d
e'
(10 " 29)
(oo) and d is a characteristic length such that

from the central point e($d) = i(e" + e'), the
or e"
e(d) falls to
(the actual fraction being (e 2
about 10
-1
l)
)-
of the
smaller
full difference
d then means a
sharper transition in the centre, the asymptotic sections always reaching the
boundary values e', e".
447
n-fr4^(nl4)M^
Fig. 10-1 Definition of the Epstein profile.
11
P\
(0
40
8.
30
\'/2.0
6-
20
5-
<t
2-
VA
\*^
w*
10
IS
Fig. 10-2 Reflectance curves
a)
n2
1.5,
^hjX) for the Epstein profile: n^

b) n 2 = 2.0, c) n 2 = 4.0.
Wl
and
448
The function
with
(10-29) has the property of being continuous together
all its derivatives.
predicted by the
The
Thus,
WKBJ
if the central
slope
is flat
exact solution for the embedding n
sinh
enough, the
sinh
TT
-
TT
("
ri,
n"
(10-30)
(n+n')
may be
regarded as nearly zero
region with the steepest slope
d>
10-2.
convenient to use djX as the independent variable. For case a) the
reflectance
for q
is
examples of the corresponding curves being shown in Fig.

It is
reflectivity
approximation should be zero.
0.
For cases
b, c)
if
djX
at least X/2 thick;
is
where the
total
jump
> 0.4, i.e. if the critical

d > X is still a safer limit
is
greater, the safe limit
is
1.51
The
can never start with ri
and
it is
1,
sections. It does, however, yield
(10-30)
may
transition layer of this type
physics, but in technical optics
be a reality in atmospheric
only of academic interest, because
we
nor can we provide for very long asymptotic
important insight trough the simple formula
indirectly gives us
an idea on the
validity
of the
WKBJ
ap-
proximation.
The
derivation of the result (10-30)
the hypergeometric differential equation.

generalizations for oblique incidence
10.5
A general method
It
is
is
associated with the solution of
detailed analysis together with
to be found in [10].
of integration
has been mentioned in 10.2.3 that an elementary method of
hand is the^ replacement of the inhomogeneous original

by a homogeneous multilayer of sufficiently high order whose refractive
index pattern contours the function n(z). Using a high-speed computer
integration always at
spares the experimentar
much thought
as to the type of solution to be ex-
pected in the general theory.
Simultaneously
it
may be
of interest to see whether the multilayer
approximation could not be expressed in some general terms leading to

formulae of a more or
less
closed form.
For
this
purpose we shall have recourse to the rational function method
developed in Ch.
The
k
-* oo
449
9,
and applied to the present problem
in [11].
approximation of the inhomogeneous layer consists in making
and simultaneously reducing the optical thickness A e of the element-
ary layers in such a way that

n
(z)
fcA,
dz
const
n*/
'nfS)
S-'
^
n,
"i
Ai.
Fig. 10-3 Inserting
*,.
&'*''
%
At
homogeneous multilayers under inhomogeneous
profiles so as to observe the condition of
equal optical thicknesses of the

elementary layers, a) subdivision with unequal segments of z under n(z),
b) subdivision with equal segments of S under n(d).
was obtained by plotting the
in a) at distances
In various cross-sections of the layer

thickness dz of the elementary layer
However,
in order to
rate with constant
be
(z)
Ae
The function
n(d)
characteristic values n(r ) of the segments

v
vA s
A =
is
(z)
dz so that the physical
variable (see Fig.
10-3a
b)*).
adhere to the model of k tuned layers we must integ

so that the element of space for the integration will
dz and the elementary phase angle
dq>
= r n(z) dz
*)
The difference between the n(z) and
be given more attention in 10.6.1.
n(*5)-functions introduced in this figure will
450
It is
obvious that the formula (9-5) will become operative in the
region s ->
oo,
re-
which may be remedied by the transformation
=
1
..
j tan q
2tc
j r- n(z) dz
A.
Thus
^
To
00-31)
f*4
develop the corresponding definition of the a y , b v ,
recourse to the formulae (9-4) defining the
N$, N$
we
shall
have
as multiple finite sums.
Replacing these sums by integrals and arranging for oblique incidence
Ysv =
YDV =
n v cos ,
"--,
cos
da>
-r- n cos
dz
A.
we may compute*)
h
-2
Ng?
- JV =
a)
Yn cos
dz
cos
dz
=/
/>
[dz
dz
cos
where of course n and
Leaving aside for the
are taken as functions of
moment
the factor Ink
introduced with the correct powers in (10-34).
z.
of the element
dtp. It will
be re-
451
Further
h z
JVm
-*
-SO- n(0 cos 0(0 dCn(z) cos 0(z) dz =
a)
^2 =
I
u o
h
fdz
n cos
0d
'
o
b
cos
dz
dC
O
h z
JVg>- #a = f
f2W
M(C)cos6)(0dC ( z)cos0(z)dz
U
h
2
n cos
dz
dC
/o
o
h
\
2
n dz |cos
0dC
The
computation of the
rules for the
h)
( *'
may be summarized
as
follows:
^-polarization
h
# =
(a)
v
. . .
dC
dC| dC
[ n cos
dC
dummy variables taken in the appropriate
integrations is v
and
h
I
(10-32a)
stands for the
number of
n cos
. . .
where
odd the
for v even or
order.
The
last integration is
or
n cos
d,
respectively.
Further
#< b)
i.e.
the integrands in
ooo
f...d...
(a)
and #'
2
fdC |n cos
b)
0dC |dC
are interchanged.
(10-32b)
452
/>-polarization
(a)
JV"v
n dC |cos
...dC...
J
0dC
f n d
(10-33a)
for v even or o<&/ the last integration being

h
cos
or
n d,
respectively,
Further
#< b) =
...
(cos
...
0dC
n d
cos
0d
(10-33b)
the integrands again being interchanged.

Recalling the definitions of the av ,b v (9-6), the reflection coefficient of
,
may
the inhomogeneous layer
power
series in
(l
--)
=
+
27tA
_1
j,
be expressed as the ratio of two
infinite
namely
(W> - Â? ) a +
(iV
2
JVT a +...
(10-34)
For the transmission

_
coefficient the
formula analogous to (10-31)
is
k
2 k/2
= (-l) 2(l-s' )
La v s' v
The numerator, being
written as
2(-l)k/2
yields the
two
<-l)" 2 (l T
limits for
S ')*
(l
k/2
s')
(-l) k/2 (l
k/2
s')
-> oo:
- (-if'fl + ( k
[
Wdz) +
V.dz) ! *
...1
453
natural to write the numerator as the ratio
It is
A
k/2
f-n
e ^
l)
^
J
lim2
A
(_l)W2 e ix
associating the oscillatory term
( l) k/2 with
the exponentials in such a
way
as to evade the physically implausible ambiguity of the final result.

i is
then given by 2/denominator of (10-34).
The infinite series obtained are convergent, since each term is upperbounded by a corresponding term in the expansion for the exponential.
Being thus closely related to the exponential function, the expansions cannot
be expected to converge rapidly in the general case, not even for a weak
(b)
(a)
inhomogeneity. They are essentially expansions in hjk, since the JVv

are proportional to hjk.
Afv
Thus convergence will improve only with very thin

Drude transition layer (see below). The expansions
films (h < k), such as the
can hardly be expected to be of use for routine numerical work, but they
represent the transfer coefficients in a form of high intuitive content. It is
left
for a
problem to specify for homogeneity and compare the relationship
of the formulae with (3-2a,

Let
it
b).
also be recalled that the pattern of repeated integrals (10-31, 32)
appears in another general solution of the inhomogeneous layer given by

Abeles in
[12],
where
it
comes
as the result of solving the differential equation
by power series
Another affiliated method based on the formalism of ref.
expansion (Picard's method).
(10-1)
is
described in
1 1
Chap. 2
in
[33].
10.5.1 Drude's formulae
first
approximation
We may now show that the classical Drude formulae for the transition
layer
may be obtained as a first approximation in the present theory.

Taking the linear terms in (10-34) we have
h
(n cos
rs
n g cos
g)
+ j
hn n e cos
cos
n cos
dz
J
o-
=
(n cos
+ n g cos 6> g) + -j- j
hn n g cos
cos
n cos
dz
(1045a)
OPTICS OF THH* FILMS
454
(n cos
j=
- n g cos
O)
h
j
(n n g
cos
6> dz
- cos
O cos
*
2
cos@ g + n g cos6> )+-^-j(n n g
(n
n dz
cos 6>dz
+ cos@
cos6> g
n dz)
(10-35b)
These
may be
recognized as the Drude relations
if
one introduces the
conventional symbols*)
h
O)
dz
sdz
h
h
2
v cos
& dz =
(n
no sin
qn sin
hnl sin
o
h
cos
dz
(1
sin
0) dz
2
,
6>
o
h
f dz
f dz
One may conclude
that, although it is not evident from the original

Drude does contour the index profile, ignoring
powers of A/A. In fact, the parameters p and q depend on the
method of
negligible
shape of
integration,
(z).
(10-35a, b) represent Drude's modification of the Fresnel coefficients of

reflection derived
on the assumption of a very
accounted for the weak
a supposedly
*)
See
ellipticity
clear glass surface.
e.g. VaSUSek, [13].
thin transition layer, which
of linearly polarized
light reflected
from
455
10.6 Approximation by simple reflections.
The hyperbolic
profile
method of vector summation (2.6.3) for the

such a way as to sum up an infinite number of
possible to adapt the
It is
inhomogeneous
layer in
elementary simple reflections:

local amplitude reflectance obtained as a limit of the Fresnel
The
reflection coefficient is
dr=hm
n,
ni
^ 2 !
The phase
shift
n2
d
=
- = -^
In
+ n2
In
is
dz
dz
incurred in one zig-zag "up to z"
Thus (suppressing the
This procedure
= z- dlnn
n'dz
is
sign of dr)
particularly suitable for application to the hyperbolic
profile
n(z)
(n 10
= ^
5Li^4
pz + y
-n 12 )z + n 12 hr ir
spanning the boundary values n
The
optical thickness
is
n(0)
n 10 and n(h)
(10-37)
n 12
n2
integrated to the value
The
total thickness in particular is
A=
where n
is
the
5(h)
K
'
= 4- In ^JL =
mean
y
refractive index.
" loWl2
n t0
-n t2
In
^= hn
n
l2
(10-39)
45 6
Thus
eX
p[_.J^Z)]=(.
/fe
?Vjf
Further
n'
fiz
+-y
so
h
.
4n
'-TT
The
integral
is
evaluated as jXPJBnpx times
(fih
where the
y)
~TJ _
A may
rr
7=
be recognized in the argument of
the sine.
Finally, developing
ln 10 / 12
as
2( 10
the energy reflection coefficient
is
n 12 )
9-
This
is
12 )
obtained in the form
/sin8A 2
where q is the Fresnel

two boundary indices.
/( 10
2jt
-^-
reflection for a discontinuous
(10-40)
jump between
the
the analytic derivation of an approximate formula obtained
graphically by Kossel, [14], on the basis of a continuous Argand diagram (see

also Vasicek, [15]). The formula replaces with good accuracy the much
more involved exact

ations when n 12 /n 10
solution
<
by
Schlick, [16], at least in the optical applic-
2.
Q as a function of hjX oscillates in the same
minima
in
Fraunhofer diffraction on a narrow
way
slit.
as the
maxima and
10.6.1
457
relationship between the hyperbolic
profiles.
The method of simple
and exponential
reflections as
a Fourier
transform
Let us invert the formula (10-38) to obtain z as a function of 8 and
insert this z{8) function into (10-37).
B 0)
We
=
expl 5
-exp(---5J
*
n(z) a fictitious plot
responding n(S)
It is
now
is
n(<5),
if
(10-41)
we
<5:
which means the following:
then have n as a function of
associate with the physically real function
then a hyperbolic profile n(z) implies that the cor-
We
exponential.
shall call these functions associated.
conceivable to change the variable and carry out the integ-
ration of (10-36) in terms of the exponential n(8)-plot. This will enable us to
make some important
conclusions.
Since
dn
dz
we may
dn dS
d(5 dz
write
|dr|=--dz =
2n
-*-<tf
In
as before, but the exponential function (10-41)

result ris jn
now
yields the simple
= jS/a.
Further, the phase shift
is
expl
j r-<5
where S
is
the integration
J,
variable.
Thus
A
M>"
2a
4tij
'
This expression leads to the same result for q as (10-40) as was to be expected
because only a change of variables is involved.
Although the computation in terms of (<5) was here simpler, this is not
(z), n(5). However, an important
general advantage may be drawn from the (5)-approach:
a rule for other types of profile pairs
458
Extend the definition of

for 8
for 5
outside of the interval
w(<5)
<
>
n(d)
n(3)
(The constant sections do not add to the

ions.
is
The
=
=
(0,
A)
(0)
(A)
reflectivity
by
their internal reflect-
possible contribution due to the discontinuity of the tangent n'a
neglected in this approximation.)
We
can then write
' -Jt-^-k-'*')"
m2
>
oo
which
the Fourier transform of half the logarithmic derivative, the
is
frequency variable being 2/A.
By applying
suitable step-
and rectangular functions one may manipul-
ate (10-42) to represent the reflectance of profiles n{8) of various lengths
embedding media with discontinuous jumps at the boundaries.

(See problem 10-6).
The application of the Fourier transform method to inhomogeneous
transmission lines was discussed, for example, by Bolinder, [17]. The accuracy
of the method as compared with other approximations is also studied.
in various
10.6.2
A reciprocity theorem on associated functions
In the preceding paragraph
hyperbolic n(z)
Using the
we have
-=
established the relationship
=> exponential
latter function to
form a
l/(z),
we
n(<5)
arrive
f
*
by straightforward
integration at the pair
exponential
y-^ =
n(z)
The
latter function
with z replaced by
This
is
may
=> linear n(d)
a.
be recognized as the inverse of the starting n(z)
5.
a kind of reciprocity valid quite generally, as stated by the
following theorem,
[18].
Let
n
=f(z)=>n =g(d)
form a
459
pair of associated functions.
Then
1
,
&)
=> n
f(&)
are also a pair of associated functions.
One may encounter
physical profile n
be of interest
the need of
if an opticist finds
ing to a profile
F(Q
knowing
for
which optical film of
G(z) the n(5) function has a given form F(8). This
may
a solution in electronic literature correspond-
. The transmission lines are

and the same solution will therefore
which has n(S) = F(8). The point is to find the
in terms of the line length
treated in terms of their "air" lengths
correspond to an optical film
geometrical definition G(z) of the layer inhomogeneity.
The problem is obviously solved by first forming an n(z) = 1/F(z),

integrating and inverting so as to find the corresponding function n(5).
This is now regarded as 1/G(<5) and the reciprocity theorem yields the
answer as G{z). It is important to realize the difference between the (z) and
n(8) definitions also in the case that we compute the properties of an inhomogeneous layer by using sets of inserted homogeneous layers. Unless
a special program is written for this, a straightforward approach is to use
the available program for dielectrics and insert sets of homogeneous layers
of equal optical thickness. Thus the exponential and- linear profiles n{)
must be handled in order to obtain results concerning the hyperbolic
and exponential (z)-profiles, respectively. We shall elaborate on this in
the next section.
10.7 Numerical examples
we
compute the spectral characteristics of several

method of inserted homogeneous multilayers. First of all we must agree on the formal framework of the computations. For didactic reasons we shall follow three equivalent lines and
elaborate on the existing possibilities,
(i) Using a program for dielectric multilayers with the phase angle <p as
the independent variable we may reason in the folloving way:
In this section
inhomogeneous
shall
layers using the
Let {, n 2 n 3 ...} be the sequence characterizing the inserted stepped

This index pattern will be processed as if belonging to a tuned
,
profile.
multilayer with relative thicknesses
1:1:... The complete information
460
on such a system
In the interval
means
is
at
q>
is
re/2
obtained by computing
q>
ji
the curve
is
it
over the interval
mirrored about
that any of the approximations has the
same peak
at
0^9^ n/2.
<p
<p
= n/2. This
= n as there
0.
Examples of such curves for stepped linear profiles inserted between

outer values n = I and n = 4 are shown in Fig. 10-4. 5, 10, 20 and 40
g
layers were inserted, the figure simultaneously fulfilling the role of a study
of the convergence rate with k towards the exact solution.
The scheme of insertion ^nay be equidistant or not. The point is that

the subdivision must be fine enough. Equidistant insertion is of course
simpler to handle as input data.
Since
we have interpolated the sequence {} on a scale linear in optical

we are using the H(<5)-approach. Thus the subsequent analysis
thicknesses,
of the linear profile actually concerns a layer which
We must now learn how to
is
exponential in (z).
read the graphs of Fig. 10-4 so as to obtain
information concerning an inhomogeneous layer of given total optical

thickness A.
Fig. 10-4
Approximation of a linear n(S) profile between n = 1 and n = 4 by

g
and 40 layers of equal optical thickness. Shown are q((p) curves.
5, 10,
20
461
If the layer is simulated
meaning of the phase angle
6000 A and
A =
2it A
=- -
q>
Let us take
by k homogeneous
limits of a spectral interval
then the physical
layers,
is
we
let
1-
or
At
kq>
(10-43a,b)
4000 A and A 2
are interested
in.
,.
-^-
For each
fc
8000
there
is
A be
the
a corres-
ponding pair of phase angles <> t q> 2 > defining the working sections of the
plots in Fig. 10-4. These are drawn in heavy lines. (Since the progression
of k has a factor 2 and X l :X z also form an octave, the working sections
,
happen to be contiguous.)
Making allowance for the
ing the extrema only,
different expansions
of the plots and follow-
evident that the approximation by 5 layers will
it is
markedly off the exact solution, the case k = 10 being settled

approximately right and k = 20 and 40 differing only little from each
yield results
other.
For a plot of given k the
<p-scale
may
be recalibrated in terms of A/A
by(ll-43b).
For a
different
with A t
to be compared, the problem
than the wavelength.
We
A 2 fixed, other working sections would have
becoming
critical
with
substantially smaller
are then forced into using rather condensed working
sections of the plots.
This inconvenience
may be remedied by expanding
horizontal direction in proportion to their
We
initial
the plots in the
degrees of condensation.
recompute the sequences {n v } each time using relative

-1
{fc
}, k = 5, 10, 20, 40. The physical meaning
shall therefore
optical thickness patterns
of the phase angle
is
then
cp
independently of
fc.
The
2k
(A)
plots have a uniform condensation
conveniently compared, as
We may now
is
and may be
evident from Fig. 10-5 and 10-6.
appreciate
exactly the various approximations
more
in terms of the A/A ratio.
The conclusion drawn
<
A/A
<
1.5
for the
above chosen working range 0.75 <

it is becoming evident that with A/A
remains unchanged, but
decreasing greater strain
The same
is
is
placed on the approximation.
true for A/A increasing: the
of the cases represented in Fig. 10-4 are
now
common
peaks at
<p
displaced to the values
fcrc
462
T3
c
as
a
3
ta
O
s
463
and the new curves are symmetrical about knl2. It is evident that with
increasing k the battle for good convergence of the inserted multilayers
is never definitely won.
Taking half of the extended period to be a safe
repetition of the zero peak,
we
A
which determines the k
limit in
q>
against the
arrive at the condition
requisite for very large A/ A values: the
components
most be A/4 thick.

small
A/A
a convenient k is determined by
hand,
for
On the other
inspection of several curves of the type shown in Fig. 10-5, 6.
(ii) Alternatively we may operate a program with A as the independent
variable, the dielectric multilayer being specified by {n v } and by a
of the inserted multilayer should at the
sequence of optical thicknesses {A,}.
Otis of symmetry for
k-S
20
a/a.
an exponential n(5)-profile between n =

4 displayed with uniform condensation of the g(A/A) diagrams.
Fig. 10-6 Various approximations of
ng
15
and
464
Taking again the

central wavelength,
interval
4000
we may compute the
8000 A with A
6000 A as the
gfl) curves of a simulating multi-
layer having various total optical thicknesses A.
C;05
Fig. 10-7 g(A) curves for the exponential n(d)-layer of various optical
thicknesses A.
465
As an example we take an exponential (c5>profile between n = 1

and n = 2 (corresponding to a hyperbolic n(z)), insert 20 layers equidistantly
and choose in turn A = A /4, A/2, 3A /4, A 2A The optical thicknesses
are then 75, 150, 225, 300 and 600 A (generally A/fc). The corresponding
curves are shown in Fig. 10-7.
The A /4 case is the vertically inverted part of the zero peak in Fig. 10-6.
.
Some further segments of g(<p) gradually come on the scene with A increasing.
Let us tentatively delete the
start
with 1.339. This
is
the
first
first
eight layers so as to have
approximated by the 12 remaining
layers.
The
tail
an exponential n(d) layer of total

X = 6000 with a discontinuous jump 1/1.339 at
b) example of the antireflecting effect of an inhomogeneous
layer with a profile according to next figure
thickness
realistic
x and 2x
A/2,
now
of the profile and the
Fig. 10-8 a) reflectance curve g(A) of

optical thickness 2X,
the front,
value of an exponential n(<5)-profile
and with
6000 A.
total optical
466
value n
12 layers
2 remain unchanged. The total optical thickness of the remaining
is
again supposed to equal 2X
shows that
Fig. 10-8a
is
q(X) oscillates
about approximately 2 %, which
the value of the Fresnel reflection coefficient rl x
This
may be
interpreted as the result of taking the
rn
fe
1.3,
approximately. Since
in Fig. 10-7),
we have
fe
(10-44a)
An
medium of refractive
be very small (compare curve 2X
will
to a first approximation
r
Fig. 10-9
1/1.339 step.
?e
concerns the inhomogeneous layer seen from a
where
index
on the
sum
oi
(10-44b)
r.
exponential w(<5)-profile with discontinuous jumps at the
boundaries such that r 01
This addition of extra amplitudes
is
= r12
typically applied as
an extension
of the method based on the summing of simple reflections, Eq. 10-40.

In the present interpretation we combine the exact approximation of fe
by inserted
in 10-8a
is
profiles
of course entirely
As a next
12-layer profile
jump
sum by (10-44a, b). The curve shown

computed by the inserted profile method.
with one simple
step let us replace the supporting
by a glass of usual refractivity
(Fig. 10-9).
medium of
1.52, thus
the present
forming a downward
Since
1.339
is
467
very nearly as 1.52
2,
we have an
additional Fresnel
amplitude at the output, of equal magnitude but opposite sign with r 01 .

Thinking in terms of simple reflections we may say that on the condition
that the exponential profile will be A /2 thick, there will result zero reflection
at A
This situation has already been predicted within the
mation, 10.4.2. The design will
now be checked by
the
WKBJ
approxi-
method of inserted
shows the resulting antireflection curves for A = A j2

of about the same order as that of the simulated
antireflection bi-layer ( 3.4.1) so that the method must be regarded only
as another means of obtaining a truly zero minimum.
profiles: Fig. 10-8b
and X
The
selectivity is
has heen shown in Ch. 9 that the inhomogeneous layer is the
optimum
means of obtaining broad-band antireflection. The practical
limitation is the initial jump from the air to the realizable starting value.
There is more scope for applying inhomogeneous antireflection layers in
the sphere of high-index ir substrates where the initial jump from the air
plays a minor part in the overall improvement. Also, wherever two materials
of different refractive index are to be matched, the inhomogeneous layer
should be the best solution. However, the practical production of inhomogeIt
theoretical
neous layers
(iii)
still
seems to be in the
initial
phase,
Despite the existence of a conversion theorem for the n(d) and n(z)
solutions,
it is
useful to have a direct formal
n(z) profile. This
the ^-functions if
The
may be accomplished
we proceed
means of integrating the
with a program for computing
in the following way:
interval of integration <0,
h}
is
divided into k segments of equal
length hjk, the corresponding optical thicknesses being given by
Ad v
n(z v
)^ =
nv
(10-45)
z v are the abscissae
e.g. in the centres of the segments, k should be reasonably high so as to truly contour n(z) in its substantial features.
The
total optical thickness is
hence (10-45)
may be
approximately
= Zd v =
^Zn
(10-46)
cv6
(10-47)
written as
Ad,
= -p-d =
2
468
If the case
is
treated as a multilayer with relative optical thicknesses c v
then the results are computed in dependence on

the scale
may be
recalibrated in terms of
8jL
q>
2nk~ 1 8 whereupon
If desired, the ratio 5/X
may
replaced by hjX by means of (10-46).
An
important practical improvement can
now be made by
replacing
the relative thicknesses {c v } by the proportional sequence {n v } already read

off the interpolating
graph and tabulated in the data sheet as the refractive
469
indices of the inserted profile. This simplification
the <p-scale in that the independent variable

the computation, but the results are plotted
is
is
made good by expanding
taken
2 v -times
on a normal
smaller in
p-scale.
As an example we take a linear profile n(z) modelling the inhomogeneity

of a high-index layer ( = 2.2), possibly due to some irregularities in the
evaporation process. (Some kind of inhomogeneity is occasionally assumed
as a perturbation
on the homogeneous model of thin
films, [4], [19].)
We shall suppose the refractive index to vary in a weaker and a stronger

way, the number of inserted layers always being
10.
n changes between 2.15 and 2.25:

wv
2.155
+ (v- 1)0.01,
Fig. 10-10a, b, c Effect of inhomogeneity
on
2.2 range) in three typical parameters.
sidered as indicated in text
curves
l,2...9
(10-48a)
optical performance of a single layer (in the
A weaker and stronger inhomogeneity is con-
(b), (c).
Curves
(a) represent the
homogeneous case.
470
n changes between 2.05 and 2.35:
nv
Owing
2.065
(v
1) 0.03,
1, 2, ...
(10-48b)
to linearity, in both cases
Z
Taking a 10 step in
(p,
nv
10 x 2.2
22
we have a dummy
step 10/22
0.454 682 in
the computations taking the sequences (10-48a, b) both as refractive indices
and as relative thicknesses.

The results of the computations are
typical effects of inhomogeneity
(i)
(ii)
visualized in Fig.
10-10.
Three
were considered:
change of reflectance curve
(Fig. 10- 10a)
method when measuring
misinterpration of the Abeles
the refractive
index (Fig. 10-10b)

(iii)
the impact
In the
on
first
ellipsometric data (Fig. 10-10c).
respect there
substantial difference between the layer
is
working in the A/4 or 1/2 conditions. In the former case the effect is negligible,
whereas in the latter it is quite pronounced. There is a substantial reduction
of energy
well.
This
level at the turning point, this
may have
consequences in optical monitoring techniques and
The
in systems using A/2 layers.
mentioned by Clapham in
As another example
type
G3LG 5-9-5,
being slightly shifted in phase as
case of the
Fig. 10-11
trough as indicated by curve
producing nonhomogeneous
antireflection layer
shows the study of a
With the
see 3.5.3.
1:2:1
one such instance.
[19] is
indices 2.2/1.47
it
DHW
filter
of the
has a very shallow
If the evaporation process is susceptible to
layers, then their effect will manifest itself
mainly in the A/2 components. Hence the inhomogeneities by (10-48a, b)

were placed in the two spacer
layers, the results being curves
The maximum of
and
x is shifted
Inhomogeneity (apart from sheer production errors in
may
therefore be responsible for
some of the
theory and experiment with these

Since the Abeles
method
is
<2>
and
<3>.
distorted into a conspicuous trough.

relative thicknesses)
typical discrepancies
between
filters.
in principle
most
sensitive in the A/4 condi-
which is at least roughly respected in experiments, the analysis for (ii)

was carried out for <5/A = const = 0.25, the variable being the angle of
incidence (Fig. 10-10b). Graphical interpolation of the results shows that
tion,
the error in n incurred by ignoring a possible non-homogeneity of the given

material
is less
than 0.003. This
is
the
same order of magnitude
accuracy obtainable with the method and
may
be regarded as
as the best
negligible.
it is
471
Unless a net of curves for various adjacent refractive indices is available,

impossible in the case (Hi) to extract from Fig. 10-10c the erroneous
parameters
n,
h of a layer considered homogeneous.
the A/2 condition
is
at least clear that
It is
again more dangerous and, further, the parameters
measured with an inhomogeneous film differ by more than is the

accuracy of the method from the values to be expected with a normal film.
actually
This
is
particularly true of the angular difference 8 P
8S
90
6000
5000
5300
6200
6100
eooo
maximum of a G3LG 5-9-5

due to inhomogeneities of the spacer layers.
Fig. 10-11 Distortion of transmittance

filter
DHW
10.8 Notes on the preparation of inhomogeneous layers
The problem of producting an inhomogeneous
layer
is
closely linked
with that of mixing an intermediate index n from two materials such that
n\
<
<
This
may be accomplished
either
by evaporating a defined
mixture of two technologically suitable materials from one boat, or by

simultaneously evaporating the two components from separate boats keeping the deposition rates constant.
An
example for the
CeF 3 and CeO z
[20],
first
method
is
or of cryolite and ZnS
the evaporation of a mixture of

[21],
The second method has been
472
particularly studied
being
Ge and ZnS
mentation, but
it is
may by
deposited
by Jacobsson and coworkers, the materials
[22]. It
in question
more complicated experimental imple-
requires a
more general in that the instantaneous refractive index

by the relationship between the two rates ot
controlled
evaporation (the accomodation coefficients being regarded as constant.)

In any case, the refractive index formed is the result of combining the
molecular refractions of the two materials proportionally to their weights
per unit volume.
Supposing that the materials obey the Lorentz-Lorenz theory of

dispersion, the governing formula
tf
where
p
is
w lf w2
-l
is
nl-l -^
Hr
v=i,2
+2
(10-49)
pv
ft,
w t + w2 =
are relative concentrations by weight, with
1.
density of the materials.
The concentration wv by weight

the formula (denoting by
wv =
M,
M M
t
is
related to that
M
M
v Kp
w 2 = -^- =
w +M
-rr=
M M
Vp
v
p
~-^-
t>
was supposed that the volume
it
sum of the component volumes
V12
This
Vp
of the mixture
is
(10-50)
where
by volume vv by
the respective masses)
is
equal to the
not necessarily the case when
evaporating the mixture to a thin film and slight discrepancies
caused by
pancies in
intrinsic reasons the refractive
computed. This
It is
index of the mixture
it is
is
greater than that
is
possible to deduce basic relationships that
development of the process to reproducible
Inserting (10-50) into (10-49)
we
to be taken.
may
is
simpler than (10-49), but
it
guide the
results.
eventually have
fer-i
n + 2
v=i,i 4^S
n + 2
which
be
effect is called optical exaltation.
with these provisions that the subsequent theory
Nevertheless,
practical
may
Even with massive materials there may be discrethe use of the mixing rule and it sometimes happens that for
this effect [21].
must be admitted that
do-so
it is
in practice
work by weight concentrations than by volumes, particularly when

handling the materials in powder form. It is therefore expedient to summarize
easier to
the relationships between the corresponding quantities.
Given the weights
473
and
combined into an evaporant mixture,
then the concentrations by volume are
Vi
and
similarly for v 2
It
may
pl
may be
p2
p2
(10-52)
2 pi
computed that
+ V2 p 2
Af t/p!
hence the formula (10-50)
+ vz
further be
\__ V
P
Vi
v,
iPi
(10-53a)
v 2 p2
w.
2 /p 2
(10-53b)
P2
Pi
rewritten as
W1P2
w.
(10-54a)
W t p 2 + W 2 p!
Pi
or as
w,
fiPi
iPi
(v 2
(10-54b)
t>,
v2 p2
and w2 again being obtained by an exchange of the
subscripts
and 2
in the right-hand sides).
Let us
we
now return to (10-51) and solve for .
After some manipulations
arrive at the formulae
+ 2(n\v + n\v 2) _ n\ - at^ _

1 + bv
2 + n\v 2 + n\v
_ nfPi + [!(P 2 ~ Pi) ~ ap 2 ] w
Pi + [(P2 ~ Pi) + b P 2 ] Wl
n\n\
(10-55a)
(10-55b)
where
a=2
n?
b=a
2
(10-55c)
Whether mixing by volume or by weight, these are hyperbolic

shown in Fig. 10-12 as cases 1 and 2.
curves,
graphical examples being
2
modification of this procedure consists in taking n
additive part of molecular refraction. This
adopted by Jacobsson in paper

[23].
[22],
as the
Drude theory of dispersion was
but later both alternatives were followed,
474
The denominators of the type n 2
2 are
now
omitted in (10-51)
and one obtains

n
which
is
vtn
contained in (10-55a)
instead of v x
(10-55b)
v 2 n\
if a
n2
n\
again obtained
is
{n\
and
n\
if these
2
)
vt
new
(10-56)
0.
Introducing
values of a
wt
and b
are adopted.
may be
(10-56)
dielectric constant
is
interpreted as a linear mixing rule for n 2 ,
i.e.
for the
Finally let us mention a simplification of the dispersion formula which

normally allowed with gases, where n x 1 and to a good approximation
2
it
where p
p(
1)
Lorentz-Lorenz theory and p
2/3 for the
=2 "for
Drude's
theory.
The
refractive index
is
= vî +
then computed by the mixing rule
v2 n 2
+(w 2 p
(wip 2 )ni
)n 2
(10-57)
wp 2 + w 2 pi
sometimes named after Biot-Arago.
Applying
we
this simplified
obtain the curves 3 and
A
below
approach to the case computed in
Fig. 10-12
4.
computation following Drude's theory would give

but above 1, 2. The difference relative to 1, 2
3, 4,
negligible considering the factors that are not
results lying
is
practically
under control.
Fig. 10-12 Refractive index of a mixture
of
ZnS
(2
(!
4.08, q 2
2.28, @i
4.1) and Ge
5.4) computed by the
Lorenz theory, using volume
Lorentz
and weight concen3 and 4 represent

analogous functions based on the Biot
Arago mixing rule with /? = 2/3.
concentrations,
trations, 2.
1.0
0.75
0JS
025
V, Ot
Wi
1,
Curves
475
Having now a complete
set of
formulae for the mixing of an
inter-
mediate refractive index we may proceed to the production of an inhomogeneous film. We shall assume with Jacobsson that the deposition rate by
mass per unit
area, interpreted as a time derivative m',
is
a linear function
of time
m'v (t)
m'v0
m';.t,
1,
(10-58)
where the second derivative
m =
m'vT
is
m'v0
a constant determined by the rates m'v0 and m'vT at the start and end of the
T of its duration.
Operating two boats with the aim of producing a monotonic
process and by the time
<
function n(z) one has for t
n2
>m
m'10
2 o,
m'1T
the relationship between the thickness h

is
<m'2J
establishing
must starry
deposit^ during a time
system.
measured from the input boundary of the/>mpleted
The process of computing the function

where z
n(z)
z(t)
Obviously
= (<2. + 2k
V + -(
+
V s At + t Cf2
2 VPi
P2/
p2 /
V Pi
Introducing the quantity
Pi
P2
and noting that

h
(10-60)
increasj;
may be
z(T)
= AT + -i-CT 2 = \{A +
solved for
-a +
t
Uh^-b^J^
B-A
(discarding the minus sign with the square root).
B)
/,
476
Given the rate functions (10-58) we may compute the

instantaneous
concentrations by weight using (10-50) with the differentials
AMv = m'v At
Then
^ =
w,
m't
+ m5o
mio
m'z
-m; )t/r
+ KT-ml + mS T -ffi;
'<o
)f/T
'
Replacing t/T by (10-61) and introducing (10-62) into

(10-55b) one obtains
n 2 as a function of z/h, i.e. the inhomogeneous profile n(z) is now
determined.
For practical purposes it is more convenient to replace the weight rates

m'v by the rates of growth c v of the geometric thickness, which are
directly
It holds that m'v (t) = pc(/).
Let us apply this computation to the case where the material
1 is
Nporated with a rate increasing from to c 1T , while that of material 2
decNses from c
controllable during the evaporation.
20 to 0,
c i(0
i.e.
c iT
C2(0
y,
(i-y)
c 2o
Then
B =
c20 ,
Denoting c 20 /c 1T =K ik,d using

one eventually obtains
n
c 1T ,
c 1T
(io. 55b ) for the
)='^-^L +
(2
CT =
a(n 2
'
c 20
Drude dispersion
theory,
-nf)
(iôp"+ (.--i)J
(10- 63)
This function represents a set of curves

resembling hyperbolic transitions
tween t and n 2 , the curves being concave
for small ( < 1, say) and
convex for large a.
When
1,
one obtains
n
i.e.
the dielectric constant e
{z)
n2
n\
+ {nl-n\)^
is a linear function of z\d. This

is a type
of inhomogeneity for which an explicit
solution exists in terms of Bessel's
functions of order 1/3 (see 10.2.2).
Another explicit solution discussed in [23] is

obtainable for a = (n. In,) 2
Bessel's functions of the order
2/3 appear.
It is doubtful whether any
further cases of inhomogeneity of the
when
(10-63) could be solved in closed form.

Numerical integration by the
type
method
of inserted multilayers
a far more convenient means of inspecting the
of profiles.
for the function (10-63) with n t =
computation
a
The results of such
in [24], a feature of particular
=
displayed
2.35 are graphically
1 .35 and n
potentialities
is
477
of a given
set
a considerable scope for
interest being that there is
fitting the rate factor
n t so as to make the integral reflectance of the

coating less than 0.5%. This seems to indicate that even a moderately
precise control of the evaporation rates may lead to an effective reduction
of reflectance. In terms of our former experience we may say than any
c 20 /c 1T to the substrate index
is a good antireflection coating.

layers including the effect of
inhomogeneous
Numerical studies of
metallic absorption are performed in paper [25].
In conclusion let us mention that as an alternative to the physical
mixing of molecular refractions so far considered there exist methods of
reasonably monotonic profile
optical mixing based

Fig. 6-2a,
b we may
on the concept of equivalent
infer that for very small
index. If
phase angles
we look
<p, i.e.
at
for very
small thicknesses of the constituent layers in the basic period, the equivalent
index is almost non-dispersive and the equivalent optical thickness is a linear
function of the actual phase thickness of the partial layers.
By stacking many periods of type (cB)

the choice of
c,
A(cB), one
may control, through
the effective refractive index thus produced,
it
mostly
holding that n A ^ e ^ n B Details of this are summarized in [26].

The elements of optical mixing (independent of the concept of equivalent index but implicitly using it) are contained in Geffckens' patent [27].
.
The production of an inhomogeneous layer is also outlined there.

The mixing of dielectric and metals is the subject of papers [28, 29].
A nomogram for computing the refractive index of such mixtures is described
in [30].
References
[11
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
P.
10
Drude, Wied. Ann., 43, 136 (1891).
W.
M.
Geffcken, Ann. Phys.
(5),
XL, 385
(1941).
XLLX, No 7 (1948).
R. Jacobsson, Light Reflection from Films of Continuously Varying Refractive Index,
in: Progress in Optics, Vol. V., North Holland, 1966.
E.
[6] S.
BrdiCka, Bull. Ac. Teh. Sci., Prague,
Kamke, Differentialgleichungen reeller Funktionen, Berlin

Monaco, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 51, 280 and 855 (1961).
F.
[7]
G. Bauer, Ann. Phys.,
[8]
H. Schroder, Ann.
(5), 19,
434 (1934).
Phys., (5), 39, 55 (1941).
1930, 25.
478
[9]

P. Epstein, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.
M.
[10] L.
Brechovskich,
Waves
in
USA,
Layered Media, Academic
[11] Z. Knittl,
Czech.
J.
16,
627 (1930).
Volny v sloistych sredach,
Moscow,
1957; English transl.:
Press, 1960.
Phys. B. 18, 763 (1968).
[12] F. Abeles, see ref. 8. in
Ch.
1.
[13]
A. Vasrcek, book, see
ref.
[14]
D. Kossel, Optik,
266 (1948).
[15]
A. Vasi&k, Journ. de Phys.
[16]
M.
3,
13c) in Ch.
1.
et Had., 25, 188 (1964).

Schlick, Thesis, University of Berlin (1904).
[17] F. Bolinder, Fourier
[18]
Transforms in the Theory of Inhomogeneous Transmission Lines,

Kungl. Tech. Hogsk. Handlingar, No 48, Stockholm (1951).
B. G. Kazansky, Trans. 1st Symp. INTERKAMERA, Prague,
329.
1963, p.
Clapham, Trans. Electro-Optics International, Brighton 1972,

Fujiwara, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 53, 880 (1963).
[19] P. B.
[20] S.
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
p. 277.
Y. Basset, Journ. de Phys. et Rod., 12, 65 (1951).

R. Jacobsson, Arkiv f. Fys., 24, No 2, 17 (1963).
R. Jacobsson, Opt. Acta. 10, 309 (1963).
S. Heavens, Thin Film Physics, Methuen, London, 1970.
H. Anders and R. Eichinger, Appl. Opt. 4, 899 (1965).
O.
[26] J. T.
Cox and G. Hass, see ref. 16. in Ch. 3.

German Patent 742463 (1942).
[27]
W.
[28]
R. Jacobsson and
Geffcken,
J. Martensson, Jap. J. Appl. Phys., 4, (suppl.), 333 (1965).

Stensland and L. E. Flordal, Institute of Optical Research, KTH, Stockholm,
TR 1973-07-30.
[29] L.
[30] P.
W.
Baumeister, Opt. Comm.,
1,
Nol, 17 (1969).
A. Schelkunoff, Comm. Pure and Appl. Math., 4, 117 (1951).

P. G. Kard, Izv. Ak. N. Est. SSR., t. XXIII, No 2, 113 (1974).
[31] S.
[32]
[33] S.
Kolnik and K. Macak, Czech.
Problems
10-1
J. Phys.,
18,
749 (1968).
10
Prove that when expanding a certain inhomogeneous profile w(z),

I z I * to /Mimes the length h, the total optical thickness 5 is
/i-times^ the value integrated with n(z) over <0, /j>. Hence 8 hn,
where n is the mean index of refraction computed over any reference
thickness.
10-2 Taking a phasor function of the
cos Pz
form
e exp (jpz)
discuss the travelling
and standing aspects of the corresponding

harmonic wave for various e. (After Schelkunoff, [31]).
10-3 Try to present a general proof of the reciprocity theorem of 10.6.2.
0-4
What
is
the n(z) profile if
(<5) is
hyperbolic ?
479
10-5 Carry out the detailed specification of (10-34) for a homogeneous layer.
10-6 Generalizing the discussion around Eq. (10-44) for two jumps at the
boundaries
<5
of an inhomogeneous
and 8
A,
show
that the
(<5)-profile
sum of complex
extending
between
amplitudes
may be
written as
+00
dd
+
where
Tl(x)
is
ri g
exp
the rectangular function.
If n(S) is exponential as
by (10-41), the central term amounts to the

Fourier transform of the IT function. Rededuce (10-40).
11
Thick layers
Interference films are inevitably produced
material
and mostly
on some kind of
interact with the receiver devices
substrate
through a number
of zig-zag reflections inside the supporting element. The path differences

being extremely large with respect to Jhe wavelength of
light,
we
are led
to the concept of the thick layer with appropriate changes in the computing
techniques. This chapter
is
devoted to the analysis ot some basic elements
of this kind.
11.1 Planeparallel glass blank with coatings
The element most often encountered in practice is the simple thick

The parallel-sided optical medium may be completely lossless (plates
layer.
of light
glass),
absorbing
very slightly absorbing (plates of heavy glass) or markedly
(plates
of semiconducting materials in the
ir).
It is
therefore
Fig. 11-1 Notation used in the simple
thick layer.
* is attenuation of energy
across one traversal.
THICK LAYERS
481
expedient to include substrate absorption in the formulae.
shown
the thick layer are
The notations
for
in Fig. 1L-1.*)
Experience shows that no interference effects take place on thick

films.
The
criterion of being thick does of course
maticity of the illuminating light.
What
depend on the monochro-
thick for white light
is
is
not thick
sodium or cadmium lamps and, in the recent development, almost

nothing in the laboratory is thick enough for laser light. The theory of
for
interference states a condition for the fringes to be visible: the path difference
incurred between interfering rays must be substantially less than the coher2
ence length A /AA, where
AA
the width of the spectral line. This applies
is
to spatial as well as to spectral fringes, the latter intepretation covering

interference films.
We
shall
have in mind plates some millimetres or centimetres thick,
illuminated by white light or by the quasimonochromatic light emerging
from the
of variable monochromators such as are used in spectral
exit slits
photometers.
of
The generally accepted method of computing the resultant intensity

add the partial reflections of energy. Setting up the infinite
light is to
geometric series in accordance with Fig.

instead of complex amplitudes, one
is
11-1,
led to the
_A + (*L-8lQ!)(&*
gt
The coefficients
q', %'; q", t"
at the two boundaries, but they
but adding up energies
formulae
^,
4A*
may result from simple Fresnel reflections

may as well be due to some interference
systems formed on either of the boundaries. Most often

latter type, q", t*
(1Mab)
q', t'
are of the
of the former.
The sums (1 1-1 a, b) have been obtained on a rather intuitive basis, but
a deeper substantiation may be given in referring to the Fourier expansions
introduced in Sect. 7.1.2.*)
Consider
Then (11-la. b)
two expansions (7-9, 14). This
the thick layer to be non-absorbing.
first
are identical with the absolute terms of the

is quite natural if we describe the
observation of the thick layer by integrating
*)
The
upon one
corresponding to
*)
reader's attention
traversal of
is
layer,
Another mathematical treatment of this problem with respect to the concept of

been given in [1]. Tandem arrays of incoherently coupled
partial coherence has recently

filters
* for the attenuation of energy

* 2 in the notation of Ch. 4.
drawn to the new notation
a (thick)
are treated in
[2].
482
the functions (7-9, 14) over the spectrum involved, possibly respecting the
Be
receiver.
the cos
( )
it
white light or even monochromatic
type changes sign
contribution to the integral
terms (11-la,
where the
b),
many
is
q, x
each integrand of
light,
times on a thick layer and
its
physical
zero.
There thus only remain the absolute
may
be functions of X due to some interfer-
ence layers present on the boundaries.
The averaging process may
also be applied to the absorbing thick
layer if the Fourier expansions are properly generalized,
The
[3].
the formulae (11-la, b) including the stipulation that (4-42')
result are
is
appropriate
is
being cons-
fort^:
It
may
be surprising that the interference flux of energy
idered in the theory of the thick layer. This
explained by the fact that there
is
a constant phase relationship between incident and reflected waves at the

second boundary whatever the thickness of the layer and wavelength of
light. The interference term P 2R of Ch. 4. has a fixed direction on the second
is
boundary and does not vanish during the averaging process.
A
is
practical situation involving the use of the formulae (11-la, b)
to find the experimental
the
commputed
results)
lossless substrate are given.
(11-la, b)
It is
(i)
Let
now
where
<W
expedient to
q', x'
first
(which are possibly to be compared with

^, 3~ measured on a complete
q', t'
when
the quantities
This requires an inverion of the formulae
1.
formulate the following problem:
concern a non-absorbing system,
ek
Qi
Q'
tr
<=
and we obtain as a reduction for rear
a-A
1
It is interesting
&=
is
Q' 2
")
2q'
r(x"
- a" - tf(2 -
(ll-2a, b)
i
that a similar manipulation eliminating the front reflection
leads to formally the
where (ll-3b)
arbitrary sytem
reflection
- <(2 -)
t'
t';
an
Then
q", x"
(although mostly a simple Fresnel boundary).
same
result
^Ll
T"
simpler than (ll-2b)
if
there
-^
is
(1 l-3a,
absorption in the rear.
b)
THICK LAYERS
483
Let us recall that in both cases the one-prime boundary must be nonabsorbing.
and
Fig. 11-2.
tions:
Then
The
substrate, too,
is
non-absorbing. The relationship between 8&
for various values of non-absorbing
g'
The values were chosen so
g'
as to cover a
shown graphically in
number of typical situa-
is
blank or antireflected boundaries, possibly also at 45 incidence.

the formulae are valid for the p-
and
s-polarizations and, for example,
for uncoated heavy glass gl assumes the value 16 %.

It is seen that with large values of g' or 3%, the g" of the chosen range
are negligible; for small values of g'
we simply add
g" to obtain
intermediate values the result must be computed by the
full
For
ffl.
formula
(1 l-2a).
Fig. 11-2 Graphical relationship between
& and q' for several values of rear

non-absorptive reflection
scale
& q',
q". Vertical
horizontal
parameter
g'; fixed
g".
Expressing from (ll-2a)
we may
one
state that % is
>
Q"
'
e Q "(2
- M)
always smaller than the simple
sum
g'
which
g",
intuitively regards as a first approximation.
The graphs
if
we read
q'
for the transmittances are contained in the
x',3t
same
figure,
&~.
An intuitive approximation for transmittance is 9~ = t't" which isonly valid for small g'g". Actually, 9~ is always greater than the simple
product, hence t' is smaller than the ratio 9~\x". By (ll-2b) it is simultaneously greater than 9~i*.
(ii)
As a second problem
the
let
us have an absorbing interference system
boundary, the second boundary bearing a lossless

g' hence Sl
$~ = #~
L
R =
L , but still t'r = t'l
R
L
first
Now ek
&
layer.
on
484
In this case the specimen must be measured for reflection on both sides
and the reduction should start with the q'l case. Then the non-absorbing
rear boundary is seen first and we may use (1 l-3a, b) to reduce for q",
thus
,
^l ~
Q"
we
Finally, to determine g'R
tL
l- e "(2-^ L )
first
use (11- la) to express for case
and
illustrated
is
L the
e "(2
(ll-4a) has the
by the graph
it
reduced values (ll-4a, b) we eventually have
g'
The formula
(ii)
- qLq"
x'
(ll-4a, b)
l-e"(2-<L)
t2
Inserting for
ti
- ^l)
possible with (ll-4b, c) because
structure as (ll-2a)
same
in Fig. 11-2.
No
it is
t"
and
is
again
reasonable in-advance calibration
not
known which
values
F,
0t^, 0t^
are compatible by the energy balance for various metals. The formulae must
be used with the particular values measured.
11.1.1
A pile of plates
Having more
parallel plates in
films. Again, a recursion process
tandem
analogous to a stack of
is
may be used summing up
the repeated use of the formulae (11-la, b). It
is
intensities
irrelevant whether
we
by
start
recursion from the front or rear. *)
on a remarkably simple form

are non-absorbing. Writing for one pair of boundaries
The computation
jr
takes
III*
1-(1-T )(1-T 2 )
1
if all
III?
T!
T2
the
media
(11-5)
T,T 2
This recursion process does not consider the possible formation of Brewster superposition fringes, which are low-order extrema of interference due to zig-zag reflections
along considerable paths in small rational relationships. The risk of running into
*)
such
situations in
normal thin film practice
is
very small.
THICK LAYERS
we may
485
express the result as
-UJ--
Repeating the computation by

the pattern (11-5)
we
(1 1-lb) for
more boundaries and using
arrive at the formula
(fc
Y,
1).
number
of boundaries (11-6)
11.2 Cemented plate
A thin film system on a glass substrate is sometimes used in the cemented

condition (Fig. 11-3). Considering the symmetrical condition
glasses are identical
when
the
and the outer surfaces have the same treatment, we
obtain by one recursion step according to (11-la, b)
g"(l
~ ?'') + fr" ~ Q")ie + (t 2 - gV 2 ] V 1
9
<y
(n _ 7a)
TT
(ll-7b)
where
g>
;r'
ot.R-p
an interference
system in the cemented condition.

Fig. 11-4 Graphical relationship between
St
and q
in the
cemented case for several
values of the outer non-absorptive

reflections g".
2 2/o/ 4
-Q 2\
)Q
(r
Fig. 11-3 Notation for
2qq"
(ll-7c)
486
q l and -ate $tK 0i L ,

even if the cemented system in absorbing. The plots of the formulae for the
Owing to symmetric embeding of the
lossless case are

It is
shown
layer q k
in Fig. 11-4.
only for the lossless case that a relatively simple formula obtains
for reducing for the outer reflections:
m"~
0-S
- 4q" +
(t being then equal to
much
3q"
/+
2
(11-8)
2q"t"M
q).
when
perspicuous situation arises
less
the cemented layer
is
absorbing, q and t cannot be separated from (11 -7a, b) and reduced, unless
we know
the corresponding absorption a.
If the substrate is non-absorbing there
from
the*
measured si
is
a way of computing a
0t
$~.
They are
related
=
by
the equation
\\-0tQ"
where
&
and 3~
The equation
\-Q"J
contribute to the absorption of energy in

to 100
The
denoted in Fig. 11-4.
refer to the auxiliary subsystems
two internal encountering waves

the cemented systems, si is referred
(11-9) expresses the fact that
of incident energy from the

quantities 3&,
air, (see 2.6.6).
F are obtainable from
01,
F by applying the reduc-
tion for the front non-absorbing reflection q", Eq. (11 -3a, b), with -properly
adapted notations.
Hence
"
1
q"{2
&-
-m)
q"(2
(11-10)
0t)
Inserting into (11-9) leads to the result
i.e.
the actual a
Now we
t
n"
may very nearly be taken equal to the
are able to
\~
n"
(t
q) (t
global si.
compute
g)
=
1
(e
2q) e
a = 1 -sf
where
THICK LAYERS
and the reduction
487
is
+{\-2q")z 2q"-^-x"z
^r
q"
q" 2
(1
11.3
2q")(2eq"
1)
9~
(11-1 la)
t"
(11-1 lb)
The cube
new problem
inside a
arises
when
taking into account multiple reflections
cemented cube.
From
the incident bundle /(Fig. 11-5) there
now form
four bundles
of rays:
P
L
going right
going upwards
going
left
R reflected downwards
It
proves
difficult to
sum up the multiple reflections by simply
the sides of the cube in the hypotenuse
new scheme must be
and proceeding
used, dissecting the cube into fictitious elementary
configurations like Z, N, where the multiple reflections
Fig. 11-5 Notation used in the general
theory of the cube.
mirroring
as with a thick layer.
* is the attenuation
of energy in glass across the path equal

to the cube thickness.
may be
easily
488
counted and computed. Further bars are then added to these patterns,
forming
Z
Eventually the
cube
full
obtained, there always being a simple pattern
is
for counting the reflections.
A standard approach would be to consider the outer walls of the cube

as essentially non-selectively reflecting with coefficients q", t"
q"
The hypotenuse being provided with some reflecting

systems of parameters q, t, a, our objective would be to compute the relative
on each of the
walls.
intensities in the P, T, L,
channels.
more general formulation of
as having
own
the problem
is
to consider each wall
and
some regions of the spectrum substantially reflecting. This may
bring about some interesting interaction between the five reflecting surfaces,
resulting in the mixing of differently filtered fluxes. The scheme will therefore
be carried through without any intermediate simplifications possibly due
its
transfer coefficients, possibly wavelength-dependent
at least in
to q" being small.
We
shall use the following
The
basic orientation of the cube will be as in Fig. 11-5, with the walls
denoted by A,
B,
C, D.
system of notations:
The sought
transfer coefficients will be denoted
T ba
Pba>
L123
a R ba
where the subscript consists of a symbol for the
Our method
ing the input wall.
will
(H-12)
full
cube and
letter indicat-
be to reduce the computation to ever
simpler elements.
As a
first
step
we explode
the cube in the following way:
A
giving rise to one bar
and one
torso,
IZ
DA
which in the following step
looked at in two orientations with respect to oncoming
will
be
light:
lA
Id
The letter subscripts indicate the input wall if the symbol is regarded as one
and the same torso of the above indicated exploding process. A certain
THICK LAYERS
489
subscript letter then implies certain other subscript letters in the coefficients
of the cube walls operating in the particular summations for the
q, x
L,
how
Supposing we know
ND
RZ)A
(ll-13a)
ND L ND ^ND
(ll-13b)
'
Fig. 11-6 Interaction between the
first
subtracted bar (shown dashed) and
the remaining Zl torso. Bar and torso considered contiguous, hence

glass absorption
we can
set
up
explicitly present in the
is
no
sums.
the series for multiple reflections between the element
the recently subtracted bar as follows by Fig. 11-6

1
T,
compute
to
zia TziA LZA
P,
fluxes.
and
write, with
and
QD =
dHnd>
Piza
Pa a
I-zaSdTrdO
Pza
-ziaTpjd6d
+ Sd^nd + 6d^nd
+) =
Qd
iZA
'zA
'-za'-nd^d
r
-1ZA
(11-H)
-ZA^D
Qd
R|ZA
I^ZA
1-z
a nuSd
The computation of (11-12) is thus reduced to (11-14) and to a further

computation of (11 -13a, b). Decomposing
Zl-Z-I
A
N-N*~
D
490
7!
zfl
B
B_ 111
--,
PI
P
11
Fig. 11-7 Multiple reflections
when
the Zl -coefficients
and using
if
QB =
D
r
ZA
isolating the second bar, building
(a),
and
the reflection schemes according to Fig. 11-7
e BR NB
up
N-coefficients (b).
we
further write,
2A
~ TB
L ZA
I
>
L ZA
*ZA'nbb
"I
Qb
T'ZIA _
T'ZA
ZANB
~ gB
_i_
=
*ZA
ZA =
(11-15)
pX
*ZA H
"^ZA
^B
p_
r
ND
T_
p
r
ND
Qb
'ndLnb^b
~Z
"I
PzaI-nbGb
L ND
i
>
U ND
i
"+"
T ND P NBeB
Qb
NDT B
The computation of
D_
ND
__ D
"ND
'
(11-1 3b) is thus reduced
(11-16) to the computation of
za>
T ZA
NB'
T NB
ndj
T ND) L nd
L ZA ,
R ZA
L NB ,
R NB
(11-16)
ND^NB^B
R.
nd
by formulae
(11-15),
THICK LAYERS
491
K
N
\l
Fig. 11-8 Direct counting of the zig-zag reflections in the
"N
Z and
elements.
This
may be
carried out
PZA
by the schemes of Fig. 11-8 and we have
Lza
= *
*/JQcQ
'
(11-17)
TZA =
NB
^TATTC
RZA
JV QTQtfc
1-NB
TNB = ^T +
where
Q=
ND
The
subscripts
<% 2 x 2
QT A
(11-18)
Q TQ X QC
RNB
= ^Vâ
q k q c .*)
coefficients are obtained
A and
6A
from
(11-18)
by interchanging the
C.
This makes the set of formulae complete. Fig. 11-9 contains a flow
chart of the interdependencies between the partial coefficients leading to a
2 A coefficient. The general process is too involved to be

an other way than by recursion. It is of course anemable
to numerical soundings by a computer.
particular final
written out in
*)
is
It is
only in these two sets of coefficients for the cube that the damping factor <&
contained.
492
There are very many ways how, and degrees to which, the separate
on the walls and hypotenuse may be combined into any of
five functions
us suppose qb =
Then the L-channel obtains the product qx, which
the four output functions.
=
is
As a
very simple example
t d = 1.
1; t a
qc
a kind of mixing of the hypotenuse system with
PZA
let
itself.
Pe,A
Lba
-rBA
&BA
RZA
P*0
%o-l
*-ND
&H0
t
'HO
Fig. 11-9 Flow-chart for the combinations of the directly countable Z-
N-coefficients into higher-order torsos
It is easily
in t
is
seen that an
and the
and
final results.
upward or downward edge between
transformed in L into a
maximum
and
of parabolic shape with the top
reaching t =0.5, the width being equal to the space occupied by the edge.
maximum
two almost continuous edges of

two maxima of half the original height,
occupying the spaces of the original component edges.
Further, a
opposite slope will be
in i visualized as
split into
Further transforming capacities could be revealed in other channels

with other combinations of the wall functions. In this respect the cube with
general coatings may be regarded as a potential means of incoherent
coupling of the
five interference systems.
Such a coupling
effected with
an
THICK LAYERS
493
array of glass plates
wolski
is
already established as an extension of synthetic
for interference systems, as witnessed
methods
by the papers of Dobro-
([4], [5]).
Cementing more cubes together would increase the number of systems

coupled in
this alternate
the reflections
still
way, the method of decomposition in counting
being applicable.
The simple beam-splitting cube
11.3.1
We
now withdraw
shall
have the same
coefficients g", t* corresponding to
glass surfaces in
There
the general assumptions
on
the properties
specialize for the usual case that the four outer walls
of the cube walls and
bare or antireflected
normal incidence.
a substantial simplification of structure in the exact treatment
is
Q B = Q c = Qd ~ Q"> enabling the formulae to be written down

explicitly with only a small number of composite notations. We refrain
when Q\
from stating this result, because the case is simultaneously accompanied

by g" being practically very small (equal at the most to 0.08 the Fresnel
coefficient for heavy glass in normal incidence).
The simplified exact solution may then further be replaced by formulae
respecting only one*) traversal across the cube in each of the basic directions.
We
have
P
L
T =
<%%" 2 g
= 2^ 2 g"z" 2 gx
R = g\\
<^t" t
<% 2 t" 2
- 2<*VV)
(11-19)
These functions are displayed graphically in Fig. 11-10 for a non-absorbing

beamsplitter (g + x = 1) and g" = 0.05 or 0.01. Several damping factors
in glass are considered.
It
can be
verified
from the graphs and from (11-19) that

p
+ T = %x" 2 =
R + L
and
*)
e"(l
further, neglecting g" in t"
it
One
+T +
is
(1
R+L=^ +
zig-zag in a glass plate
2
entails a factor q" . It
is
^V
-
const
2
g"[l
g")
const
2
,
(2
<%)
<>U\
xW
energetically proportional to q", whereas in the
cube
therefore reasonable to regard (1 1-19) as a useful approximation.
494
1-Ut'
>
pVO
,?,>\
&
-OK
005
The four channels of the simple cube when
Fig. 11-10
<2>. <>
which
is
q"
is
small.
= 0.01. In all cases * = 0.98.
Q"
@ q"
the energy balance for the cube as a whole, considering
three outputs. Total absorption
due to
si
0.05;
all
the
glass is then
- %
as if only one straight traversal of the cube were taking place.
Since only the outputs P and

light
when
R+L
Even
if
= 1-(P +
the glass
is
are as a rule functional, the loss of
must be borne
in
T)
= 1-
non-absorbing,
non-treated glass and about 2

effect
using the cube as a beamsplitter
mind when
loss
is
>
Gabriel and A. Nedoluha, Opt. Acta, 18, 41 5 (1971).

Baumeister et al., Opt. Acta, 19, 853 (1972).
[1]
C.
J.
P.
W.
[3]
Z. Knittl, Czech. J. Phys.,
[4] J.
[5] J.
B 13,
A. Dobrowolski, Appl. Opt.,

A. Dobrowolski, Appl. Opt.,
189 (1963).
9,
assessing the quality of the beamsplitting
11
[2]
,2
this means a 10
virtual loss with
with antireflected walls. This side-
system alone.
References
1396 (1970).
12, 1885 (1973).
THICK LAYERS
Problems
495
11
11-1 Prove that the equivalent of formula (11-6)
Compare
this expression
is
with the absolute terms in Kard's expansions
for qjx in 8.2.
11-2 Considering the thick layer as a reflection-reducing element prove that

its efficiency
in white light will be
maximum
if
11-3 Derive the formula for measuring the transmittance of a coated
specimen with respect to an identical uncoated glass in the reference

channel.
11-4
Note that
for
no absorption
in the hypotenuse of the simple cube
we
have
P(e)
T(i
e ); R(e )
R(i
where P(g) means P as a function of q,

11-5
Show
e );
!-(<?)
L(i
e)
etc.
that the transmittance of a glass slab in air (including multiple
reflections) is
2 "*
\+n\
12
Perturbations
We
thin films
have completed the presentation 01 the basic theory of optical

and of some design procedures now in use. The working hypoth-
eses, greater or lesser simplifications
We now
of the actual conditions, were sum-
to the point when it is possible

abandon some of the restrictions and accept the resulting influence as a
kind 01 perturbation on the standard phenomenological model of stratified
media. We thus come to considering the dispersion of dielectrics, their
spurious absorption due to scattering in the mass ot the film, and their
surtace roughness, giving rise to a turther scattering and modification of
marized in the introduction.
come
to
the reflectivities. These effects are of a physical nature. *)
When applying thin film theory in technical practice, one often encounters such
odd
in lenses etc.
effects as
cumulative
tint in
These technical factors
bloomed systems, obliquity
will also
heading of perturbations. The inevitable
may no doubt
be
classified as
effects
be discussed under the overall
toll
paid in production errors
a technical perturbation, too.
12.1 Dispersion of dielectrics

In the introductory chapter
we have
presented as one of the working
hypotheses of thin film theory the assumption of constant refractive indices
of dielectric media. The computed spectral parameters of thin film systems

are far less sensitive to changes in refraction than lens systems are in their
*)
Unwanted inhomogeneity should be added
in 10.7 as
item
(iii).
to this
list.
It
was already discussed
PERTURBATIONS
497
imaging properties.
Two
decimal places are generally sufficient in the know-
ledge of n to calculate the basic properties of most dielectric systems.
Weak
dispersions thus automatically cannot apply.
To
practical inference
as
one must consider the

and the actual spectral interval. The
assess a dangerous degree of dispersion
dispersion curve of a given material

is
MgF 2 Na 3 AlF 6
,
that the refractive indices of low-index materials such
Si0 2
SrF 3
TbF4 may
be considered constant, for
example, in the whole visible spectrum, slightly different constant values

being adopted in the near or far infra-red regions. Dispersion tables for
some of
these materials are presented in the
Parallel tables for
some high-index
play a significant role even
if
one
is
first
materials
columns of Table
show
12-1.
that dispersion
may
confined to the visible spectrum. Never-
most of the reasoning on classical systems was carried out on the

assumption of a constant n H This is because the salient features usually
analysed were distributed over a narrow region of the spectrum. Thus to
theless,
understand, for example, the operation of the stop-band of a tuned stack,
and steepness of its edges, the principal response of pass-band

monochromatic filters or the
design of simple antireflection layers, one did not have to consider the
dispersion of either n L or n H or any other index possibly involved.
Once the basic design has been achieved and it comes to realization, the
the location
ripple to outer extensions, the principles of
laboratory
is
induced to contemplate the perturbations that
may
cause
and measured performance. In the opening

stages, most of these may be blamed on the tuning, but when this is felt to
have settled down, it may come to other factors, at least in those cases where
the persisting deviations do some harm to the envisaged function of the
discrepancies between predicted
layer system. Thus, dispersion of dielectrics
account for a problem or to solve

Let us
first
of
all treat
may sometimes be invoked
to
it.
the problem in general. Speaking of dispersion,
one cannot, of course, compute the phase diagrams g((p), S(q>) of the dibut the ^-diagrams must be used instead, the required
electric stacks,
positioning of the prototype <p-curves in the spectrum having been specified.
Thus a dielectric (not necessarily alternating) system is fully defined

by the usual sequences {} of refractive indices and {cv } of relative thicknesses, with the additional stipulation that the latter set
optical thickness
values
value q
=
so
may be derived,
Q((p )
<p
A measured
for example,
referred to a unit
from the condition
of the dispersion-less phase diagram

27tA
is
at a reference wavelength A
q(<p)
These two
that a typical
be placed in
498
Owing
to dispersion, the set of relative thicknesses {c v } defined for A
changes across the spectrum according to
C;
c,
"
"vA
(12-1)
vO
'vO
while the reference thickness
The
remains unchanged.
actual set of optical thicknesses seen in the stack at various
wavelengths
is
{A
The
c v; }:
dispersive change of the c v
by
(12-1) causes the
stack to assume different relative thicknesses at different wavelengths.
Table 12-1
The extreme
some numerical studies.
Dispersion tables of four typical thin film materials*).

blue region
is
formally extrapolated to enable
A(A)
MgF2
Si0 2
3000
1.384
1.515
2.558
250
1.512
2.500
500
1.509
2.450
2.745
1.507
2.410
2.657
1.504
2.372
2.564
4 250
1.503
2.340
2.512
4 500
1.500
2.313
2.471
4 750
1.498
2.290
2.443
5 000
1.496
2.269
2.4195
1.494
2.250
2.402
1.492
2.234
2.387
5 750
1.491
2.220
2.375
6000
1.489
2.210
2.363
6 500
1.487
2.195
2.346
1.483
2.184
2.334
1.478
2.167
2.324
1.474
2.160
2.322
1.471
2.155
2.320
3 750
4000
1.375
5 250
5 500
*)
The
ZnS
Ti0 2
1.368
7000
8000
9000
1.366
10 000
1.363
values for
MgF2
and ZnS were taken from
[37]
and
[38], respectively.
The
remaning two tables are modifications of dispersion curves given in [39], supported by
Brewster angle measurements. However, these choices should not be regarded as experimentally authoritative.
The aim of the
present section
is
to discuss the structure of the
means of visualizing the results. Anyone

possession of other data may then repeat the same scheme of analysts.
dispersion problem
and
find convenient
in
499
PERTURBATIONS
composed of two materials only and has

most of the cv0 are unity or rational numbers),
In the case that the stack
high internal tuning at A
(i.e.
is
one can interpret the situation in the following way:

Choose, for example, the high-index layers with c v0
as reference
and
define a variable unit optical thickness as
-^
"ho
A 3A = A
For a general wavelength A define a new
(12-2)
set
of relative thicknesses with
respect to (12-2), thus
Cva
For the H-layers
this
= Cvon
amounts to
c vX
nesses of the other layers changing as (12-3)
thickness being given

(12-2)
expresses
may
an
c v0
c H0 , the relative thick-
and the relevant unit
optical
(12-2).
be interpreted as an overall
shift
of the system, (12-3)
internal detuning of the L-layers with respect to the H-layers as
compared with the
by
(12-3)
"HA
v0
starting situation at
change of refractive indices finds
its
expression also in the Fresnel
reflection coefficients taking part in the interferences.

It is
these three changes that
may
cause some distortion of the theoret-
ical non-dispersive prototype-functions q(X)
when
inspected over a broader
spectral interval.
There was some arbitrariness in choosing the H-layersJbr reference.

In the practically important case that n L is almost without dispersion, we
could replace n H by L = L0 when computing A 0A by (12-2). The overall
shift is then zero and all the changes of A may be interpreted as detuning
of the H-layers by a formula of the type (12-3) where the subscripts
are
replaced by L.
-
Hewever, even now it
is
wise to be prepared to speak of shifts as well as
of distortions. Take, for example, the system

less
G in the dispersion-
assume values different from unity.

continuously changing, for example between 1 and
condition and
If c is
H H) L]
1 [(c
phase diagrams
let c H
is
obtained, continuously
filling
curve shown in Fig. 3-7 and that shown in Fig. 3-11 as case
said that the
jc/2
and
3ji/2 central
maxima of
the
2,
a series of
the space between the
first
2: it
may be
case were shifted
500
to the
jt/3
and
2ji/3 positions,
being accompanied by simultaneous
this
distortions of the pass-band ripple.
Before analysing certain complex systems numerically,

in
some
let
us investigate
of dispersion in one layer.
detail the influence
A dielectric layer with dispersion

We shall make use of the formula for % resulting from (3-2b) because it
explicitly contains all the refractive indices.
will
That of the
be considered as A-dependent. Eliminating cos 2
q>
film,
denoted as n F
in the
denominator
we have
x
4w g [(
g)
(n F
n\n\n F
n%
2
)
sin
<p]~
Obviously, the extremes oft will be identical with those of the denominator. Differentiating the latter
2{n F
nln\n F
) n'F
sin
we have
2
q>
(n
2
-
(i)
two
Wo n g n F
x t- n F h F
Setting this equal to zero yields
no
n l)
s ^ n 2<j
1\
nF
situations:
sin r,
\l\\L%
==
rip
In the dispersion-less case
"f
np
Q =
(12-4)
"ffA
,.
n FX
odd is
2nnX hp *Q
cotan -r- F n F I
\ X
J
(ii)
(n
"0g
\2
n g) n F
and the usual
(12-5)
n ng nF
result
A =
2/4, /
obtained.
In the general case one must compute

localized extreme
and then solve
(12-4).
for the wavelength of the
Assuming the
effect to
be small,
we can replace the cotan function by (7t/2-argument): (12-4) then

a quadratic equation for the optical thickness with the solution
n F hF
= 4[y( 1 +VC 1 +
16*" 2 G])1
leads to
(12-6)
PERTURBATIONS
501
where only the plus sign had to be taken for the square root. Half of its
difference from unity indicates the relative error incrurred when taking no
heed of dispersion.
In the practically important case n
the
Q2
factor
is
positive for
n n g and the negative slope of the dispersion curves then makes Q

always positive. The true optical thickness at A e = Amax or Xmia is therefore
all
>
greater than the quarterwave value.

If the film is exactly antireflecting,
Q2 = Q =
and there
is
no
displac-
ement of X e Various degrees of dispersion around the antireflection condition

would manifest themselves through increased selectivity of the fixed zero
.
minimum.
the
For all other extremal values there is a greater or lesser shift such that
extremum wavelength A e is in no simple relationship to four times the
optical thickness taken at X e .

It is
convenient to choose as the indepedent parameter the geometrical
thickness h.
Running on the computer a
set
of q(X) curves for various h and
reading off the positions of the extrema X e one

curve h
for
A(A e ) for a material of given dispersion. Such curves are
ZnS and Ti0 2
in Fig. 12-1, using the dispersions
extrema in question are

It is
may interpolate a continuous
first
by Table
shown
The
12-1.
order maxima.
interesting to note that for these curves to be smooth, the actual
had to be smooth to three decimal places.

shown in the Tables 12-1,
correspond
to what can be extracted
although three decimal places may not
from experimental results and reproduced technologically.
dispersions fed into the computer
these graphically refined values that are
It is
particular
ft
gives rise to various optical thicknesses A(/l)
across the spectrum. It

the 1
is
reasonable to ask what
is
An F (A)
the optical thickness at
Amax wavelength. These optical thicknesses are shown as the A(A max)
curves in Fig. 12-2.
In the dispersion-less case the

Amax /4.
The
Fig. 12-2.
ratio
4A(Amax)/Amax
Their deviations from
is
so defined would of course equal
shown
as
the decreasing curves in
unity characterize the effect of dispersion
maxima from the 4A values.

The curves answer the same quesfion as formula (12-6) because they
indicate the correcting factors for 1/4 values. The only difference is that
(12-6) was obtained by an approximation of the cotan value while the curves
of Fig. 12-2 have been extracted from direct computations of the reflectance
on
the displacement of the true
curves.
A numerical check for ZnS in the most critical range 4 000 to
000 A
502
reveals that (12-6) yields the true n F h r values with
an accuracy to several
Angstroms.
A further question of practical interest is to
find
for
a given A max in
which monochromatic light Amon to monitor the evaporation of the dispersive
W-Tt
1000
5000
6000
7000
503
SOW
1000
Fig. 12-la,
b Solid
600C
calibration curves for the geometrical thickness h
lines
with dependence on the position A max of the ensuing first order

reflectance maximum of the e(A) functions. Dashed lines calibration
curves for the geometrical thickness h corresponding to evaporation by

the
first
turning point of the function g(h) in the monitoring wavelength
^mon (a )
ZnS
ft>)
Ti0
Dispersions according to table
2-1
504
layer if
point.
it is
We
required that the monitoring should go by the
first
are obviously solving the equation
"F^mon)
K^max)
=
4
/L a fixed
'
2000
1500
100B
JOO
5000
calibration curves for the optica thicknesses A

order reflectance
Dashed
A expressed as a multiple of ^max
Fig. 12-2 Solid lines
with dependence on the position Amax of the
maximum
of
g(A).
lines
first
/4.
turning
PERTURBATIONS
because this time
505
we
maximum
are looking for a
of the dispersion-less
dashed h-versus-Xmon
from the calibration curves h-versus-lm!ix
A particular case is drawn in the ZnS curve as a key to how to proceed from
a Amax via h toward Amon Reading the same key in the opposite direction
The
function q(K) for A fixed.
result is presented as the
curves in Fig. 12-1, being different
indicates
wave
The
how
maximum
the actual
is
shifted relative to a chosen quarter-
value.
effect of dispersion in
some multilayers
Let us study a low-pass
3
of the type 1(0.5L) (HL)
filter
HG, which
is
normally used for heat protection or colour conversion, depending on the

positioning of the cut-off edge. Its phase diagram has a well flattened out
pass-band between
If this design
significant
jc/2
is
a slightly
table
test in the
ZnS
film.
for L, neglecting
However,
some
presence of dispersion,
its
weak
dispersion, whereas
Hall and Fergusson given in
to three decimal places
3000 4000 A, although absorption may change

ZnS here more appreciably. The purpose was
trends due to dispersion, for which a broader range

Several spectral positions of the
filter
9000, 8000, 7000
[39]..
and extrapolated
viour of
tuned as A/4 for A
H is
this time the study was undertaken with
less dispersive table after
was again smoothed
region
37t/2.
put to
changes appear in the transmission zone.
We choose MgF 2
taken as a
and
now
is
The
to the
the optical behato emphasize the
of advantage.
were considered, the design being
and 6500 A. The corresponding
transmittance curves are shown in solid lines in Fig. 12-3.

In accordance with the introductory discussion of dispersion
internal detuning builds
smooth curve
is afflicted
effects,
low wavelength range and the originally

with more or less ripple. As the filter edge is
up
in the
shifted leftwards, the ripple falls in different parts of the phase diagram, the
wavelength range 3000 4000
A remaining
most critical.
where
a transmission dip occurs at
It is to be noted that there are cases
wavelengths for which the designs, tuned as A/4 for 7000 and 8000 A,
respectively, are A/2 thick. This may partly be responsible for the half-wavelength dips in these
filters
as mentioned in
[1].
were run for the case that the tuning was

exact at the lower wavelengths, i.e. it was stipulated for the computer that
AH in the unit H-layers be equal to A L at, for example, 4000 A instead of at
8000 A, as taken originally. This resulted in a series of dashed curves
parallel series of curves
506
labelled with the corresponding wavelengths of the exact tuning. It is

evident that the ripple vanished, or was substantially reduced, while the
cut-off edge obtained
some
shift
due to detuning now present
wavelengths. Also, the subsidiary
maxima
at the
upper
next to the edge are slightly
modified.
The
central
shifting effect
maxima of tuned
could also be observed between neighbouring

m
stacks. Taking, for example, a l(HL)
system
3000
Fig. 12-3
nL
The
MgF
effect
of dispersion in H in a low-pass
3rc/2
Solid linesbasic design tuned as A/4 at the indicated higher wavelengths.
Dashed
and
filter
T~WA
(0.5L) (HL) H G H ZnS,
positioning
design tuned at the indicated lower wavelengths.
lines
its 5it/2
maximum
being positioned at 7220

Dispersion
is
at
4500 A would
instead of the value ^-
also responsible for
of wide-band antireflection
needed to cope with this.
result in the
some reduction
4500
maximum
7500 A.
in the band-width
layers. Sophisticated correcting
programs are
PERTURBATIONS
507
Apart from these distortion effects, dispersion can manifest itself by

changes of performance in selective elements when separately produced
in various parts of the spectrum.
of given complexity
filter
may
Thus an
ADI
interference
yield
monochromatic
different half- widths
markedly
if
produced in the blue or in other parts of the spectrum, the shape of the
maxima remaining normal.
12.2 Spurious absorption
We
have already discussed in 5.3 the
dielectric systems,
effect
of weak absorption in
mostly due to scattering on the granular structure of the
film materials. Since scattered light
is
lost to collimated interference
it is
interpreted as absorption, although the material has a real refractive index.
The
loss is characterized
by an empirical amplitude attenuation factor
resulting in a certain loss of energy such that

this
absorption spurious because
it
a.
We
<W
shall call
cannot be normally interpreted within
the framework of the phenomenological theory treating the media as
continuous.
It is
quite possible to adapt the Airy
summation formulae for dielectrics
so as to involve an explicit attenuation factor, without affecting the realness
of the Fresnel coefficients. In
fact,
for thin films as early as 1947,
such intuitive formulae were presented
[2].
This adaptation cannot formally be
Maxwell boundary conditions, but one may also visualize

the process as adopting a complex refractive index for the spuriously
absorbing medium such that x < r\.
Taking a = 1 % as a typical limit for absorption in a single A/4-film
related to the
we may
write
exp(-a)
= p[_*i,,*(2L)] =
X
For a
0.01
the order 5
cients
may
and
10" 3
1.5
.
<
It is
practically
r\
<
p(-)
=
K
2.5 the absorption index will therefore be of
then clear that the corresponding Fresnel coeffi-
be regarded as
real.
was found in 5.3 that the effect of a certain attenuation factor ^

substantially depended on the layer design in accordance with the concept
It
308-
of absorption as an interference quantity. In

a few more examples to this
this section
we
shall present
effect.
There is the basic question of how much absorption is built up within

a single layer in an air-glass embedding for the case that the refractive index
of the layer
is
varying. This implies various degrees of significance for the
zig-zag reflections
and various absorptance.
Three typical working conditions

A/4, 3A/8
and 1/2
thick.
be considered, the layer being
will
standard attenuation factor
used throughout, meaning that
- ^2 =
is lost
%=
0.995 will be
to interference
upon
one traversal of a layer of given geometrical thickness.

For principal reasons the index range for the layer was taken from 1.0.
The a( F) functions for the typical phase angles are shown in Fig. 12-4.
The
that g
limiting value of a for w F
- <% Ag",
<% 2 x"
may be found directly by considering
where g"
x"
on the second boundary.
Hence
a
i.e.
with q"
For F
X
= <#V
0.0425, a
(1
is slightly
1.52 the second
2
<2r
)(l
more than the
% loss upon one traversal.
boundary vanishes
optically
and g
g',
so
a=(l-
The corresponding absorption 0.947
alternatively, very nearly
from
+ % 2 g")
g',
)(l-
is
e ')
slightly less
than
because either of the factors
Ql
or,
differs little
unity.
For
large F , a tends to zero monotonically if
over a certain
maximum if 
%\2, or reaches zero
latter case the layer is in
resonance,
the intensity of which increases with n (thus inducing more absorption),

F
but simultaneously less and less energy is transmitted through the first
boundary. The two controversial tendencies result in a maximum, but this is

not seen in the range of realistic indices of refraction if the attenuation
Fig. 12-4 Absorption in single layers of

different refractive index
F working in
four typical conditions of the phase
angle
q>.
PERTURBATIONS
factor
is
509
very nearly unity. For practical purposes
assumed to increase with F
ol
may
Within the sphere of very
slight attenuation factors
(which
for spuriously absorbing dielectrics) the curves of Fig. 12-4

scaled
up by a
fiOM,
factor
< n <
If for a given
a/a(n F)
and
/i
the case
is
may be
vertically
to represent absorption for the case that
%2 =
10 or so.
n F a A/4 layer
%=
1
therefore be
/i0.005.
is found to have absorption a, then n =

Thus an estimate can be made of % cor-
responding to the actual index of refraction of the layer examined.

In Ch.
5,
SHW filter with the attenuation
Table 5-1 was a study of the
factor placed in various layers. Let us
now make an
interference reflector with basically the
same number of layers and compare
some
analogous study of an
typical features, Table 12-2.
Table 12-2
2
Effect of attenuation factor * =
= 0.995 in individual H-layers of the system
8
1 (HL)
G, H = 2.35, n h = 1.38. Layers
numbered from bottom to
top.
%*v
\
less
0.001
0.002
0.006
10
0.017
12
0.051
14
0.147
16
sum
Contrary to the
than 10" 3
0.426
of
all
0.650
* in all H
0.624
înallHL
1.028
SHW
system, the individual absorptions in the
one emerges from the rear into the top layers.

This is quite comprehensible from the point of view of the inner fields
building up across the system.
reflecting system increase as
510
Further, taking the

yields the
same
result as
sum of all the paitial H-absorptions in Table 12-2

when computing total absorption with U present
in all the H-layers simultaneously. This cannot be proved generally, but in
when
the present case,
the actual absorptions are small,
regarded as a superposition of partial
No
such rule can be observed with the
would
partial absorptions
SHW
sensitivity
losses incurred
may
simply be
filter:
the
sum of
of absorption to embedding
by monochromatic
filters
large.
is
manifested by the various
of different types.
DHW
the
substantially exceed total absorption. This is
accounted for by the partial absorptions being
The
it
differentials.
2
filter G(LH) LL
Taking a SHW filter G(HL)4 (LH) 4 G and a
3
2
(HL) HLL(HL) G, each having 8 H-layers, and assigning the same
.
SHW filter has twice as great a loss

The THW 3-6-6-3 filter G LHL HH
attenuation factor "U to these layers, the

in the
maximum oft as the DHW filter.

3
(LH) LL(HL)
good as the
HH LHL G
DHW
filter.
has two 2 layers odd and

(For <% 2 = 0.997 the losses are
respectively.) Lesser sensitivity to spurious losses
multiple-half-wave
filters
over the
SHW
is
still is
14,
almost as
6 and 6.5
%,
a typical advantage of
filter.
Finally let us mention the effect spurious absorption has
on very
low-or very high-reflecting systems, as represented by reflection-reducing
There is the malicious rule that absorption

works against the quantity that is important for the user, i.e. t in the former
multilayers
and
laser mirrors.
case, q in the latter.
Absorption in
of the evaporation method

rate
and by the
dielectric films is controlled to

(e.g.
some degree by the choice
e-gun vs Joule heat), by the evaporation
overall conditions in the recipient
and the laboratory,
built-in
dust being partly responsible for the scattering in the mass.
12.3 Surface roughness
One of the working hypotheses occasionally abandoned in reflection

phenomena is that of a smooth mathematical dividing plane between two
media. Practically, the boundaries have some structure which plays a more
or
less
important
role.
macroscopic structure of the substrates. The height

and slope of the polished surface are slowly varying functions of position,
which may influence the geometric abberrations of the system, but the
First, there is the
PERTURBATIONS
511
performance of interference systems evaporated onto them remains unaffected: the condensed films simply follow the contour and we obtain
bent but parallel-sided stacks, the angles of incidence negligibly
slightly
differing
from the
The
ideal ones.
effect is
curvature rather than surface
roughness.
The
latter
comes
by
into play
with the worked material.
Some
direct interaction of the polishing agents
film
forming processes such as anodization
or thermal oxidation also lead to microscopically irregular surfaces.
rough surface refbcts
ideal surface.
The specular
of diffusely reflected
light.
light in
reflection
a more complicated
way than
the
normally expected decreases in favour
The phenomenon
is
essentially diffraction
and
hence displays angular dependence on structure and wavelength. Thus part
of the scattered
acceptance angle of the instrument set for
light enters the
purely specular reflection and partially makes
through scattering. Owing to
its
good the
loss incurred
origin, this retrieved portion
of
light is
spatially incoherent with the specularly reflected light proper.
Reflection by rough surfaces has been treated in
a number of years, but
it
was only
many
papers over
in the last decade that a high degree of
rigour has been reached as regards the application of the diffraction theories.
Much
of the work on surface roughness was done in connection with
mechanism of glass polishing. Optical methods were an

means of assessing the roughness.
The results of these theories were also applicable to performance
the study of the

indirect
evaluation of front-surface mirrors. Until recently, however,
no
effort
was
directed towards considering the possible roughness of boundaries between
adjacent layers in a film stack.
of the substrate
impairing
One
its
may be
It
was only recognized that the roughness
copied onto the boundaries of the stack, thus
performance by diffusion.
dividing line
profile adopted.
among
the various theories
simple modei of a rough surface
or with randomly varying period. Bousquet,

in this
way and obtained
[3],
is
is
the type of surface
a grating, sinusoidal
treated the Fresnel
boundary
the energy formulae
where z
is the amplitude of a regular grating or twice the r-m-s amplitude

of a random grating and q , t are the orthodox Fresnel coefficients of
energy reflection, n being the relative index of the rough medium.
The
result is that less
energy
is
reflected in favour of more transmission,
512
the
sum of the coefficients being 1 Thus a certain degree of surface roughmay equally well be responsible for the reduced reflection of would-be
.
ness
smooth glass surfaces as was once attributed to the Drude transition layer.
The approach has been generalized to stratified media by Verhaege, [4].
The Rayleigh theory of gratings treating the electromagnetic field in terms of
the spatial spectrum of plane waves
ations:
(i)
roughness,
is
subjected to three kinds of perturb-
when the wavelength is much greater than the amplitude of the

(ii) when the amplitude of the slopes is much smaller than one,
when the period of the grating is much greater than the wavelength.
The theory has been practically verified with X-ray reflection. The mathemat-
(iii)
ical
apparatus
simplified.
more
is
rather involved although the
One may
general models with
proportionally
random
and a
between them.
the scattered
is
distribution of irregularities
is
not
more complex.
A randomly irregular surface is

defects
model of the roughness
in fact say that the mathematical treatment of the far
defined by a statistical distribution of
correlation function determining a characteristic distance
then possible to calculate the
It is
statistical distribution
of
field.
One of the basic papers applying diffraction theory to a rough reflecting

mean surface is due
surface with Gaussian distribution of deviations from a
Although originally developed for the reflection of radar

ruffled sea level, it was also adopted for optical phenomena.
Assuming that the r-m-s of the surface roughness a is substantially less
than X, specular reflection in normal incidence is
to Davies,
[5].
waves from the
^ = ^ exp|-(^j
s
1,
$o
large
(12-8)
and vice versa. A surface that

rough for one wavelength region may appear practically smooth for
a longer wavelength region. This was actually known since Rayleigh's time,
but the derivations of the formulae may not have been as general as those
appearing in the 1950's. For example, Lavin, [6], cites a formula due to Chinmayanandam (1919) which has the form (12-8) but the argument is Sn 2
It
therefore decreases for smaller wavelengths
is
cos \ak, where is the angle of incidence and a is

With increasing angle of incidence a given degree of roughness
an empirical constant.
is
less
important. If the incidence angle exceeds 50 or so, the formula breaks
down. This
regularities,
this kind.
accounted for by the mutual shadowing of the adjacent irwhich is never taken into consideration in deriving formulae of
is
PERTURBATIONS
513
Provided that the surface
is
almost perfectly
made for some
constitutes scattered light (allowance being
opaque
0i s
absorption in the
reflecting layer).
Porteus,
>
reflecting,
if
has shown that the formula (12-8) remains valid even for
as
is replaced by coherent reflection
e,
[7],
&
specular reflection 0t s
distinguished from the incoherent part mentioned above.
These
results
be perfectly
may be
generalized in the sense that the surface need not
may be the Fresnel

[8]. Thus &
smooth air/glass boundary.
error in the measured specular reflectance caused by
reflecting for (12-8) to hold,
reflection coefficient of a
The
relative
surface roughness
is
\ A J
nomogram
connecting various roughnesses and wavelengths for given
relative errors is
shown
in Fig. 12-5.
Some
typical materials are inserted at
the proper roughness values.

It
can be shown,
that (12-8) holds even for a
[10],
dielectric film if the structure
The authors
call this
of the lower
is
an identical-boundary
homogeneous thin
copied onto the front surface.

film.
Fifstd quoriz
(bowl ftd)
.25,000
2.7A
OK 000
5.
5000
2500
iooo
10
rms
Fig. 12-5
Surfaac
Nomogram connecting
errors
&
'
rooj/incssf
surface roughness
when measuring
30
ff
100
(A)
and wavelength for various
reflectance. (After [9].)
relative
514
Using some special (Gaussian), but qualitatively well descriptive

forms for the distribution function and the autocorrelation coefficient, they
derive a formula of the type (12-8) where 0t is replaced by the energy
o
coefficient of reflection qf for the film in the ideally
smooth condition
(3-la), thus
2
c
eF
exp[-(i^-)
J
Further, the incoherent reflectance
where a
is
half the acceptance angle of the detector in radians
is
correlation distance of the microstructure.*)
The
and Z is the
measured
total reflectance
is
For a
film of given a,
#, increases with the acceptance angle and with

We then find higher 0t t which could at first
the correlation distance %.

sight
The
be interpreted as
fact
is,
less scattered light,
however, that
it is
because 81 1 then converges to q f
the scattered light that builds
up
the 0t t
component.
On the other hand, for a high ct/A ratio 0tc may be neglected and 0t t =
&i. The detector only receives scattered light.
At the wavelengths where the film is X\2 thick, 0te is identical with the
reflectance of the bare supporting rough surface. This is a criterion for the
film to be of the identical
boundary
type.
The general film is characterized by two independent random height

distributions. The results are much more involved, but the formulae allow
of an arrangement in iterative form programmable for a computer.
The authors have numerically studied the combination Si0 2 -massive
Si in the 0.42 1 .2 um range. Only 3t was computed, because the correspondc
ing experiment was devised so as to receive practically no scattered light.
Alternatively, the results obtained with wide acceptance angles
extrapolated to zero aperture.
The
may be
basic tendencies are the following: if the
upper boundary has a constant moderate roughness, e.g. a l 100 A, and

of the lower boundary (<r 2 ) is increasing (up to 500 A or more) then
if that
*)
It is
contained in the autocorrelation coefficient of the form

c(t)
= exp (-
r 2 l% 2 )
PERTURBATIONS
515
both the interference maxima and minima of ^? C (X) decrease. After the
reach zero value, they start to
result
is
rise,
maxima continuing
the
complete disappearance of interference from a certain
upwards. The total

reflectance of the
is
latter
to decrease.
The
ff 2 -value
determined by the coherent component of the
upper boundary alone.
Too much roughness on

ference in the film, which
is
the lower boundary thus destroys the inter-
a natural
result.
Taking the converse experiment that a2
constant and a t
is
increasing,
then the coherently reflected amplitude of the upper boundary
is
decreasing
on both
its sides.
Neither the boundary
lower one via the multiple reflections
even
if
itself
nor
cooperation with the
its
capable of contributing significantly
is
to coherent specular reflection. Its limit
is
is
practically zero for
the lower boundary were perfectly smooth.
The
some <T t
critical
value
a lk
<r
lk
depends of course on the optical constants of all the materials.

Many intermediate degrees of roughness may be combined, the
numerical results being rather varied, particularly in the vicinity of the
minima of the 3t(X) functions. Fairly good agreement between theory and
experiment is reported.
Surface roughness also plays an important role in ellipsometry. In
addition to the r-m-s value of the height irregularities, the r-m-s value tan
of the irregularly distributed slopes must be considered. If

than
0.1, the
approximate formula holds,

tan
, e* =
W.C* +
/?
this is smaller
[11]:
0.
+O.5tan
/,
8l
o .3f 2
where gr^p), S^fe) are certain functions of the Fresnel coefficients.

While a may be deduced from measurements of coherent reflectance
alone, the information on the slopes may be extracted only from ellipsometric measurements. Simultaneously, (12-10) serves as a basis for computing
the errors in n and h incurred when interpreting ellipsometric measurements
on a rough surface as if belonging to the ideal case.
In fact, a deviation from the ideal value tan
<^
jAo
may be
attributed
either to surface roughness or to a transition interference layer, possibly
inhomogeneous. However, a
series
of experiments conducted at various
angles of incidence and over a broader spectral region provide enough
information for the correct verdict to be made.
These results were generalized to the ellipsometry of a rough film

in [12].
*
516
A special effect associated with the roughness of metallic surfaces is the

plasma waves. To understand this we must recall a fact
book so far, because it was not needed. It is the
existence of a surface charge as a consequence of the boundary conditions
excitation of surface
not mentioned in
this
wave passing a dielectric/metal surface. *)

For our computations we have only exploited the pair of conditions
stating the continuity of the tangential components of and H. Expressing
also the continuity of the normal components of D in the formalism of
harmonic waves for metallic films, i.e. taking by (1-3) e as complex, we have
for a
after arranging
v+l^vz
47E
= J (Cv+l^vz -
y^vz
The bracketed expression on the right-hand

boundary,
infinitesimally thin slab of a
may be
time-derivative of a surface charge a. If this

ally
along with the
field,
we may
9>'
which
is
a special form of the
side,
is
(12-1 1)
<V?vzj
taken in the limit on the
interpreted as the negative
assumed to change harmonic-
eventually write (12-11) as
Q) %
= 4na
Maxwell equation defining a surface
first
charge on the metal/dielectric boundary through the discontinuity of the
normal component
of D.
Fitting the free electron theory to aluminium, Stem, [13], has
shown
mode whose
eigen-
that this surface charge
frequency
capable of an oscillation
is
COs
where
is
e is the dielectric
electron charge,
0> (l
p
8)"%
CD,
= i^-m
constant of the adjacent
mass and
medium and
(12-12)
e,
m, Jf are
density.
Normally, the velocity of
fields associated
with incident waves on one
on the other, are

and coupling of fields cannot occur. However, it is possible,
as first pointed out by Otto, [14], and further developed by Salwen and
Stensland [15, 16], to excite certain plasma modes in a metal film by the
evanescent light waves propagating along their surface in FTR configurations,
where the metallic film assumes the place of the high-index dielectric on the
emergent side. From the phenomenological point of view this is accompanied
hand and
the oscillation of electron plasma by (12-12)
quite different
*)
This surface charge
is
better
known
in the theory of the static field.
PERTURBATIONS
517
by a sharp transmittance peak. This effect is being studied as a possible

basis for monochromatic filters, applicable in the ultraviolet if aluminimum
contemplated as the metallic
film. Aluminium approximates well to the

model in the visible and ultraviolet with hco = 15.8 eV (see
reviews in [17] and [18] and a very recent development in [19].
To excite a plasma wave, the electromagnetic wave need not be evanescent as in the above case. A highly inhomogeneous wave such as is formed upon oblique penetration of a wave into a metal with r\ <? x may do
as well. Then the phase velocities of the plasma and refracted waves may be
matched nearly enough to produce resonant coupling. Since plasma waves
is
free electron
are essentially longitudinal electromagnetic waves (the quanta of which are
plasmons)
it is
sufficient to
produce a longitudinal wave by oblique incidence
into a metal, provided that the material constants
and angles of incidence

way plasmons
are chosen so as to secure matching of phase velocities. In this

are excited even in normal incidence onto the metal
if its
surface
is
rough,
the effective oblique incidence taking place at the slopes of the irregular
structure.
The induced absorption due
to plasma excitation leads to an
intensity decrease of light in the direction of specular reflection,
which adds-
to the orthodox light-scattering loss.
12.4 Cumulative tint in lenses
We have seen in the sections concerning antirefiection that the solutions

more or less wavelength-dependent. There results a reflected colour which
is only indirectly functional in serving to check (to some extent at least) the
correct manufacture of the layer. The colour of the transmitted light should
display a complementary hue but, since it is carried by white light of high
energy level, this is hardly perceptible owing to poor saturation. This
are
neutral character of transmitted light
is
directly functional in antirefiection
techniques.
However,
in tandem.
reflections
and
it is
it is
the rule with reflection-reducing layers to apply
many
Since the treated surfaces are mostly curved, the zig-zag
do not take part
in the legitimate transmitted light (see Ch. 11)
the simple product
ST(X)
t 1 (A)t 2 (1)...t: Il (X)
518
which represents the spectral transmittance of a stack of k antireflected

surfaces.
It is
clear that the selectivity of the
that of the single t v (2) curves.
^(X) curve may be much greater
rough estimate can be made taking the
exponential
t
as a simple model. There
is
exp[-A(A - 1
maximum t
at 1
2
)
the second derivative being
2h.
The A>th power of the same curve has a maximum Tq with the second
derivative 2hk. There results a higher concavity on a lower maximum,
hence the relative variation of
greater
than that
of
antireflected surfaces in
until, for large k,
it
x{l).
3?~(X) in
the neighbourhood of A
tandem, one enhances the
may
is
much
terms of colour values, by cumulating
In
tint
of transmitted light
reach intolerable values.
10
tlglj
on 152
HgFi on
o
*
3AR
tAR
17
(all
on
1.32)
Fig.
Chromaticity diagram for
the cumulative-tktt-eLsSme
aw
0.30
1&6
0.31
0.32
0.33
0.34
035
antireflection layers.
PERTURBATIONS
Fig. 12-6
with a single
519
shows the chromaticity diagram for the cumulative effects

film, the simulated bi-layer and the 4- and-6-layer
MgF 2
antireflection films defined in 3.4.3.
The great ellipse is the ten times enlarged MacAdam

threshold for the area around point "C".
ticity
It
difference
chroma-
represents white light if we
adopt a broadened definition for white as something which is not saturated

enough to deserve the name of colour. In fact, this region extends even beyond
the ellipse as may be verified by inspection of the well known sectorized
chromaticity diagrams defining the names of colours.
There is a much narrower limit for white if neutrality is the main
objective and tints become a nuisance. According to Kubota, [21], practical
may be
white
hold (smaller
taken to
lie
inside the three-times enlarged
MacAdam
The conclusion
drawn
to be
is
that,
with the number of treated surfaces
increasing, the bi-layer very quickly runs into
pronounced
mission. Its use in current visual instruments
therefore limited.
The divergence of MgF 2 and of the two
much
thres-
ellipse in Fig. 12-6).
is
tints in trans-
multilayers from the centre
slower, the layers having a chance of remaining free
from
is
tint in
cumulation.
MgF 2
glass,
compares favourably with the multilayers
but then obviously
transmit only 87.5

the 94
its
energy efficiency
%, whereas
is
if
poorer:
deposited on light
e.g.
10 single layers
the performance of the multilayers
level (evaluated for the eye).
For
MgF 2
on heavy
glass,
is
on
10 layers
would also transmit about 94 %, but neutrality deteriorates rapidly.

The shift vector of 4 AR is oriented towards the purple because of the
small peak 0.7 % in the central part of the basic reflection curve (Fig. 3-33a).
The cumulation effect is some loss in the green part of the spectrum. This
is
a disadvantage of
With the more
many broad-band
antireflection systems.
sophisticated 6-layer system the case of 20 surfaces
remains safely within the smaller
ellipse.
Production errors
may of course
reduce the colour stability of these systems.
We shall now pay more attention to the single MgF 2

widely used antireflection element.
were studied, for example, in

Fig. 12-7 reproduces a
Its
layer as the
most
colorimetric and energy properties
[22].*)
diagram of interference colours of
this layer
deposited with various optical thicknesses on various substrate glasses.
*)
and
The
This study was further extended in [29] for a wider variety of radiation sources
for the 2
AR layer.
520
y = 0.Jffl
WW X
1/
//!"
/ 7SH^H-C
\y=0.31?
Iy=0.316
>
Fig. 12-7 Chromaticity
chromaticity scale ,
?j
of a
diagram in uniform
MgF2
layer (n F
1.38)
deposited with various optical thicknesses A /4 on
various glasses.
is plotted in a skew coordinate system yielding an approximately

uniform chromaticity scale where the MacAdam ellipses become circles.
It is evident that most of the single-MgF 2 cases lie within this absolute differ-
diagram
ence
limit.
Considering that the practical limit
is
three-times as large as the
drawn in Fig. 12-7, there is a margin of safety for the MgF 2 layer to be
cumulated up to a certain number of surfaces without any harm being done
to the neutrality of transmitted light. The limit will of course depend on the
substrate index and on the spectral positioning of the layer. In this respect
the following study is more detailed than the information on MgF 2 so far
circle
contained in Fig. 12-6.
maximum permissible number of identically

tandem for the chromaticity to remain practically
Obviously, the increased selectivity on heavy glasses sets this limit
Table 12-3 indicates the

treated surfaces in
neutral.
considerably lower than with light glasses.
In particular optical systems these tendencies are combined in accord-
ance with, and proportionally
to,
the sequence of glass
refractivities.
Inevitably, there sometimes arises the risk of transgressing the neutrality

limit.
is
Much
depends on the purpose of the system. The resulting slight tint

is the tint of some heavy glasses, or the two tints
either tolerated just as
PERTURBATIONS
521
combine to give something which
upon
intolerable.
is
by
to counteract the tint of the glass
their
Thin films are then called
own, properly designed, lack
of neutrality. The coating laboratory then has to disperse the Amin values
across the spectrum in such a way as to enhance the energetically poorer
Analogous manipulations with the Amin values are also undertaken

when the glass is clear but the uniform coating of too many
surfaces brings about some tint beyond the limits set by Table 12-3.
These manipulations are always effected at the cost of transmitted
energy because, with the light source e(A) and the detector s(A) given, there
regions.
in the case
is
a unique value of A which makes the integral

Pint
s
J *xQi x
dA
e A s A dA
a minimum.
The graph of Fig.
12-8, again
taken from
various A and g in the case that e(A)

sensitivity curve
It is
MgF
[22],
given by the
shows the g lm values for

source and s(A) is the
"C"
of the eye.
evident that a heavier
2 layers
is
on heavy
glass.
toll is
paid when shifting the more effective
Simultaneously, these displacements cause
greater changes in chromaticity, as
evident from Fig. 12-6. Both tendencies
is
are in accordance with the greater selectivity of
MgF 2
on heavy
Table 12-3
Maximum number of identical MgF 2

tandem not incurring marked cumulative tint
films in
in trans-
mission.
refractive index
MgF 2
of glass
layer
positioned at
15
1.6
1.7
1.8
4400A
4600
4800
5000
11
14
5200
16
5400
13
5500
11
5600
10
5800
6000
glasses.
522
A fnmJ
Fig. 12-8 Integral reflectance e
for a
int
MgF2
layer
deposited with various optical thicknesses ^ /4 on

various glasses. Evaluated for source "C" and the
eye as detector.
Table 12-4
Additional loss in white light
the energetically
optimum
MgF2
is
for
some reasons positioned with A below
value 5300 A.
1.5
"g
if
1.6
1.7
10
10
1.8
10
10
5200
0.019
0.18
0.036
0.315
0.051
0.05
0.066
0.655
5100
0.033
0.30
0.062
0.56
0.089
0.85
0.115
0.98
5000
4900
4800
0.050
0.43
0.095
0.85
0.137
1.30
0.177
1.71
0.072
0.62
0.135
1.27
0.195
1.84
0.253
2.44
0.097
0.84
0.183
1.66
0.263
2.48
0.341
3.29
4700
0.126
1.09
0.236
2.13
0.341
3.20
0.442
4.23
4600
4500
4400
4300
0.158
1.36
0.297
2.66
0.428
4.00
0.554
5.37
0.194
1.67
0.363
3.27
0.525
4.90
0.679
6.44
0.233
1.99
0.436
3.91
0.630
5.85
0.814
7.67
0.275
2.36
0.515
4.61
0.743
6.85
0.960
8.99
4200
0.320
2.73
0.599
5.32
0.864
7.94
1.117
10.38
4100
0.368
3.13
0.688
6.11
0.993
9.06
1.283
11.84
4000
0.418
3.56
0.783
6.92
1.129
10.26
1.458
13.34
Table 12-4 summarizes the losses to be expected when choosing various
^ 5500 A. These displacements are typical when enhancing the blue

region. The corresponding reference colours in reflection are purple and
X
yellow.
PERTURBATIONS
523
12.5 Obliquity effects in lenses
The performance of antireflection
film systems
is
normally assessed by
These are given either by measurements

or by computations for normal incidence on flat substrates. A low broadtheir spectral reflection curves.
band minimum
is
the desired characteristic.
1/
fl'l
15
13
13
saoo stoo
tot/ 1st
<t5
SO
13
19
tJ
snojfMOHOB
%7W
524
Actually, blooming systems are used

effective angles
this
may be
tilt.
Figs. 12-9
systems.
It
of incidence are more or
on curved
less oblique.
analysed by separate computations on
surfaces where the
The
optical effect of
flat
substrates of various
and 12-10 represent such a study of three
typical antireflection
can be seen
that, considering unpolarized light, the reflection-
Fig. 12-9 Reflectance e*(A) for antireflection layers at various angles of
incidence in the matched condition, (a)
show
MgF2
(b)
AR,
(c)
and characteristic values q+

displaced extrema when the matching is for = 0.
Inserted tables
the positions A
4 AR.
of the
PERTURBATIONS
reducing effect
525
deteriorates
owing to a
relatively
sharp
rise
in
the
s-component.
It is
obviously impossible to design a single layer so as to meet the

Many more layers with a free choice of
requirements for low g p and g s

refractive indices
would be needed to secure g p
4
Fig. 12-1 Oa, b, c
The
gs
at
one wavelength,
7 xfflX
and q s components of the 45 cases of the preceding

figure.
526
the approach essentially being that of Baumeister described for semireflectors

in [23]. (See Sect. 8.5.) Fortunately, the obliquity effects in lenses are not as
severe as those indicated
mentioned
by the
oblique cases in the above
virtually
figures.
Let us at least mention one instance where a relatively simple matching

can be done to bring es to zero at 45 incidence. This is of practical importance for the non-functional surfaces of plane laboratory elements mounted
at 45 incidence on an optical table, if the experiment is using laser light
with a vertically oscillating vector.
The process
is
straightforward for the simulated bi-layer, because
optical thicknesses can always
be computed
explicitly
its
once the effective
admittances are given. The fact that complete antireflection occurs for one
wavelength is in accordance with the experimental conditions.
Taking again the index combination 1/1.49-2.22/1.52, the s-admittances for

O = 45 are 0.70711/1.313-2.103/1.346. Applying the formulae
(3-65a, b) one obtains the values
(Pi
The
113.3
optical thicknesses are then
Aj
Comparing with
q> 2
Av =
q> v
=41.5
sec <9 V
A2 =
0.352A
X 360" \ so
0.122A
the multiples of k for normal incidence (0.372
respectively) the thicknesses of the individual layers are
and 30
and 0.088,
found to differ by
% due to matching. These differences should be observable by a good
monitoring technique.
Fig. 12-11 shows the results of the matching as compared with the
half-matched case where only the position of the minimum was taken care
of, but the relative tuning was not adapted to the effective admittances for
the 5-component. Altogether a half percent gain is to be expected, which
is
not
negligible considering the purpose of the matching.
When
the 4
the design
is
not obtainable in explicit form, as for example, in
AR detuned system,
then the whole process by which it was obtained

must be repeated for either of the polarizations with the corresponding
admittances. Thus an Argand diagram with different Fresnel amplitudes
may be the subject of a new correcting procedure.
If unpolarized reflectance q*
is
the parameter in question,
it is
difficult
and q s simultaneously, but some improvement may be expected

if the g + -curve as obtained by simple thickness matching is subjected to
small variations in the thicknesses. The 4AR system with the basic tuning
to optimize q
p
PERTURBATIONS
1
0.476
tuning
527
0.4
0.3
1.136
0.576
is
normally matched for 45 incidence when taking the

:
0.454
(although remaining on the
An
The curve q*
0.315.
flattens
out a
little
% level) if the second factor is taken as 0.502.
analytical attempt at mitigating obliquity effects in antireflection tech-
niques by proper tuning
is
to be found in [36].
Despite the unquestionable value of the oblique computations, the
information they yield
what
not synthetic enough to
is
tell us,
for example, with
relative weight the obliquity effects enter into the final result
of total
transmission of a lens system.
Fig. 12-11 g(q>) diagrams for the 2 AR layer designed for g =

at one
s
wavelength in 45 incidence. [e s] 45
result of the design; [e ] 45
the
p
accompanying g reflection; q
normal incidence design computed at
p
normal incidence; Q
the two components at 45 when the normal
qs
design
is
only matched for 45 by the sec
Moreover, there are obliquity
effects
law
One cannot
when the work-
in manufacture.
obtain perfectly uniform coatings on curved surfaces even
holder in the recipient
is rotating. Only one zone of the optical diopter is

have the nominal thickness; other zones are necessarily mismatched.
Let us suppose that the match is performed for the central zone, the
likely to
characteristic
optical thickness
impinging on the surface to be

thicknesses
A =A
stationary lens.
cos
tj/,
being
Taking the molecular beam
parallel, the outer
where
\j/
is
zones obtain smaller
the geographic latitude
on the
528
This rule
may
be more severe than
rotating workholders.
We
is the actual case in plants using

thus obtain the lower limit of performance.
Suppressing this rule in the computations to follow,
i.e.
uniform
be expected.
layers, the
With the
upper limit of performance
may
assuming perfectly
optical thicknesses distributed according to the cosine law,
the diopter generally finds itself in a nonparallel
physical thickness becomes
an
beam of light where each
effective oblique optical thickness
according
to
Av = A
where
cos
\//
cos
@v
is the angle of refraction into the particular thin film element.

a curved surface the film thus suffers a twofold detuning towards
smaller wavelengths. In addition, oblique incidence leads to splitting into
On
the p-
and s-components.
We
shall only
be concerned with the average
values characteristic for non-polarized light.
The above mentioned obliquity effects lead to the formulation of the

following computational problem: given an optical system of spherical and
planar surfaces, each surface coated by a specific antireflection system
tuned at the central zone to a
specific wavelength, this optical
illuminated from axial points by
homogeneous conical
light
system
bundles,
compute
(i)
(ii)
the spatially integrated spectral transmittance function
&
white light transmission &~ v

well known, the application of antireflection techniques actually
this spectrally integrated to
As
is
from enhancing transmission they reduce

by multiple reflections inside
the optical system. Since any loss of transmission due to obliquity effects is
accompanied by increased reflection, these effects will cause parasitic light
to increase. The above stated computational task may therefore be extended
by the following items:
Compute in any image plane
serves a double purpose: apart
parasitic light (so called veiling glare) caused
(iii)
the monochromatic meridian light distributions due to zig-zag reflect-
(iv)
ions in the system, 2(X; y)

these spectrally integrated
(v)
(vi)
(iii)
spatially integrated to
(iv) spatially
to
white
meridian
monochromatic global
light
distributions
diffusion coefficients
integrated to white light global diffusion coefficients
9-
PERTURBATIONS
529
on a convex and concave
radii of 30
mm,
MgF
AR
AR
.Tw for
and 4
1
2, 2
illuminated from various on-axis points. Two
Fig. 12-12 Spatially integrated white light loss iw
different apertures are considered.
A program for computing these parameters was described with some results
discussed in
[24].
Let us start to illustrate such studies on one refracting surface supposed

to posses a positive or a negative curvature of radius 30
The
including the collimated case from infinity.

considered:
The
when the
ng
mm,
Fig. 12- 12a, b.
illuminating points will be placed at various distances before the apex,
Two
effective apertures will
be
M = 24 and 48 mm.
MgF 2
surface will be antireflected in three different ways: (a)

glass is taken as
ng
1.65; (b)
AR
on g
1.62, (c)
AR
on
1.52.
The
figure
shows the global white
light
reflections
^w =
1
3~
attached to the marginal rays of the respective illuminations (in the adopted
order of antireflection layers). The interval of integration was 0.430.7
and
isoenergetic emission
and detection
characteristics
um
were assumed.
In some cases another three figures are indicated below in square
computed with the cos i/Maw suppressed, and represent the upper limit of performance. For parallel illumination of the smaller
aperture they approximately indicate the nominal performance of the layers
brackets. These were
on
flat substrates
compare with the
in normal incidence. It
is
these values that
losses in the virtually oblique situations.
we should
530
is more critical for illumination from

Some drastic cases may even be observed,
Obviously the convex surface

near points in the real object space.
but the exceedingly high incidence angles relegate these cases outside of the
sphere of real technical dangers.
The concave diopter

figurations. It
is
offers a wider variety of nearly harmless con-
obvious that these
will also
be realized with the convex
case if the points of illumination are virtual and, conversely, the cases
shown
in part (a) of the figure pertain to the virtual illumination of the concave
case.
In order to preserve physical identity of the situations, however, an

and air must be made, because in the reverted
additional exchange of glass
case the identical angle of incidence into the layer must again be from the
air.
Thus the case
(a)
of Fig. 12-12
is
equivalent to the virtual illumination
of a concave diopter with the glass coming
first etc. It is
therefore sufficient
to examine only convex diopters in the four basic configurations: air/glass,
each of these combined with real or virtual illuminating points.
glass/air,
Even with
this simplification the practical conditions
of illumination
can be greatly varied owing to the various image distances, curvatures and
aperture angles that can be combined. Using the principle of geometric
however, the number of variable parameters can be reduced to
two angles measured within one reference diopter.
Let us take two diopters of different radii (Fig. 12-13) whose centres
of curvature C have distances X + R from the illuminating point P such
similarity,
that the marginal incidence angles e corresponding to a given aperture angle

o-
are constant.
It is clear that, intergrating
over the aperture in order to obtain some
PA; - -x-
12-13 Geometric similarity in a given conical illumination of different

radii
from
different distances.
PERTURBATIONS
531
Fig. 12-14a, b Polar diagrams of the integral

losses by reflection on a normalized
diopter conically illuminated with various aperture
angles a and marginal incidence
angles e. Plotted are the functions &~ (e
of the global coefficients
a).
or
w , the same relative distribution of oblique
processed by the computer in both cases. It is
therefore possible
to condense the information on the obliquity effects
with a certain type of
layer on any curved surface with any on-axis
illumination into one normalized diagram having, for example, 100
radius of curvature.
situations
is
mm
Taking advantage of the circular cross section examined,

one may
conveniently plot the results in polar diagrams
of the type
= $-(p; co),
<r a parameter, co = e - a continuously
variable,
indicating
energy
how much
transmitted in a conical illuminating bundle having

an apex
angle la and striking a particular diopter at a height
angle co. (Instead of the
latter the diagram may be entered with
a rescaled marginal height h
m!kx
to find the correct radius on which the resulting
is found.)
is
Fig. 12-14a,
The
real
and
b presents such diagrams for
virtual illuminations -parts (a)
MgF2
and
on
glass (n t
(b), respectively,
1.65).
-are

the total number of
each treated in the air/glass and glass/air combination,
account.
cases thus being four. The cos ^-law is taken into
the drastic
the glass/air cases deserve special comment on
reflection
drop of performance even for small co. These are due to total
in
bundle
conical
the
occupied
by
aperture
occurring in at least part of the
Some of
question.
Coming now to
larger absolute values of co, each of the curves
incidence angle on the
^(a;
air side
co)
has
stopped by a dot indicating that the

from the
reached the value 45. This is to separate the technical situations
conditions. Taking
drastic drops in transmission occurring in the extreme
45 - a
frontier dots are placed at the angles co =
is
for
X^
0, the
a for the glass/air cases.

effects
With this limitation, the loss of performance due to obliquity
co,
small
for
whereas
negligible:
may be declared as moderate, though not
slightly
is
it
apertures
larger
gt w = l _ sr w is slightly less than 1 %, in the
from
more than this value. The difference is equivalent to a change of glass
for the air/glass cases
and
at 27
notoriously
category (1.65) to light glass (1.52), where MgF 2 is
perceptible.
as
regarded
be
must
performance
of
change
less effective. Such a
The variations of integral loss W as computed here are somewhat
the
medium
considered in full.
exaggerated by the fact the mechanical obliquity effect is
to the isoenergetic
due
trends
On the other hand there is some easing of the
emission-detection characteristics used in the computation.
One may
there-
It was our aim

ways of visualizing the
convenient
some
and
problem
the
of
the structure
to outline
fore consider the results as roughly representative.
results.
parameters
Let us continue for a while to follow some other optical
apart from
^w
The essence of obliquity effects
is
shift to the blue.
Computing
there-
3~ functions, one obtains spectral transmission

fore the spatially integrated
x
the maximum of
characteristics with maxima more or less displaced from
the plane-parallel model.
The ^"w curves of
labelled
Fig. 12-14 are provided with short dashes
&
\ curves corresponding to a given

Angstroms of the
not shown and the shift is meant
are
conical illumination. The
k curves
positioned.
nominally
is
relative to 5500 A where the MgF 2
with the
shift in
&
It is
now clear that with a
impair the energy efficiency
selective detector the shifts
of the blooming. The
may
significantly
actual performance
included
measured and computed for an optical system with obliquity effects

transmission estimated from a
is often found to be 5 to 10 % less than the
PERTURBATIONS
533
plane-parallel model of the lens. On

the other hand, there may be
cases
where no appreciable difference is
found. This can happen when
most
of the refracting surfaces are non-critically
illuminated,
image points, even if blurred by aberrations,

It is
lie
i.e. the intermediate

near the centres of curvature
the mechanical obliquity effect that

then prevails.
600
nm
Fig. 12-15 (a) five-element

projecting lens to be
optimized in blooming with respect to a
prescribed
spectral position of the maximum of
x , (b) spatially
integrated transmission curves 3~ when
layers are biassed
by
individual
k
table in text.
One such example
may be demonstrated on a five-element projecting

lens according to Fig. 12-1 5a. Evidently,
the rays strike the refracting surfaces
at very small angles, but the surfaces
are rather curved
ed to be coated uniformly.
With obliquity-sensible
or mechanical effects) one
by
lens systems (be
it
and cannot be expect-
due to angles of incidence
may
try optimization of the individual coatings

presetting the optical thicknesses in the
upward sense so as to
obtain

534
the correct setting

significance
To
on some outer central zone which has a higher geometrical
owing to the excess of area over the apex zone.
the lens was required

correct a yellow absorptive tint of the glass,
matching of the
Individual
4800
A.
at
maximum transmission
to have a
for the
surfaces led to the following table of A -values
5400
5600
4800
5200
5100
MgF 2
5100
5500
layer:
4800 A
bias, which
obvious that the plane surfaces could do without any
mechanical
the
is
factor
determining
the
convincing evidence of the fact that
are small
incidence
of
angles
the
Fig. 12-15a indeed shows that
It is
is
obliquity.
by as much as 800
even on the curved surfaces. These require presetting
Although the rotating workholder
in A to counteract the uneven coating.
may somewhat reduce this effect, it will not suppress it entirely.
from infinity,
integrated over the full aperture with light coming
line just
dashed
The
12-15b.
in
Fig.
line
solid
the
curve is given by
If t
the 2T X
is
thickness A = A /4
below corresponds to the case that a unified optical
so as to yield
matched
been
having
A
is evaporated onto all the surfaces,
The simplicase.
given
the
at 4800 A. A was 5200 A in
the maximum of
9~
v
result, representing 1 % loss in
fied optimization yields a slighty worse
with the eye as the receptor.

far the
depends on the particular monitoring techniques as to how
the analysis shows the
individual matching can be respected. Anyway,
It
trends inherent in the problem
and
gives clues for the experimental develop-
ment of optimum performance where

be respected.
In concluding
glare,
may
an example for the

which forms one of the options of the program
this discussion
computation of veiling
the actual mechanical effects
we
shall present
mentioned above.
lens system is formidSince the scheme of all the zig-zag reflections in a
insignificant
energetically
the
neglecting
able, the problem was simplified by
higher-order reflections and
the simple zig-zag traversals that are

so, a number of situations that had to be
it is
considered in the program. Even
an arbitrary plane
solved in computing the distribution of veiling glare in
refer the reader to [24] for full details of
required delicate treatment.
We
the philosophy of the approach.

Fig. 12-16
shows the distribution of white
the focal plane of a triplet lens (schematically

with A
it is bloomed by A /4 layers of MgF 2
light intensities
shown
Jy)
in the insertion)
4400 and 5000 A.
in
when
PERTURBATIONS
'535
The overall shape of tfe curves is

similar to a Gaussian distribution
which ,3 natural considering that extremely
acute intersections of the control
plane are due to bizarre catadioptric
traversal which are rarer. The sharp
bends correspond to situations
where some
zig-zagVays are stranded in the
lens tube (the
program having this under control). The

maximum of the
curves lies on the optical axis and
reaches the 0.05 % level. For various
types
n 8Jven
tWs 1CVel Varies the bends r^ning
"
inTr
n place^ Without any antireflection
the lens would have
ZT
^7 1 ^T*:-
Wkh
'
svftem the level could sink to 0.002

system
%.
6.9
of white
effWtiVe broad -"and antireflection
54-0 run
YOnm]
Kg. 12-16
Distribution of white veiling glare in

the focal plane of a triplet taking
lens.
?L
djS
CUfVeS C uld
C
ffident
^
being reached for X
?\
the
TT,
now be
^nimum
th
>
also approximately at this value
that
maximum of <Tk is more pronounced thaa
5100 A.
It is
reaches its maximum. The

minimum of &w
These trends may be further
ot the source
inteSrated to yield the white light
K iS iD the 5 - 10 % ran*e
and detector
modified by introducing the
into a particular problem.
selectivities

536
12.6 Production errors

evaporation
factors during the

There are a host of potential disturbing
of phenomena is of a physicalof thin films in a vacuum plant. One category
evaporant, boat, residual
among the
chemical nature, involving interactions
and substrate surface, as well
walls
atmosphere, desorbed gasses from the
With advances in the design
as the influence of thermal dissociation, [25].
of the Know-how for thin film
of vacuum coating plants and broadening
practically insignificant, at
evaporation these phenomena have become
a
dielectric materials evaporated in
least for a selection of well-behaved
by
heated
boats
or
clean plant from suitable crucibles
highly efficient and

bombardment. Provided that
ohmic resistance or with the help of electron
are also mastered, one is in a posithe techniques of cleaning the substrate
defined films as regards their optical
tion to evaporate physically well
Considering the problem of uniformity
properties, structure and adhesion.
plant geometry (possibly requiacross the substrate diameter as one of
of reproducibility lies in the conring special gear) the essential problem
the layer.
trol of the normal dimension of
available for monitoring layer thicknesses
now
are
number of methods
these as well as of the methods
during deposition. Exhaustive treatment of
layers is given in [26]. Let us mention
for measuring the thickness of finished
at least the
most important methods used
in optical practice.
the thickness of individual

In the early stages of thin film deposition
or by the weight of the evaporatlayers was controlled by the reflected colour
as outdated
the former method must now be regarded
ed
material.
the latter
and
Whereas
may keep
its
where linearity
limited importance in circumstances
experiment.
simplicity are the sought features of the
applicable only with certain materials
and the number of
as
by the number of boats, but an accuarcy as high
with some
The method
is
layers is limited
may be
achieved
skill.
was tne
some quasicontinuous measurement
a Fabry-Perot
monochromatic light filtered out from a tungsten bulb by
order to separate the heating
interference filter. The light beam is chopped in
^
amplification. The turning
glow from the optical signal in the subsequent ac
integral multiples of A/4
points of the ammeter indicate the deposition of
monitoring filters with different
in optical thickness. Having an accesory of
turning points, a number of
of
X one may evaporate, by the method
The
first
truly optical
method introduced
for monitoring
of reflectance or transmittance in
reliable to interpolate this process

discrete thicknesses. It is regarded as less
PERTURBATIONS
537
between the turning points.
Many
commercial versions of
this device are
available.
A typical disadvantage of this system is that the process is being stopped

an error as great as 10 %
in a stationary condition of the indicator so that
could be incurred unless the operator introduces proper bias. The error is
then about 4 %. Fresh test glases may be introduced for each layer, or a
sequence of layers is controlled by one test glass where the layers cumulate.
This increases the contrast of the method to a certain degree and also
introduces a kind of compensation where the succesive errors cancel,
provided that each step is conscientiously accomplished by a turning point.
definite disadvantage is that the test glass is differently placed from

the charge proper so that there arises a problem of calibration and its
constancy.
The same
is
also true of the next objective
method using the
crystal oscillator.
If a quartz crystal is excited to thickness-shear oscillations then, with

the geometry of the crystal given, the fundamental frequency is inversely
proportional to the mass of the plate. If this is augmented by a thin film
evaporated onto the crystal the frequency

tionally to the
shifts to
smaller values propor-
mass increment and, with the geometry again
physical thickness of the layer. Several tens of layers
one
may
given, to the
be cumulated on
crystal without mechanical interference.
The fundamental frequency is of the order of MHz and the frequency

evaluated by a differential method using an identical crystal not
exposed to coating. Each material may be calibrated in terms of the number
shift is
of Hertz units necessary for producing a given thickness h and hence also
A = nh.
typical value is 1000 Hz for A/4 of MgF 2 There are some
problems of thermal stability, but the system may be developed into a highly
reliable
monitoring device, provided
its
use
is
accompanied by
special
precautions as to maintaining an exactly defined residual atmosphere

[27, 28]. One of the great advantages is that this method has a linear
response and allows monitoring of highly detuned systems containing both
and metallic layers. Several commercial versions are now available.

by analog meters, the accuracy is
about 2 %, but if a digital counter is operated, as low a value as 0.5
%
dielectric
If the frequency shifts are evaluated
may be
attained. This accuracy of
measuring frequency shifts is projected

by which the conditions of evaporation
into the technology only to the degree
are kept constant.
In addition to thickness, the growth-rate is sometimes monitored as an

important physical parameter of the deposition process. This may be obtain-
'
538
ed either by electronic time derivation of a
digitally controlled crystal
may be directly measured

which is proportional to the rate of flow of the evaporated particles. Modified
monitor, or, conversely, another physical quantity
ionization gauges
momentum
may
be used for
this,
other devices use the transfer of
of the arriving atoms. The total physical thickness
obtained as a time integral of the continuously measured
is
then
rate.
100
F* """"^^l^
so
^X\^
60
>
70
60
l\ 2
so
Fig. 12-17 Individual

shifts
of central
20% variations in the components
maximum
layers 5, 6, 7 are not
affect
shift
120
(HL) 3
j>(tc/2).
<p
and
H G stack:
Variations in the
investigating the influence of thickness deviations
a time which usually discloses various
sensitivities
The other approach consists in varying all

taneously. The only realistic way of doing this is
layers.
4.
vice versa.
approaches are possible. In one a specific relative variation

layer at
being roughly symmetric about the case
A positive variation entails a shift towards smaller
When
of a
edges rather than the value
shown, the
>
ns
90
75
is
two
different
applied to one
of the individual
the thicknesses simul-
to suppose a random
scheme of layer thicknesses. Various
standards of technology may be characterized by proper r-m-s deviations
for the random sets from the nominal mean values: up to 2 % representing
a very high standard, 2 to 5 % being achieved in some routine work ,and
more than 5 % being due to ill-defined conditions of evaporation (including
a fickle evaporant) and possibly also to lack of skill in using a monitoring
distribution of errors across the
device.
The pioneers of
and
Seeley, [31].
approaches.
We
the
random
error
shall present a
method seem
few
illustrative
to be Ritchie, [30],
examples for both
PERTURBATIONS
539
Taking a tuned stack one finds that the central value is quite insensitive
to variations in the individual thicknesses. Fig. 12-17 shows
the stop-band
of a seven-layer
(HL) 3
HG with the refractive index pair 2.35/1.38 subjected
to individual variations by
thickness. This
(i) e(rc/2) is
20
in optical,
i.e.
also in geometrical,
an exaggerated value which serves a double purpose:

seen to be still practically unaffected (ii) the produced displacis
ements of the band edges are more
easily readable.
Table 12-5
Edge displacement AAe as a fraction of edge position A in the seven-layer

analysed
e
Fig. 1217, as a function of position of the
mismatched layer.
|
in
|AA |/A e .100%

order
number
1
of layer
-10%
+10%
-10%
+ 10%
0.85
1.42
1.79
1.83
1.52
1.07
0.44
0.68
1.02
1.20
1.23
1.10
0.81
0.39
0.68
0.99
1.15
1.18
1.06
0.81
0.41
0.96
1.67
2.12
2.15
1.75
1.11
0.44
left
slope
right slope
The edge shifts interpolated from computer records are summarized

The relative difference with respect to the exact position of the
edge defined by e (A e ) = 0.45 is shown. The error underlying
this table is
10 % so an easy interpolation may be possible. A positive or negative error
in table 12-5.
corresponds of course to AA ^
e
Obviously, the central layer
0.
become twice
7
>t/2
7 S
as thick.
HW
filter
most
is
clearly comprehensible considering
how
sensitive to
a mismatch, which
the trends develop
when
is
the layers
The central layer then becomes the spacer of a

and the value Q(it/2) has to cover all the way down
% which is the reflectance of the 1/G effective interface of this

The same procedure in the other layers leads to more or less unbalanced
to about 4
case.
SHW
Shallower dips develop at q> = jt/2 which -is associated with

even for small deviations from the A/4 condition.
The relative errors incurred in the individual layers need not all be
equal. Taking, for example, the 4
antireflection layer of
3.4.3 we
filters.
a lower
sensitivity
AR
have the optical thicknesses 1000
476
400
300
1000
roughly taken for the reference thickness instead of the true value
1050
required for proper positioning in the visible spectrum).
(if
is

540
a linear monitoring method at hand securing a relative

accuracy of 1 %. This may be the case with a crystal oscillator whose
analog frequency meter has a scale with the least subdivision of 1/100 and
when the A/4 layer for green light requires approximately this full scale
Supose there
This
shift.
is
in fact true for
The top
green
is
light, its
if the
range
is
set at
500 Hz.
being roughly 1.4 times thinner than A/4 for
Si0 2
must be presumed
layer of
error
Ti0 2 and Si0 2
to be of the order 1.5
%. The follow-
ing two layers being slightly less than half the optical thickness of the
Fig. 12*18 Tolerance channels for the
are
2%
3%
in the top layer,
AR
first
antireflection coating if the relative errors
in the central layers
and
5% in
the bottom layer.
of the error signs in the two lower layers

sign pairs in the top layers: a) (++),
following
the
are combined in this order with
The
pairs
(++),
(+
),
b)
h), (
(+,-),
c)
(-+),
d)
).
PERTURBATIONS
Fig. 12-19 Effect of
of errors with
541
a random distribution
rmsdeviation
of
89
10
2%
90
92
91
'
100
a THW 3883 HL filter. The

dashed line represents the non-cemented
in
s^7\
^*
|*r
9fr
case.
y.
pv/"
BO
if
I
I
70
one, their errors must
being very thin,
is
lie
in the
3-4
% interval. Finally the bottom layer,

5-6 % range. A- numerical study
liable to errors in the
of these individual errors would disclose that the deviated
results are
about the same magnitude, hence the unevenly distributed errors are
by the decreasing sensitivities of the thinner layers.
Fig.
1 2- 1
is
of
offset
a study of the effect of these errors if they are simultaneously
combined according to the attached schemes. Each of the four batches of

curves fills a tolerance channel shown in the figure. The channels are narrow
enough for the system to remain effective as a reflection-reducing element.
We have already followed in Fig.
3-53 and 3-62 the effect of production

on the maxima of a DHW and THW filter. If we
subject the latter to a random distribution of errors with 2
% r-m-s deviation,
we obtain the shapes in Fig. 12-19. The distortion may be regarded as being
on the verge of plausibility and the inference follows that the standard
errors in the spacer layers
deviation for the production of these
On
the other hand, the latter value
filters
is
shoufd be
% rather than 2
%.
quite satisfactory for the production
of edge
filters with a tolerance channel of 150 A.

Errors in optical monitoring are thoroughly discussed for various
purposes in [32-35], and also in ref. 3, Ch. 5.
Finally we remark that the error scale may shrink to remarkably

small
values in repeated production of one item (i.e. one system on a given substrate
and workholder), whereas even an experienced laboratory may have a rough

lends an ear to the diversified wishes of individual customers. The
problem then is one of plant calibration rather than of monitoring techniques
and allowance must be made for each settling of the process.
life if it
542
References 12
[1]
[2]
H. A. Macleod, book, see ref. 29. in Ch. 3. p. 123.

D. L. Caballero, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 37, 177 (1947).
Bousquet, Journ. de Phys. et Rad., 25, 50 (1964).
[3] P.
[4]
M.
[5]
H. Davies, Proc. IEE, 101, 209
[6]
E. P. Lavin, Specular Reflection,
F. Verhaege, Opt. Acta, 17, 843 (1970).

(1954).
Adam Hilger, London,
1971
[10]
O. Porteus, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 51, 123 (1961).

J. O. Porteus, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 53, 1394 (1963).
H. E. Bennet and J. M. Bennett, Precision Measurements in Thin Film Optics,
in: Physics of Thin Films, Ed. G. Hass and R. E. Thun, Vol. 4, Academic Press, 1967.
I. Ohlidal, K. Navratil and F. LukeS, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 41, 1630 (1971).
[11]
I.
Ohlidal and F. LukeS, Opt. Comm., 5, 323 (1972).
[12]-
Ohlidal and F.LukeS, Opt. Acta, 19, 817 (1972).
[7]
[8]
[9]
H. Bennett and
J.
A. Stern, Phys. Rev. Let., 19, 1321 (1967).

A. Otto, Z. Phys. (216), 398 (1768) and (219), 227 (1969).
A. Salwen and L. Stensland, Opt. Comm., 2, 9 (1969).
L. Stensland, Proc. Electro-Optics International, Brighton 1972, p. 307.
B. Fitton and E. A. Trendelenburg, Surface problems in Space Research,
[13] E.
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
warter, Ed., Ergebnisse der Hochvakuumphysik
Bd.
II,
in: M. Auund der Physik dinner Schichten.
Stuttgart, 1971.
N. Hodgson, Optical Absorption and Dispersion

London, 1970.
[18] J.
[19] E. Spiller, Appl. Opt., 13,
in Solids,
Chapman and
Hall.
1209 (1974).
[24]
/. Opt. Soc. Am., 60, 794 (1970).

H. Kubota, in: Progress in Optics, Ed. E. Wolf, Vol. 1, 213, North Holland 1961.
J. Nuc, Jemnd mechanika a optika, 16, 182 (1971).
P. W. Baumeiste'r, see ref. 6. in Ch. 8.
K. Kuznikova, Trans. 3rd Symp. INTERKAMERA, Prague, 1969, p. 161.
[25]
M. Auwarter,
[20] J.
[21]
[22]
[23]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
Crowell and R. H. Ritchie,
in: ref. 11. in Ch. 7, p. 14.

K. H. Behrndt, see ref. 14. in Ch. 3.
H. K. Pulker and E. Girardet, AVIRES, Vol. d. Compt. Rend., Dijon, 1968,
H. K. Pulker and H. Hilbrand, Z. f. angew. Phys.. 23, H. 1, 15 (1967).
Z. Holubova, Jemnd mechanika, 18, 173 (1973).
as reported by H. A. Macleod, book, see ref. 29. in Ch. 3., p. 23!
[31] J. S. Seeley, Final Scientific
[32]
[33]
Report,
USAF
Contract
AF
61 (0521
H. A. Macleod, Opt. Acta, 19, 1 (1972), and also ref. 8. in Ch.

H. A. Macleod and D. Richmond, Opt. Acta, 21, 422 (1974).
[34] E. Pelletier et al.,
p. 105.
833.
5.
Opt. Acta, 20, 509 (1973).
[38]
H. Lissberger, see ref. 2. in Ch. 2.

see ref. 60. in Ch. 3.
D. H. Rank and H. E. Bennett, /. Opt. Soc. Am., 45, 69 (1955),
D. E. Gray, Ed., American Institute ofPhysics Handbook, 3rd edition, MacGraw-Hill,
[39]
1972. (n in table 66-55).

L. E. Holland, Vacuum Deposition of Thin Films,
[35] P.
[36]
[37]
Chapman and
Hall, 1956.
Subject index
absentee layer {see latent layer)
absorption
approximation of geometrical optics (see

WKBJ approximation)
of metallic core 216

of metallic film 198
associated functions 457, 458
spurious 224, 507
asymmetric
Argand diagram
achromatic
52, 58
reflector
308
attenuation factor 194
antireflection coatings 96, 110
by detuned multilayers 139

by discrete points 111
by exacts synthesis 374
by A k2 =
401
by detuning 141
by exact synthesis 384
filters
Bessel functions in theory of inhomoge-
neous layers 434
beam-splitters
additive
Banning's polarizing prism 180, 359

Berning's circle 271
bilateral invariant
279
bi-layer (see simulated)
Biot-Arago mixing rule 474

blocking filter 161
156
admission zone 152 (see also pass-band)
boundary conditions
admittance
Brewster angle 72, 82
characteristic optical
effective
broad-band
37
38, 41
reflectors 151 (see also achro-
matic)
89
Butterworth polynomials 375
input 40
monotonous and symmetric combinacalibration condition 402
tions of 71
Airy summation 47
complete algorithm for 51
in metals 195
cardinal points 70
cascaded network 370
Cauer's expansion in
partial
fractions
419
alternating structures 84
cavity
amplitude condition 74, 10?

analogies between thin films and networks
412
filters
Chebyshev polynomials
diagrams 349
98, 376, 386
coefficient
approximation by simple reflections
52
as a Fourier transform 458

in
monochromatic
circle
approximate synthesis 365

in a dielectric multilayer
(see
laser cavity)
an inhomogeneous film 455
cumulative reflection 40
internal transfer 61
normal
coefficient of transmission
of finesse 80, 296
44
and
544
of reflection (also transfer coefficient) 43

energy 44
of transmission (also transfer coefficient)
43
in
FTRrfilm 237
in metals 196, 203
enhanced
reflection
323
envelopes of reflectivity 253, 258
energy 44
Epstein layer (see transition layer)
cold mirror 158, 325
equiripple 375
compact poles 419

complex
equivalent
layer, index, thickness
angle of refraction 183
etalon (see Fabry-Perot)
dielectric constant 21
evanescent wave 230
247
refractive index (see index of refraction)
even-alternating (see alternating structures)
transfer coefficients (see coefficient)
exact synthesis 364
vector amplitude 25
exponential layer 433, 442, 445
vector of refraction 185
extension
wave normal (see wave normal)

concentration by weights and volumes 472
bilateral 259,
contiguous stacks 85, 150, 228, 268

contrast of
filter
296
266
front-extension theorem (also input-side
extension theorem) 270

layers 85
core of general layer system 214
extinction coefficient 187
counterabsorption 217
extremum-phase
critical
crystal oscillator 537
cube
409
Fabry-Perot
reflector (see thick layers)
cut-off, cut-on
edge (see edge
laser cavity (see laser cavity)
filters)
reflection 6talon
transmission
Darlington's synthesis 364, 424 (see also
300
Argand diagram 121
monochromatic
filter)
Fizeau fringes of equal thickness 284, 314
design wavelength 87
Foster's theorem
detuned multilayer 85
Fourier
on LC-networks 426
expansions for 3t and S" 286
dichroic mirrors 154
transform in the theory on inhomoge-
dispersion
distorsion of spectral curves
due to 499,
505
neous film 458

frequency
of dielectrics 496
characteristic 368
of metals 26, 197
complex
of phase (see phase)
real (o
double-half-wave
chromatic
(see
filter
type sandwich 284
insertion loss)
deltoid
reflectors
angle 230
filter
93 (see also mono-
filter)
Drude's formulae 453
s 365
365
transformations 377
-true analogy 414,
416
Fresnel's formulae 39
in metals 190
edge
filters 88,
151, 257
ellipsometry
of dielectric films 80
of metallic surfaces 191
energy balance
generally 44, 68
in
WKBJ
approximation 438
front-extension theorem (see extension)

front-surface
mirrors (see enhanced
re-
flection)
frustrated total
reflection
monochromatic
filters)
233
(see also
SUBJECT INDEX
FTR (see frustrated
545
total reflection)
iso-
and
-phase
/
gain function 321
circle
generalized Snell law 183
Goos-Hanchen
shift
-reflectance
-transmittance contours 278
Kard's
expansions of the
Haidinger fringes of equal inclination 284

half-width 161, 297
first
kind 339
of the second kind 342

theory of translumination 346
Hankel's functions in the theory of inho-
Ketteler's relations 187
film 435
heat-reflecting filter 153
laser cavity
Hurwitz condition 368, 371
latent layers
hyperbolic profile 437, 455.
left-and-right incidence
linear layer
boundary film 513
identical
(see
232
gross power-flow ratio (see ratio)
mogeneous
circles
diagrams)
320
92
theorem 240
436
"
load resistance 421
incoherent coupling 149, 156, 492
Lorentz-Lorentz formula 472
index of refraction
low-pass
complex index of refraction 26, 182

effective index of refraction 89
induced transmission 182, 206, 220, 270,
lumped-parameter networks (see network
328
inevitable absorptance 217,
347
skew version of 520
inhomogeneous
film 383, 429
matching
for induced transmission:
admittance 277
28, 186
reflectance 275
input-side extension theorem (see extension)

insertion loss 423
for oblique incidence 105, 398
of curves in exact synthesis:
synthesis 424
integration
difference chromaticity thresh-
old 519
inhomogeneity as production errors 470
wave
(see edge filters)
theory)
MacAdam
Kard's theory of 346
Butterworth 374, 380
method for inhomogeneous
layer 448
interference
and destructive 203

of energy 201, 204, 206, 237
constructive
flux
filter
mirrors 148
Chebyshev 374, 380, 385

Lagrange 397, 405
of dielectric overcoating 412
of refractive index 257
material constants 21
internal field 182, 195, 200, 223
admittance 41
internal transfer coefficients (see coefficient)
chain 414
interpolating reflection levels 143
interference 45
invariant of stratified
media 247
(see also
bilateral invariant)
C of the optics of metals

187 (see also Ketteler's relations)
invariants A, B,
inversion
<>
N,
of the inhomogeneous layer 441

transformed to the ^-variable 365
open-circuit impedance
phase 42
refraction 41
E,-*-at, b, 370
n, 371
'
matrix
system transfer 42
maximally flat 375
m. 414
546
mixing of refractive indices 471

modulus function 368
monitoring methods 536
monochromatic
all
-change upon reflection, transmission 43

conditions 74
diagram 67
niters
dielectric
dispersion 107
single-half-wave
93,
159
double-half-wave 162
Fabry-Perot type 293

FTR 235
phasor functions 20
photometric methods 81
Pohlack's
achromatization by
induced transmission 332

multiple-cavity 173
beam-splitter 328
principle of 79
expansion 385
multiple reflections
(see achro-
polar admittance chart 66
in thick layers 481

in thin films
Ak2 =
matic)
polarimetric methods (see ellipsometry)
48
polarization
basic
components of 23
degree of 92
negative path 242

net power-flow ratio (see ratio)
pole-and-zero plot (see j-plane)
network theory 364
poles of rational function (see Hurwitz
condition)
non-polarizing reflectors 359
position of extrema in Fabry-Perot type
normal
sadwich 290, 303
inhomogeneity 18
transmission coefficient {see coefficient)
positive-real functions
424
potential
absorptance 222
oblique incidence
effective optical thickness in (see optical
transmittance 217, 219, 270
Poynting vector
thickness)
average value of 30
523
effects in lenses
in metals 192,
matching for (see matching)

odd-alternating (see alternating structures)
open-circuit impedance matrix
(see
ma-
200
production errors 536
propagation constant 25
trix)
optical exaltation
472
optical thickness
effective 74, 79,
104
relative 83, 87
quadrant symmetry (see j-plane)

quadratic parameters 347 (see also Kard's
theory of transamination)
random
distribution (of production errors)
538
pass-band 251, 255 (see also admission

zone)
Pauli matrices 247
period of phase diagrams 104

periodic structures 83
perturbations 496
phase
angle
gross power-flow 227

net power-flow 218
standing-wave 227
rational functions
for amplitude coefficients 367

for energy coefficients 368
42
complex
angle
ratio
for tan
<p
x 52
<p
182
<S
410
realizability conditions 368,
Hurwitz condition)
424
(see also
SUBJECT INDEX
547
370
theorem
of network theory 414
on associated functions 458
realization
in metals
reciprocity
ratio (see ratio)
Stokes' principle (see reversibility)
stop-band
recursion formulae
for Airy
86,
summation 49
subsidiary
267
(see
also
maxima (also secondary maxima
86, 255
reduced transmission factors 338
subtractive
reflection
surface
peaks of Fabry-Perot etalon 300

reducing and increasing layers 89
and
251,
99,
rejection zone)
for input admittance 62
specular
206
diffuse 511
filters
156
charge 516
plasma 516
roughness 510
zone 152 (see also stop-band)

renormalization (see Smith Chart)
rejection
symmetrical period 249

synthesis 364
resonance
in
a film 224
tangential
in
thick layers
laser cavity 321
restored field 242
components 36
summing up
multiple reflections
reversibility 241
in a cemented plate 485
reversion (see reversibility)
in a cube 487
Richards' transformation 365
in a pile of plates 484
ripple
inside a plate 481
manipulation of 257
tint in
root factors 368
coated lenses 517
tolerance channel 541

total field 31,
200
sandwich (see Fabry-Perot)
total reflection 213,
separation of variables 28
transfer
shape of extrema
sandwich) 292
(in
Fabry-Perot type
coefficients (see coefficient)
functions
sharp coefficients 244 (see also revesribility)
229
and
transition layer
characteristics
422
446
translumination 217
simulated bi-layer 131
external 221
single-pass gain 320
internal
skeleton (of general layer system) 214

sloping edge 144, 405
Smith Chart 62
220
tuned multilayer 85
ultraviolet filters 153
spacer layer 225, 284

spacerless design 313
vector approximation
j-plane
of j- 52
transformation into 365

distribution of poles
and zeros
of r/t 53
in (also
pole-and-zero plot) 368, 371, 406,408,
412
split-filter
quality of 53
534
Vlasov-Kard formulae 337
veiling glare
technique 163, 172
spoiling 143
square-topped
standing wave
filter
163
wave normal 25
complex 184
wide-band (see broad-band and achromatic)
548
WKBJ
x,
as phase angle for one zig-zag (see phase)
approximation 430
layer 443, 445
wronskian
441
of an
zeros of rational function 368 (see also
inhomogeneous layer
s-plane) at infinity 378
zig-zag reflections 48
AJso from John Wiley
POLARIZATION INTERFEROMETERS
M. Francon and
This
Mai lick, Faculte des Sciences,. Pin's
S.
monograph aims
to
present in simple language the fundamentals of
tiielr Important applications and the latest

As many norv physicists, use these instruments
a minimum of mathematics is used, and the emphasis is en the physical
|ir;n::i;ilHH iiwoivBil. Sane technical details and numerical values are given ta
facilitate the setting up of the instrument ir> the laboratory.
polarization
developments
interferometers,
in
the
field.
59 pages
1971
QUANTUM STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIATION

Mil lam H, LouiseM, University of Southern California
This book presents
some
of the developments in the theory of the
statistical properties of radiation that
Stresses principles
can be useful
in
quantum
other areas of physics.
and techniques.
544 pages
1973
INTEGRATED OPTICS
Edited by Dietrich
Ma reuse.
University of t/tah
book provides workers in this field with easy access to important papers
and stimulates students to join in the exploration and development of a new,
This
exciting area of optics.
304 pages
JOHN WILEY S SONS

London- New York' SydneyA
Wiley
1973
Toronto
Intersoience Publication
ISBN
471 49531 X

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KNITTL

Optics of Thin Films

WILEY SERIES IN PURE AND APPLIED OPTICS

allen and eberly

Optical Information Processing

GERRARD and burch

Color in Business, Science, and Industry, Third Edition

Optics of Thin Films

LEVI Applied Optics,

moller and rothschild

judd and wyszecki

The Applications of Holography

francon and mallick

Resonance and Two-Level Atoms

System Design, Volume

Laser Communication Systems

Optical Data Processing

WILLIAMS AND BECKLUND

zernike and midwinter

Applied Nonlinear Optics

DR. ZDENfiK KNITTL

& Precision Mechanics

Works, Prerov, Czechoslovakia

JOHN WILEY & SONS

Published in co-edition with

Publishers of Technical Literature, Prague

& Sons, Ltd

All rights reserved.

part of this book may be reproduced by any means, nor transmitted,

the written permission of the publisher

Optics of thin films.

(Wiley series in pure and applied optics)

Thin films Optical properties.

and prefatory notes

The plane wave

practical bearing of the theory

equations of the electromagnetic

1.7 Polarization states

OPTICS OF DIELECTRIC LAYERS

Notation and preparatory remarks

2.4 Input admittance at a

2.3 Fresnel's formulae

System transfer matrix

2.5.4 Evaluating the transfer coefficients

and evaluation of the

Reduced matrix work

2.6 Recursion formulae for multiple reflections

Generalized Airy summation

algorithm for complete Airy summation

2.6.5 Quality of the approximations

2.6.6 Internal transfer coefficients

A recursion pattern for the input admittance.

Notes on numerical computations

BASIC DIELECTRIC DESIGN UNITS

The Smith Chart

Amplitude and energy coefficients

Reducing and increasing

tion in white light

a prototype of monochromatic filtration

3.2 Periodic structures

Fundamentals of typology and notations

A rough orientation in a HLH.

3.2.3 Reflection at cardinal points