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Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Electric charge
Electric charge is a scalar; it has no direction.
SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C)
Three properties of electric charge:
1. Dichotomy property
The electric charge is either positive (+) or negative ().
Like charges repel; opposite charges attract.
2. Conservation property
The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed system is constant.
In charging, charge is not created nor destroyed; it is only transferred from one
body to another.
This is a universal conservation law.
3. Quantization property
The magnitude of charge of the electron or proton is a natural unit of charge.
Basic unit of charge e = 1.60210-19 C
a. Charge of 1 proton = +e = 1.60210-19 C
b. Charge of 1 electron = e = 1.60210-19 C
Every observable amount of electric charge is always an integer multiple of this
basic unit.
Other keywords:
o Electrostatics involves electric charges that are at rest (i.e. speed is zero) in the
observers reference frame
o Atom composed of electron, proton, and neutron
o Neutral atom atom with zero net charge (# of electrons = # of protons)
o Positive ion (cation) atom with positive net charge (lost one or more electrons)
o Negative ion (anion) atom with negative net charge (gained one or more electrons)
o Ionization gaining or losing of electrons
B. Types of materials in terms of electric conduction
Conductors
o Objects that permit the easy movement of electrons through them
o Ex: most metals, copper wire, earth
o In metals, the mobile charges are always negative electrons sea of free electrons
o The earth can act as an infinite source or sink of electrons grounding
Insulators
o Objects that does NOT permit the easy movement of electrons through them
o Ex: most nonmetals, ceramic, wood, plastic, rubber, air
o The charges within the molecules of an insulator can shift slightly polarization
Physics 72 Arciaga
Semiconductors
o Objects with properties between conductors and insulators
o Ex: silicon, diodes, transistors
Superconductors
o Objects with zero resistance against the movement of electrons
o Ex: some compounds at very low temperatures
NOTES: 1. The direction of Fe is along the line joining the two point charges.
2. The electric force on q1 by q2 is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to
the electric force on q2 by q1. [Recall: Newtons third law of motion]
3. It is an inverse square law. [Compare: Newtons law of gravity]
4. k = 1/4o = 8.988109 Nm2/C2
5. o = 8.85410-12 C2/Nm2
6. If there are more than two point charges, use the principle of superposition of forces.
Use vector addition (not scalar addition).
7. For atomic particles, the electric force is much greater than the gravitational force.
E. Electric field and electric forces
Electric field:
Fe
E=
q test
Fe = net electric force experienced by the test charge at the particular position
NOTES: 1. Electric field is a vector.
2. Electric field is an intermediary for the electric force; an aura of electric charges.
Physics 72 Arciaga
3. A charged body experiences an electric force when it feels an electric field
created by other charged bodies.
4. Compare it with the gravitational field.
5. SI unit of electric field is newton per coulomb (N/C).
Electric force experienced by a point charge due to a given electric field:
Fe = qE
1 q
E=
r
4 o r 2
r = unit vector pointing away from the point charge (i.e. radially outward)
NOTES: 1. E points away from a positive charge.
Physics 72 Arciaga
G. Electric dipoles
Electric dipole
o a pair of point charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign separated by a
particular distance
o ex: water molecule, polar molecules, TV antenna
Electric dipole moment
p = qd rp
; where p = electric dipole moment of a dipole
q = magnitude of the electric charge (of a charge) in the dipole
d = separation distance between the two charges
rp = unit vector pointing from the negative to the positive charge
NOTE: Electric dipole moment is a vector:
a. magnitude = |qd|
b. direction = from the negative to the positive charge
Torque of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field
= pE
; where = torque experienced by an electric dipole in an electric field
E = electric field
NOTE: Torque is a vector [recall Physics 71]:
a. magnitude = pE sin
E = electric field
NOTE: Potential energy is a scalar [recall Physics 71]:
a. magnitude = pE cos
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Electric flux
Electric flux like a flow of the electric field through an imaginary surface
For a uniform electric field through a flat surface:
E = E A = E n A = E A cos
; where E = electric flux
E = electric field
A = n A = vector area
E = E dA = E n dA = E cos dA
B. Gausss law
Qualitative statements of Gausss law:
1. The net electric flux through a closed surface is outward (/inward) if the net enclosed
charge is positive (/negative).
2. The net electric flux through a closed surface is zero if the net enclosed charge is zero.
3. The net electric flux through a closed surface is unaffected by charges outside the closed
surface.
4. The net electric flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the net amount of
enclosed charge.
5. The net electric flux through a closed surface is independent of the size and shape of the
closed surface (if the net amount of enclosed charge is constant).
Mathematically:
Q
E = E dA = E n dA = enc
o
NOTES: 1. The symbol
Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Conductors in electrostatics
Physics 72 Arciaga
Wa b = F ds
a
2. Electric force is a conservative force. A conservative force has the following properties:
a. The work it does on a particle is independent of the path taken by the particle and
depends only on the initial and final positions.
b. The total work it does on a particle is zero when the particle moves around any
closed path, in which the initial and final positions are the same.
c. The work it does on a particle is reversible, i.e. energy can always be recovered
without loss.
d. The work it does on a particle can be expressed as the difference between the initial
and final values of a potential-energy function.
Wab = U = (Ub Ua) = Ua Ub
; where Wab = work done by a conservative force when a particle
moves from position a to position b
U = change in the potential energy
Ua and Ub = potential energies at positions a and b, respectively
3. Conservation of mechanical energy can be applied when only internal force and
conservative force do work on the system.
4. A system tends to attain the lowest possible potential energy (i.e. it tends to attain a state of
stable equilibrium).
A charged particle in a uniform electric field:
U = Uo + qEh
; where U = electric potential energy of a charged particle
in a uniform electric field
q = electric charge of the charged particle
E = magnitude of the uniform electric field
Physics 72 Arciaga
1 1
1
q1q 2
4 o
ra rb
; where ra and rb = separation distance of the two point charges at
positions a and b, respectively
A point charge with other point charges:
q
q
1
1
q
U = Uo +
q1 2 + 3 + ... = U o +
q1 i
4 o r12 r13
4 o
i r1i
; where U = electric potential energy of a point charge with other point charges
q1 = electric charge of the point charge
q2, q3, = electric charges of the other point charges
r12, r13, = separation distance of q1 from q2, q1 from q3,
Uo = reference potential energy
NOTES: 1. Commonly, Uo = 0. Meaning, U = 0 if q1 is very far away from the other charges.
2. The above formula can also be used if any of the point charges is replaced
by any spherically symmetric charge distribution (in that case, r is the distance
between the centers).
3. The above formula is just scalar addition of electric potential energies.
1
1
1
Wa b = U =
q1 qi
r1i,a r1i,b
4 o
i
Wa b = U =
B. Electric potential
Electric potential electric potential energy per unit charge
often called simply as potential
U
V=
; where V = potential
q test
U = electric potential energy
qtest = electric charge of a test charge
NOTES: 1. Compare with electric field ( E = Fe q test ).
2. Potential is a scalar.
3. SI unit of potential is volt (V) : 1 V = 1 J/C
By a uniform electric field:
V = Vo + Eh
; where V = potential in a uniform electric field
E = magnitude of the uniform electric field
h = position against E
Vo = reference potential (i.e. value of V at h = 0)
Physics 72 Arciaga
By a point charge:
V = Vo +
1 q
4 o r
1 q 2 q3
1
qi
V = Vo +
+ + ... = Vo +
4o r2 r3
4 o i ri
4 o r
NOTES: 1. The integration is done over the entire distribution of charge (length, area, or volume).
2. For finite distribution of charge, you can set V = 0 at r = .
3. For infinite distribution of charge, you cannot set V = 0 at r = . What you can do is
to set V = 0 somewhere else.
Vab = Va Vb = E ds
a
; where Wab = work done by the electric force in moving a charged particle
from position a to position b
q = electric charge of the charged particle
U = change in the electric potential energy
Ua and Ub = electric potential energies at positions a and b, respectively
Va and Vb = potential at positions a and b, respectively
Vab = Va Vb = potential at a with respect to b (or voltage between a and b)
Fe = electric force
E = electric field
Physics 72 Arciaga
D. Equipotential surfaces
Equipotential surface 3D surface on which the potential is the same at every point (V = constant)
Some notes:
1. Contour lines on a topographic map curves of constant grav. potential energy per test mass
Equipotential surfaces curved surfaces of constant elec. potential energy per test charge
= i
+ j +k
x
y
z
V V V
E = V = i
+j
+k
y
z
x
E = electric field
V = potential
= gradient operator
V
E = V = r
; where r = unit radial vector
r
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Capacitors
Capacitor composed of two conductors separated by an insulator or vacuum
can store electric potential energy and electric charge
Capacitance characteristic property of a capacitor
measure of the ability of a capacitor to store energy
Q
C=
Vab
; where C = capacitance of a capacitor
Q = charge of the capacitor (i.e. charge on one conductor is +Q;
and charge on the other is Q)
Vab = potential difference between the two conductors
NOTES: 1. SI unit of capacitance is farad (F) : 1 F = 1 C/V
2. The capacitance depends on the insulator between the two conductors. [see Section D]
3. In vacuum, the capacitance depends only on the shape, configuration,
and size of the capacitor.
4. In vacuum, the capacitance does NOT depend on the charge and potential difference
of the capacitor.
Parallel-plate capacitor (in vacuum):
A
C = o
d
; where C = capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum
A = area of the parallel plates
d = distance separation between the two parallel plates
B. Connections of capacitors
Key idea: A connection of several capacitors can be replaced by a single capacitor with a certain
equivalent capacitance (also called effective capacitance in other textbooks).
Capacitors in series connection
1
1
1
Ceq = +
+
+ ...
C1 C 2 C3
Physics 72 Arciaga
U
volume
u dv
volume
D. Dielectrics
Dielectric a nonconducting material (i.e. insulator)
usually inserted between the plates of a capacitor
Characteristic properties associated with a dielectric:
1. Dielectric constant:
o symbol: K
o pure number; dimensionless; no units
o in general, K 1
o for vacuum, K = 1
o for air (at 1 atm), K = 1.00059 1
o for Mylar, K = 3.1
2. Permittivity:
o symbol:
o = Ko
o SI unit is C2/Nm2 or F/m
o o = permittivity of free space (permittivity of vacuum)
o in general, o
o for air (at 1 atm), o
3. Dielectric strength:
o dielectric strength maximum electric field (magnitude) that a dielectric can withstand
without the occurrence of dielectric breakdown
o dielectric breakdown phenomenon at which the dielectric becomes partially ionized
and becomes a conductor
Physics 72 Arciaga
Effects of inserting a dielectric in the capacitor:
1. Separates the two plates even at very small distances
2. Increases the maximum possible potential difference between the plates (because some
dielectrics have higher dielectric strength than air)
3. Increases the capacitance of the capacitor
Cw = KCwo
4. Decreases the potential difference between the plates when Q is kept constant
Vw = Vwo / K
5. Decreases the electric field when Q is kept constant (because of polarization and induced
charges in the dielectric)
Ew = Ewo / K
6. Decreases the electric potential energy stored when Q is kept constant (because the electric
field fringes do work on the dielectric)
Uw = Uwo / K
uw = uwo / K = Ew2
; where K = dielectric strength of the inserted dielectric
= permittivity of the inserted dielectric
Cw, Cwo = capacitances with and without the inserted dielectric
Vw, Vwo = potential differences with and without the inserted dielectric
Ew, Ewo = electric fields with and without the inserted dielectric
Uw, Uwo = electric potential energies with and without the inserted dielectric
uw, uwo = electric energy densities with and without the inserted dielectric
Remark: In solving problems about capacitors, you must determine whether the voltage or the
charge is constant. Here are some common situations:
1. capacitor is directly connected to a battery (or emf source) implies constant voltage
2. charged capacitor is isolated (i.e. not connected to anything) implies constant charge
Physics 72 Arciaga
CHAPTER 25. CURRENT, RESISTANCE, AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
A. Current
Remarks about conductors (particularly metals):
1. In electrostatics,
a. electric field is zero within the material of the conductor.
b. the free electrons move randomly in all directions within the material of the conductor;
comparable with the motion of gas molecules.
c. there is no net current in the material of the conductor.
2. In electrodynamics,
a. electric field is nonzero within the material of the conductor.
b. the free electrons move with a drift velocity in the opposite direction of the electric field
(aside from the random motion described in 1b).
c. there is a net current in the material of the conductor.
Current
o any motion of charge from one region to another
o rate of flow of charge (i.e. charge flowing per unit time)
o moving charges:
a. metals electrons
b. ionized gas (plasma) electrons, positive ions, negative ions
c. ionic solution electrons, positive ions, negative ions
d. semiconductors electrons, holes (sites of missing electrons)
o direction of current flow = same direction as the electric field in the conductor
= same direction as the flow of positive charge
= opposite direction to the flow of negative charge
o mathematically:
dQ
I=
= n q v d A ; where I = current flowing through an area
dt
dQ = net charge flowing through the area
dt = unit time
n = concentration of the charged particles
(i.e. number of particles per unit volume)
q = charge of the individual particles
vd = drift speed of the particles
A = cross-sectional area
NOTES: 1. Current is a scalar; not a vector.
2. SI unit of current is ampere (A) : 1 A = 1 C/s
3. If there are different kinds of moving charges, the total current is the sum of the
currents due to each kind of moving charge.
Current density
o current per unit area
o mathematically:
J = nqv d
; where J = current density
n = concentration of charged particles
q = charge of the individual particles
Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Resistivity
E
=
J
C. Resistance
V
L
R = =
I
A
Physics 72 Arciaga
D. Ohms law
Ohms law:
o At a given temperature, the current density flowing through a material is nearly directly
proportional to the electric field in that material.
o Mathematically: J E (or equivalently, I V )
NOTE: This is not actually a law because it is obeyed only by some materials (i.e. not all).
Two classifications of materials:
1. Ohmic material (or linear material)
o material that obeys Ohms law
o ex: resistors, metals, conductors
Physics 72 Arciaga
F. Electromotive force
Electromotive force
o something that can make the current flow from lower to higher potential energy
o abbreviation: emf
o symbol:
o its not a force; its a potential (i.e. potential energy per unit charge)
o SI unit of emf is volt (V)
Source of emf
o any device that can provide emf (i.e. potential or voltage)
o ex: battery, electric generator, solar cell, fuel cell, etc.
o can transform a particular for of energy (ex: chemical, mechanical, thermal, etc.) into
electric potential energy
o two classifications:
1. ideal source of emf
no internal resistance
provides a constant voltage across its terminals (called terminal voltage)
Vab = ; where Vab = terminal voltage provided by the source of emf
= emf in the source of emf
2. real (or nonideal) source of emf
has an internal resistance
provides a terminal voltage that depends on the current and resistance
Vab = Ir
; where Vab = terminal voltage provided by the source of emf
= emf in the source of emf
I = current through the source of emf
r = internal resistance in the source of emf
NOTES: 1. For an ideal source of emf, the terminal voltage is always equal to .
2. For a real source of emf, the terminal voltage becomes equal to only when there is
no current flowing (i.e. open circuit).
Some keywords:
1. Ammeter a device that measures the current passing through it
must be connected in series to a circuit element or device
ideal ammeter = has zero resistance inside (so that there is no potential difference
across its terminals)
2. Voltmeter a device that measures the potential difference (or voltage) across its terminals
must be connected in parallel to a circuit element or device
ideal voltmeter = has infinitely large resistance inside (so that there is no current
passing through it)
3. Short circuit a closed circuit in which the terminals of a source of emf are connected directly
to each other
creates very large current that can damage the devices in the circuit !!!
Physics 72 Arciaga
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Connections of resistors
Key idea: A connection of several resistors can be replaced by a single resistor with a certain
equivalent resistance (also called effective resistance in other textbooks).
1
1
R eq =
+
+
+ ...
R1 R 2 R 3
Problem-solving tips:
1. Usually, you first have to assume the direction of the current in each branch of the circuit. If
the calculated current in the end is positive, then the assumed direction is correct (but if the
calculated current is negative, then the assumed direction is opposite to the correct one).
2. Recall that current flows from high to low potential across a resistor.
3. Using Kirchhoffs rules, setup a number of independent equations equal to the number of
unknowns. Usually, you first apply the junction rule to all the junctions; then, complete the
number of equations by applying the loop rule.
C. R-C circuits
Charging a capacitor:
Q = C 1 e t / RC = Q F 1 e t /
dQ t / RC
= e
= Io e t /
dt R
; where Q and I = charge on and current through the capacitor, respectively
t = time
R and C = resistance and capacitance, respectively
= terminal voltage (of the ideal emf source)
QF = final charge on the capacitor = C
Io = initial current = /R
= time constant (or relaxation time) = RC
NOTES: 1. Charge in the capacitor exponentially increases with time:
a. t = 0: Q = 0
b. t = : Q = QF(1 1/e) = 0.63 QF
c. t = : Q = QF
2. Current (magnitude) through the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: I = Io
b. t = : I = Io/e = 0.37 Io
c. t = : I = 0
3. Recall the voltages across the resistor and capacitor: VR = IR and VC = Q/C
4. Rule of thumb
a. Transient voltage across a charging capacitor is zero if it has no initial charge
like a short circuit element
b. At steady-state of a fully-charged capacitor, current is zero
like an open circuit element
Discharging a capacitor:
Q = Qo e t /
Q
dQ
I=
= o e t / RC = Io e t /
dt
RC
; where Qo = initial charge on the capacitor
Io = initial current = Qo/RC
= time constant (or relaxation time) = RC
NOTES: 1. Charge in the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: Q = Qo
b. t = : Q = Qo/e = 0.37 Qo
c. t = : Q = 0
2. Current (magnitude) through the capacitor exponentially decreases with time:
a. t = 0: I = Io
b. t = : I = Io/e = 0.37 Io
c. t = : I = 0
3. Recall the voltages across the resistor and capacitor: VR = IR and VC = Q/C
4. Rule of thumb
a. At steady-state of a fully-discharged capacitor, current is zero
like an open circuit element
Physics 72 Arciaga
I=
Physics 72 Arciaga
In understanding the concepts of magnetism, I strongly suggest that you compare, contrast, or find
analogies with the concepts of electricity (Chaps. 21 and 22).
Please review the cross product (vector product) that you learned from Physics 71 !!!
A. Magnetic pole
Key ideas:
1. A permanent magnet has a north pole and a south pole.
2. North pole repels north pole, but attracts south pole.
South pole repels south pole, but attracts north pole.
3. No experimental evidence of a magnetic monopole. Poles always appear in pairs.
4. A bar magnet sets up a magnetic field.
The earth is a magnet:
North geographic pole it is actually (near) a south magnetic pole
South geographic pole it is actually (near) a north magnetic pole
B. Magnetic field
Analogy:
1. Electric field ( E )
produced by electric charges that may be at rest or moving
2. Magnetic field ( B )
produced by moving electric charges (i.e. current)
exerts a magnetic force ( F = qv B ) on another electric charge that must be moving
Direction of magnetic field:
o same direction where the north pole of the compass needle points to
o for a permanent magnet, the magnetic field points out of its north pole and into its south
pole (but inside the magnet, the field points from the south to the north)
NOTES: 1. SI unit of magnetic field is tesla (T): 1 T = 1 N/Am
2. Another common unit of magnetic field is gauss (G): 1 G = 10-4 T
C. Magnetic force on a moving charged particle
Mathematically:
F = qv B ; where F = magnetic force on a moving charged particle
q = electric charge of the moving charged particle
of both v and B .
Physics 72 Arciaga
Implications:
o The magnetic force can never do work on a charged particle.
o The magnetic force can only change the direction but not the magnitude (i.e. speed) of the
velocity of a charged particle.
Remark: When a situation involves both the electric force and the magnetic force, be careful on
how you use the principle of superposition.
o You can add together all electric fields (vector addition)
o You can add together all magnetic fields (vector addition)
o You can add together electric forces and magnetic forces (vector addition)
o Never add electric fields with magnetic fields !!!
B = B dA = B n dA = B dA = B dA
3. Recall the unit normal vector ( n ) and the vector area ( A ) (Chap. 22)
4. SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb): 1 Wb = 1 Tm2
5. Sometimes the magnetic field is also called magnetic flux density (i.e. flux per
unit area).
B = B dA = B n dA = 0
Physics 72 Arciaga
2. Circular motion: a C =
v2
; v = r ;
r
2
= 2f
T
Examples:
1. Circular motion
uniform magnetic field; velocity has perpendicular component only
mv
cyclotron radius (or Larmor radius or gyroradius) : r =
qB
v qB
=
r
m
angular speed : =
1 qB
=
2 2 m
2. Helical motion
uniform magnetic field; velocity has perpendicular and parallel components
mv
cyclotron radius (or Larmor radius or gyroradius) : r =
[v matters!]
qB
v q B
=
[v matters!]
r
m
angular speed : =
pitch : x P = v T = v 2
m
[v|| matters!]
qB
1 qB
=
2 2 m
3. Mirror motion
non-uniform magnetic field; magnetic mirror (or magnetic bottle) configuration
Some applications:
1. Velocity selector (or velocity filter)
purpose: to select ions moving with the prescribed velocity
how: balance the electric force and the magnetic force
E
example: vselect =
B
2. Thomsons e/m experiment
purpose: to determine the value of e/m
how: velocity selector with speed determined from conservation of mechanical energy
e
E2
example:
=
m 2VB2
3. Mass spectrometer
purpose: to determine the mass (or the species) of ions assuming |q| is known
how: cyclotron radius due to a uniform magnetic field
rqB
example: m =
v
Remark: Do NOT memorize the above formulas !!! Just start thinking from the fundamentals and
learn to derive the above formulas.
Physics 72 Arciaga
NOTES: 1. This comes from adding the magnetic force ( F = qv B ) acting on all the charged
particles in the conductor.
F = I dL B
I. Current loop
Current loop a conductor that forms a loop and has a current flowing through it
Magnetic dipole any object that experiences a magnetic torque
most common example is a current loop
analogy: electric dipole
Magnetic dipole moment property of a magnetic dipole
also called magnetic moment
analogy: electric dipole moment
= IA
; where = magnetic dipole moment
I= current flowing through the current loop (i.e. magnetic dipole)
A = vector area
NOTES: 1. Magnetic dipole moment is a vector; same direction as the vector area (see Chap. 22)
2. Direction: use the right-hand rule curl fingers to the direction of the current
3. Its arrow head is the north pole; while its arrow tail is the south pole.
Torque on a current loop (in a uniform magnetic field)
= B
; where = torque acting on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field
Physics 72 Arciaga
Potential energy of a current loop (in a uniform magnetic field)
U = B ; where U = potential energy of a current loop in a uniform magnetic field
Physics 72 Arciaga
Recall:
Electric field produced by electric charges that may be at rest or moving
Magnetic field produced by moving electric charges (including current)
Please practice your right-hand rules.
B=
;
where
B
= magnetic field of a moving point charge with constant velocity
4 r 2
q = electric charge of the moving point charge
o I dL r
dB =
; where B = magnetic field of an infinitesimal current element
2
4 r
I = current through the current element
o I dL r
B = dB =
4 r 2
The integration is done over the entire length of the current element.
C. Amperes law
B dL = o Ienc
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Electromagnetic induction
Key idea: When the magnetic flux through a circuit or loop changes, then an emf and current are
induced in the circuit or loop.
Keywords: electromagnetic induction, induced emf, induced current
B. Faradays law
The induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the loop.
d B
Mathematically: =
dt
; where = induced emf in the circuit or loop
B = magnetic flux through the circuit or loop
dB/dt = rate of change of the magnetic flux
Remarks:
1. depends on the change of B only. [independent of the material of the circuit]
2. Induced current depends on (hence B) and resistance (since I = /R). [depends on the
material of the circuit]
3. Recall: B = B A = BA cos AB It can be possibly changed by the following:
a) Changing magnitude of B
b) Changing magnitude of A
d = ( v B ) dL
; where d = motional emf produced on the conductor
Physics 72 Arciaga
Remarks:
1. d may be zero or nonzero depending on the orientation of v, B, and dL .
2. For a closed conducting loop (i.e. conductor is part of closed circuit):
= ( v B ) dL
[closed line integral over the entire loop]
3. This is actually an alternate form of Faradays law for the case of moving conductors.
4. Motional emf is just a special case of induced emf for the case of moving conductors.
E. Induced electric fields
Key idea: When the magnetic flux through a stationary loop changes, then an electric field is
induced in that loop.
Keyword: induced electric field
d B
= E dL =
dt
; where dB/dt = rate of change of the magnetic flux through a stationary loop
Physics 72 Arciaga
Generalized Amperes law:
B dL = o ( IC,enc + ID,enc )
E dA = enc
o
Implications:
o static charges create an electric field (i.e. conservative electric field)
o electric field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges
o Coulombs law can be derived from the above expression
2. Gausss law for magnetic fields:
B dA = 0
Implications:
o magnetic monopoles do not exist
o magnetic field lines have no start and end (i.e. they are closed loops)
3. Amperes law with Maxwells correction:
d
B dL = o ( IC,enc + ID,enc ) = o IC,enc + o dtE enc
Implications:
o moving charges (i.e. conducton currents) create a magnetic field
o varying electric fields create a magnetic field
o Biot-Savart law can be derived from the above expression
4. Faradays law:
d B
E dL =
dt
Implication:
o varying magnetic fields create an electric field (i.e. nonconservative electric
field)
Amazing remark: Equations 1 and 2 look similar!!! Equations 3 and 4 look similar!!!
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Mutual inductance
Key idea: A time-varying current in a coil (or circuit) causes an induced emf and induced current
in another coil (or circuit), depending on their mutual inductance.
Keywords: mutual inductance, mutually-induced emf
Mutual inductance:
M = N 2 B2 = N1 B1
I1
I2
; where M = mutual inductance (between coils 1 and 2)
N1, N2 = number of turns of coils 1 and 2, respectively
B1, B2 = magnetic flux through each turn of coils 1 and 2, respectively
I1, I2 = current in coils 1 and 2, respectively
NOTES: 1. Mutual inductance is scalar.
2. It is a shared property of two separated and independent coils (i.e. M = M12 = M21).
3. Depends on the geometry of the 2 coils (i.e. size, shape, number of turns, orientation,
and separation) and the core material enclosed by the coils (vacuum, air, iron, etc.)
4. Independent of the current.
5. SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H):
1 H = 1 Wb/A = 1 Vs/A = 1 s = 1 J/A2
6. High mutual inductance means that the 2 coils highly affect each other.
Mutually-induced emf:
dI
2 = M 1
dt
dI
1 = M 2
dt
; where 1, 2 = mutually-induced emf in coils 1 and 2, respectively
M = mutual inductance (between coils 1 and 2)
I1, I2 = current in coils 1 and 2, respectively
B. Self-inductance and inductors
Key idea: A time-varying current in a coil (or circuit) causes an induced emf and induced current
in itself, depending on its self-inductance.
Keywords: self-inductance, self-induced emf
Self-inductance:
L=N B
I
; where L = self-inductance (of a coil)
N = number of turns of the coil
B = magnetic flux through each turn of the coil
I = current in the coil
NOTES: 1. Self-inductance is scalar.
2. It is a self property of a single coil.
3. Depends on the geometry of the coil (i.e. size, shape, number of turns) and the core.
4. Independent of the current.
5. SI unit of self-inductance is the same as that of mutual inductance.
Physics 72 Arciaga
Self-induced emf:
dI
= L
dt
Inductor:
o a circuit device that is designed to have a particular inductance (i.e. self-inductance)
o also called choke
o opposes any variation of current through the circuit
o voltage across an inductor depends on the time-rate of change of the current
dI
V=L
dt
; where V = voltage across an inductor (i.e. Ventry Vexit)
L = inductance of the inductor
dI/dt = time-rate of change of the current through the inductor
NOTES: 1. V is zero if dI/dt is zero (i.e. constant current).
2. V is either a rise or a drop depending on the sign of dI/dt (i.e. whether the current is
increasing or decreasing).
C. Magnetic-field energy
Inductors can store magnetic-field energy (or simply magnetic energy).
Magnetic-field energy:
1
U = LI2 ; where U = magnetic energy stored in an inductor
2
L = inductance of the inductor
I = current through the inductor
NOTES: 1. Energy in the inductor is constant if the current is constant.
2. The inductor is storing energy while the current is increasing.
3. The inductor is releasing energy while the current is decreasing.
4. Compare with a capacitor that can store or release electric-field energy (U = Q2/C).
5. Compare with a resistor that always dissipates energy.
Magnetic energy density:
U
1 B2
u=
=
; where u = magnetic energy density in an inductor
volume 2 o
B = magnetic field produced by the inductor
NOTES: 1. Energy stored in an inductor is proportional to the square of the magnetic field.
2. Compare with the electric energy density of a capacitor (u = oE2).
Physics 72 Arciaga
Physics 72 Arciaga
F. The L-R-C circuit
Key ideas:
a. Resistance is analogous to friction; they both dissipate energy.
b. Damped electrical oscillation happens in an L-R-C circuit.
c. Analogous to the damped mechanical oscillation (review Physics 71).
Three cases:
1. Underdamped
happens for low R (i.e. R < 2 L C )
charge and current still oscillate
but they die with an exponential decay envelope
increasing R causes slower oscillation but quicker death
2. Critically damped
happens at moderate R (i.e. R = 2 L C )
charge and current do not oscillate
they die the quickest possible way
3. Overdamped
happens for high R (i.e. R > 2 L C )
charge and current do not oscillate
they die slower compared to the critically damped case
increasing R causes slower death
Physics 72 Arciaga
Start thinking or visualizing sinusoidal graphs. This skill will help you a lot!
A. Alternating current
Alternating current (ac) direction of the current continuously changes
AC source any device that supplies a sinusoidally varying voltage or current
V = Vmax cost
I = Imax cost
; where V and I = instantaneous voltage and current, respectively
Vmax and Imax = voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
= angular frequency
t = time
Example: In the Philippines, f = 60 Hz (i.e. = 377 rad/s).
Phasors
o rotating vectors that can be used to represent sinusoidally carrying voltages and currents
o they are only geometric tools for easier analysis of ac circuits
o characteristics:
a phasor rotates counterclockwise with a constant angular speed ()
length of a phasor is equal to the amplitude value (Vmax or Imax)
projection of a phasor onto the horizontal axis is the instantaneous value (V or I)
angular displacement of the phasor is t after an elapsed time t
o key idea: When using phasor diagram for ac circuit analysis, it is just like performing
vector addition but taking the x-component of the final answer.
Average values:
1. Root-mean-square value (rms value)
V
Vrms = max
2
I max
I rms =
2
; where Vrms and Irms = rms values of voltage and current, respectively
Vmax and Imax = voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
Example: In the Philippines, Vrms = 110 V or 220 V (i.e. Vmax = 156 V or 311 V).
2. Rectified average value (rav)
2
Vrav = Vmax
2
I rav = I max
Physics 72 Arciaga
Physics 72 Arciaga
Z = R 2 + (X L X C ) 2
XL = L
1
XC =
C
X XC
= tan 1 L
D. Power in ac circuits
Instantaneous power
P = IV
; where P, I, and V = instantaneous power, current, and voltage, respectively
Average power
Pave = ImaxVmaxcos = IrmsVrmscos
Pave = average power
Vmax and Imax = voltage and current amplitudes, respectively
Vrms and Irms = rms values of voltage and current, respectively
= phase angle
NOTES: 1. cos is called the power factor of the ac circuit.
2. For a pure resistor R connected to an ac source:
cos = 1
V2
1
Pave = Imax Vmax = I rms Vrms = I 2rms R = rms
2
R
3. For a pure inductor L or a pure capacitor C connected to an ac source:
cos = 0
Pave = 0
4. For a series L-R-C circuit connected to an ac source:
cos = R/Z
1
R
R
R
2
Pave = Imax Vmax = I rms Vrms = I2rms R = Vrms
2
Z
Z
Z2
Physics 72 Arciaga
=
Vmax,1 N1
Vmax,2Imax,2 = Vmax,1Imax,1
; where Vmax,1 and Vmax,2 = voltage amplitudes in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
Imax,1 and Imax,2 = current amplitudes in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
N1 and N2 = number of turns in the primary and secondary coils,
respectively
NOTES: 1. The first relation comes from Faradays law.
For constant flux change, turns induced emf
2. The second relation comes from conservation of energy.
For constant power, voltage current
3. Step-up transformer:
Vmax,2 > Vmax,1 N2 > N1 and Imax,2 < Imax,1
4. Step-down transformer:
Vmax,2 < Vmax,1 N2 < N1 and Imax,2 > Imax,1
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Electromagnetic waves
Wave
o transports disturbance, energy, and momentum from one region to another
o speed of the wave: v = f
; where v = speed of a wave
= wavelength of the wave
f = frequency of the wave
Electromagnetic wave (EM wave)
o also called electromagnetic radiation
o a wave that can propagate even when there is no matter (i.e. vacuum) or no medium
o predicted by the four Maxwells equations
o consists of time-varying electric and magnetic fields (i.e. waving electric and magnetic
fields)
o produced by accelerating charges (e.g. transmitter antenna)
General characteristics of electromagnetic wave (as predicted by Maxwells equations)
o speed in vacuum
1
c=
= 3.00108 m/s ; where c = speed of EM wave in vacuum
o o
o = permittivity of free space or vacuum
o = permeability of free space or vacuum
Physics 72 Arciaga
S=
EB
; where S = Poynting vector of the EM wave in vacuum
o
A dt ave
Momentum
o Radiation pressure of EM wave if totally absorbed
S
I
p rad = ave =
; where prad = radiation pressure by an absorbed EM wave
c
c
o Radiation pressure of EM wave if totally reflected
2S
2I
p rad = ave =
; where prad = radiation pressure by a reflected EM wave
c
c
Remarks:
significance of radiation pressure:
o average rate of momentum transfer per unit area
o average force per unit area
1 dp
1
o p rad = = Fave
A dt ave A
larger force is imparted by the EM wave to a surface it hits when it is
reflected than when it is absorbed by the surface
Physics 72 Arciaga
C. Electromagnetic spectrum
Categories
Frequency (Hz)
Wavelength (m)
Radiowave
Microwave
Infrared
Visible light
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Ultraviolet
X ray
Gamma ray
3108
~3108-1012
~31011-1015
1
~10-4-1
~10-7-10-3
~405-4801012
~480-5101012
~510-5301012
~530-6001012
~600-7001012
~700-7901012
~31015-1017
~31016-1021
31018
~625-74010-9
~590-62510-9
~565-59010-9
~500-56510-9
~430-50010-9
~380-43010-9
~10-9-10-7
~10-13-10-8
10-10
Applications
radio (AM, FM), TV (UHF, VHF)
cellphone, oven, radar, wi-fi
camera focusing, stove, heat sensor
Remarks:
o for any EM wave, v = f always
o in general, EM waves with higher frequency have shorter wavelengths
o v = c = 3108 m/s if EM wave moves in vacuum
o some categories overlap in the spectrum
o in general, EM waves with higher frequency have higher energy Physics 73
o the range of values in the table above are just approximate values
Physics 72 Arciaga
Optics branch of physics that deals with the behavior of light and other EM waves
Geometric optics focuses on ray analysis of light
Physical optics focuses on wave behavior of light
Physics 72 Arciaga
Law of reflection
o i = r
; where i and r = angle of incidence and angle of reflection, respectively
o Remarks
angles are measured between the ray and the normal (i.e. perpendicular to surface)
reflected ray is at the same angle as the incident ray
also, the incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie in the same plane
Law of refraction
o ni sini = nt sint
; where i and t = angle of incidence and angle of refraction, respectively
ni = index of refraction of primary medium (incident side)
nt = index of refraction of secondary medium (refracted side)
o Remarks
angles are measured between the ray and the normal (i.e. perpendicular to surface)
refracted ray is bent with respect to the incident ray
a. bends toward the normal if light moves from low n to high n
b. bends away from the normal if light moves from high n to low n
also, the incident ray, refracted ray, and normal all lie in the same plane
Physics 72 Arciaga
Rainbow formation
o dispersion + refraction + reflection
o primary rainbow
single reflection inside the water droplet
bright, but thin
red has larger radius than violet
o secondary rainbow
double reflection inside the water droplet
thick, but faint
violet has larger radius than red (i.e. reverse order of primary rainbow)
E. Polarization
Tip: When thinking about polarization, it helps a lot if you will imagine about components of an
oscillating or rotating vector (in this case, the vector is the electric field)
Polarization characteristic of all transverse waves
for EM waves, it describes the direction of oscillation of the electric field
this is different from the polarization you learned in Chap. 21
Unpolarized light (or natural light) light with no polarization (i.e. random direction)
Types of polarization
1. linearly polarized
electric field oscillates along a line
can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with phase difference
equal to 0 or
2. circularly polarized
tip of electric field traces a circle [looks like a rotating helix]
a. right circularly polarized clockwise rotation (as viewed opposite to
direction of propagation)
b. left circularly polarized counterclockwise rotation (as viewed opposite to
direction of propagation)
can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with same amplitude and
phase difference equal to /2 [i.e. quarter-cycle or quarter-wave difference]
3. elliptically polarized
tip of electric field traces an ellipse [looks like a rotating distorted helix]
can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with same amplitude and
phase difference NOT equal to 0, , or /2
can be composed of two perpendicular wave components with different amplitudes
and phase difference NOT equal to 0 or
Methods of polarization
1. radiowave: a straight antenna creates a linearly polarized radiowave
2. radiowave: two perpendicular straight antennas with a phase-shifting network can create
circularly or elliptically polarized radiowave
3. microwave: a grill-like array of conducting wires can transform any microwave into
linearly polarized microwave
4. light: a quarter-wave plate birefringent material can transform a linearly polarized light to
a circularly polarized light, and vice-versa
birefringent a material with different indexes of refraction for different directions
of polarization (e.g. calcite)
birefringence behavior of birefringent materials
Physics 72 Arciaga
5. light: a polarizing filter (or polarizer) composed of a dichroic material can transform any
light into linearly polarized light
dichroic a material which absorbs a particular direction of polarization (e.g.
Polaroids in sunglasses and cameras)
dichroism behavior of dichroic materials
polarizing axis the orientation of the transmitted linearly polarized light
6. light: reflection can cause partial or total polarization of light
key idea: the component of the electric field parallel to the interface is reflected
MORE than the non-parallel component
Brewsters law for the polarizing angle
n
tan pol = t
ni
; where pol = polarizing angle
ni = index of refraction of primary medium (incident side)
nt = index of refraction of secondary medium (refracted side)
If incident angle is equal to the polarizing angle, then
a. reflected ray is completely linearly polarized parallel to the interface
b. refracted ray is partially linearly polarized non-parallel to the interface
c. reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other
Intensity after polarization
o When an unpolarized light passes through a single polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light is halved
Iline = Iunpol
o When a circularly polarized light passes through a single polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light is halved
Iline = Icirc
o When a linearly polarized light passes through another polarizer, the intensity of the
transmitted linearly polarized light depends on the orientation of the polarizing axis
Iout = Iin cos2
; where = angle between the directions of the incident
linearly polarized light and the polarizing axis
Iin = intensity of the incident light
Iout = intensity of the transmitted light
Remarks
The above equation is called Maluss law.
It can be used successively for a series of 2 or more polarizers.
A series of 2 polarizers is usually called a polarizer-analyzer setup.
If the 2 polarizing axes are aligned, then Iout = Iin.
If the 2 polarizing axes are perpendicular, then Iout = 0.
F. Scattering of light
Scattering when light is absorbed and then re-radiated to different directions
Key idea: long wavelength is less scattered
1
o Iscattered 4
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Keywords
Object
o Point object
o Extended object can be thought of as composed of numerous point objects
o
o
Image
o
o
Real object when the light actually passes through the object
Virtual object does not actually pass
Point image
Extended image can be thought of as formed by numerous point images
o Real image when the light actually passes through the image can be seen on a screen
o Virtual image does not actually pass cannot be seen on a screen
Location
o Object distance distance of the object from the mirror, surface, or lens
o Image distance image
Magnification (lateral)
o Magnified / Enlarged when the image is larger than the lateral size of the object
o Reduced / Diminished / Minified smaller
Orientation
o Erect / Upright when the image is in the same lateral direction as the object
o Inverted opposite lateral direction
o Reversed opposite axial direction
Plane surface
Spherical surface
o Center of curvature
o Radius of curvature
o Vertex
o Optic axis axis connecting the vertex and the center of curvature
o Focal point location where light seems to converge/diverge due to the mirror or lens
o Focal length distance between the focal point and the mirror or lens
Spherical mirror
o Converging mirror / Concave mirror
o Diverging mirror / Convex mirror
Thin lens
o Converging lens / Positive lens
Double-convex
Plano-convex
Meniscus
o Diverging lens / Negative lens
Double-concave
Plano-concave
Meniscus
Physics 72 Arciaga
B. Principal-ray diagram
Principal rays
1. center ray no deviation through center
2. vertex ray at vertex, equal angle with optic axis
3. parallel ray parallel then to/away from focal point
4. focal ray focal point then parallel
NOTES:
o Key idea: Find the intersection of the principal rays to locate the image of the object.
o Warning: Find the intersection of the outgoing parts of the rays !!! [not with the incoming]
o Generally, two rays are enough.
o Valid approximation only for cases involving paraxial rays (i.e. close and nearly parallel to
the optic axis) usually called paraxial approximation
C. Sign rules
Object distance
o Positive if object is on the same side as the incoming light (i.e. real object)
o Negative opposite side (i.e. virtual object)
Image distance
o Positive if image is on the same side as the outgoing light (i.e. real image)
o Negative opposite side (i.e. virtual image)
Radius of curvature
o Positive if center of curvature is on the same side as the outgoing light
o Negative opposite side
Focal length
o Positive if the mirror or lens is converging
o Negative diverging
Magnification
o Positive if the image is erect
o Negative inverted
D. Reflection at a plane or spherical surface (including mirror)
Basic equations
o Object-image relation
1 1 2 1
+ = =
s s' R f
o Magnification
y'
s'
m= =
y
s
; where s, s = object and image distance, respectively
R = radius of curvature
f = focal length
m = magnification
y, y = (lateral) height of the object and image, respectively
o NOTES:
Follow the sign rules properly !!! [see Section C]
The above equations are valid only for paraxial approximation
For spherical surfaces, f = R
If the surface is plane, just make R = (and f = 0)
Can be verified using the principal-ray diagram [see Section B]
Physics 72 Arciaga
Plane mirror
o s = s [image and object are equidistant from the plane mirror]
o m = 1 [image and object have the same size]
o virtual, same-sized, erect (but reversed) image
Spherical mirror
o Convex mirror / Diverging mirror
virtual, reduced, erect image
o Concave mirror / Converging mirror
if s > R : real, reduced, inverted image
if s = R : real, same-sized, inverted image
if R > s > f : real, magnified, inverted image
if s = f : image is at infinity
if s < f : virtual, enlarged, erect image
+
=
s
s'
R
o Magnification
n s'
y'
m= = a
y
n bs
; where s, s = object and image distance, respectively
R = radius of curvature
m = magnification
y, y = (lateral) height of the object and image, respectively
na = index of refraction of the medium at incident-side
nb = index of refraction of the medium at refracted-side
o NOTES:
Follow the sign rules properly !!! [see Section C]
The above equations are valid only for paraxial approximation
If the surface is plane, just make R = (and f = 0)
Cannot be verified using the principal-ray diagram in Section B
Use ray-tracing and Snells law of refraction for verification [see Chap. 33]
Plane surface
s'
s
o
=
nb
na
o m = 1 [image and object have the same size]
o virtual, same-sized, erect image
o If na > nb, the apparent depth is shallower than the true depth (e.g. water-to-air)
Spherical surface
o Convex surface
o Concave surface
Physics 72 Arciaga
F. Thin lenses
Thin lens can be thought of as composed of two refracting surfaces in close proximity
Basic equations
o Object-image relation
1 1 1
+ =
s s' f
o Magnification
y'
s'
m= =
y
s
o Lensmakers equation
1 n lens 1
1
=
1
f n sur
R1 R 2
; where s, s = object and image distance, respectively
f = focal length of the thin lens
m = magnification
y, y = (lateral) height of the object and image, respectively
nlens = index of refraction of the lens
nsur = index of refraction of the medium surrounding the lens
R1 = radius of curvature of the entry side of the lens
R2 = radius of curvature of the exit side of the lens
o NOTES:
Follow the sign rules properly !!! [see Section C]
The above equations are valid only for the following conditions:
paraxial approximation
thin lens approximation
If one of the two surfaces is plane, just make R = for that surface.
Can be verified using the principal-ray diagram [see Section B] but:
you cannot use the vertex ray
interpret the center ray as a ray passing through the center of the lens
(not center of curvature) and goes on undeviated
Usually, the surrounding medium is air (nsur = 1).
The lensmakers equation relates the focal length of a lens with the index of
refraction and radii of curvature of the two surfaces of the lens.
o Important tip !!!
For a given series or combination of lenses (or mirrors), treat the image formed by
a particular lens (or mirror) as the object of the next lens (or mirror) in the series.
Converging lens / Positive lens
o Positive focal length
o Thicker at the center than the edges (e.g. double convex, plano-convex, meniscus)
Diverging lens / Negative lens
o Negative focal length
o Thinner at the center than the edges (e.g. double concave, plano-concave, meniscus)
Optional reading assignment:
o Camera converging lens, film, detector, telephoto lens, wide-angle lens, zoom lens
o Eye cornea, crystalline lens, retina, myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism
o Magnifier converging lens
o Microscope objective lens, eyepiece (ocular)
o Telescope objective lens (or concave mirror), eyepiece
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Interference
Interference:
o happens when two or more waves pass through the same region at the same time
o overlapping of two or more waves
o apply principle of superposition of waves
The principle of superposition of waves:
o When two or more waves interfere, the actual displacement of any point in the medium at
any time is equal to the sum of the displacements of the separate waves.
Monochromatic light
o light of single color, single frequency, or single wavelength (e.g. laser)
Coherent sources
o two monochromatic sources that have the same frequency and a constant phase difference
(although not necessarily in phase with each other)
o able to produce coherent waves or coherent light (e.g. laser)
o only coherent sources interfere !!! coherence is needed for interference
Special types of interference:
1. constructive interference
happens when two (or more) waves interfere in-phase
happens when the path difference between the two waves is an integral multiple of the
wavelength
o r2 r1 = m
(m = 0, 1, 2, )
happens when the phase difference between the two waves is an integral multiple of 2
o 2 1 = m2
(m = 0, 1, 2, )
results to reinforcement of wave amplitudes
2. destructive interference
happens when two (or more) waves interfere 180o out-of-phase
happens when the path difference between the two waves is a half integral multiple of
the wavelength
o r2 r1 = (m + )
(m = 0, 1, 2, )
happens when the phase difference between the two waves is a half integral multiple of
2
o 2 1 = (m + )2
(m = 0, 1, 2, )
results to cancellation of wave amplitudes
Physics 72 Arciaga
mR
o y=
d
; where r2 r1 = path difference
2 1 = phase difference (in radians)
y = position of the bright fringe measured from the central axis
m = any integer (m = 0, 1, 2, )
d = separation distance of the adjacent slits
= angle of the ray with respect to the central axis
= wavelength of the light
R = distance of the screen from the slits
Dark fringes (destructive interference)
o r2 r1 = d sin = (m + )
2 1 r2 r1
o
=
2
(m + )R
o y=
d
; where r2 r1 = path difference
2 1 = phase difference (in radians)
y = position of the dark fringe measured from the central axis
Intensity
d
o I = Imax cos 2 2 1 = I max cos 2
y
R
2
; where I = intensity
Imax = maximum intensity
y = position along the screen measured from the central axis
Remarks:
R
o Separation of adjacent bright (or dark) fringes: y =
d
pattern is more spread if is high
if d is low
if R is high
o Maximum intensity: Imax = 4Islit
y
o For small angles, you can use: sin tan =
R
Physics 72 Arciaga
Physics 72 Arciaga
A. Diffraction
Diffraction:
o interference of many waves from many sources or from a continuous source
o happens when a wave encounters apertures, barriers, or edges
o apply Huygens principle and principle of superposition of waves see Chap. 33 and 35
Remark: There is really no fundamental distinction between interference and diffraction
B. Multiple slits (ideal case)
Ideal case: Neglect width of the slits
Remarks:
o Principal maxima
R
d
C. Single-slit diffraction
Do not neglect width of the slits
Remarks:
o Central bright maximum (i.e. bright band at the center)
2R
width of CBM : w =
a
R
half-width of CBM : w half =
a
; where w = width of the CBM
whalf = half-width of the CBM
a = width of each slit
o Dark fringes
mR
positions : y =
; (m = 1, 2, ) Note: m = 0 is not included !!!
a
o Intensity
Physics 72 Arciaga
a
sin R y
I = Imax
y
R
; where I = intensity
Imax = maximum intensity
a = width of each slit
The function sin(x)/x is called sinc(x)