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The Science of Chemistry

Chapter

Chapter 1: The Science of Chemistry


The Scope of Chemistry
Students who are required to take a course in chemistry often ask the
question "Why must I study chemistry? It has nothing to do with my
interest, which is art, music, history, accounting, English," etc. This
question is easily answered: educated people, regardless of their areas of
expertise, should know something about themselves and their
environment (the world in which they live). It is the science of chemistry,
more than perhaps any other science, that addresses this area of
knowledge. Whether we realize it or not, the rise in the standard of
living we enjoy and appreciate, both from a health and a materials
viewpoint, has paralleled the development and growth of chemistry.
Countless chemical substances we use every day to clothe, house, and
transport ourselves are the products obtained from the chemical
processing of natural resources such as coal, natural gas, petroleum,
minerals, and a variety of plants that are present within the earth.
Products obtained from these natural resources include textiles, rubber,
plastics, metals, fuels, and building materials.
Our bodies are a complex mixture of chemicals. Principles of chemistry
are fundamental to an understanding of all processes of the living state.
Chemical secretions (hormones) produced within our bodies help
determine our outward physical characteristics such as height, weight,
and appearance. Digestion of food involves a complex series of chemical
reactions. Food itself is an extremely complex array of chemical
substances. Chemical reactions govern our thought processes and how
knowledge is stored in and retrieved from our brains. In short, chemistry
runs our lives.
Many people, including some now reading this printed page, are alive
today because of chemicals used as medicines, drugs, anesthetics,
antiseptics, and even artificial organs. Chemicals are used routinely for

relief of fever, pain, and nervous tension and protection from invading
organisms (bacteria, germs) in our bodies. You expect doctors to be able
to supply you with such chemicals. Central to the development of
vaccines for protection from dreaded diseases, such as smallpox and
polio, was the field of chemistry.
Chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides have led to increased food
production. Without the use of such chemicals, the food needs of the
world's ever-increasing population could not be met.
The paper on which this book is printed was produced from naturally
occurring materials (wood pulp) through a chemical process, and the ink
used in printing the words on each page is a mixture of many chemicals.
Thus, the dissemination of knowledge from one generation to the
succeeding one involves chemistry.
Almost all of our recreational pursuits involve objects produced through
chemical technology. Skis, boats, basketballs, bowling balls, fishing rods,
musical instruments, television sets, and personal computers all contain
materials that result from chemical technology. The movies we watch are
possible because of recording on some type of synthetic material. The
images on film are produced through interaction of selected chemicals.

ChemistryA Scientific Discipline


The field of chemistry is part of a larger body of knowledge called
science. Science is the systematic and logical study of our surroundings in an
effort to increase and organize knowledge about the physical universe in which
we live.
Science covers a tremendous range of information. The extreme volume
of this information and our limitations to master this ever-growing body
of knowledge have led to the division of science into smaller categories
called scientific disciplines. Scientific disciplines are branches of scientific
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manner in which the constituent parts of a substance are put togetherthat is,
the order in which the constituent parts are arranged relative to each other.
Knowledge of composition and structure can often be put to practical
use. The chemical composition of certain body fluids, for example, is
often used by a physician to pinpoint the cause of illness in a patient. In
particular, the absence or excessive amount of certain substances can
provide vital information to the physician.
Structural information about a substance often provides insights into its
chemical behavior. In some cases these insights allow this behavior to be
built into other substances. Detergents, substances with cleaning
properties similar to soap, have structures patterned after that of soap.
Synthetic rubbers, the predominant materials in automobile tires, have
structures similar to that of natural rubber.
Developments in the field of genetic engineering now make it possible to
use bacteria to produce human insulin for use by diabetic persons.
Before these developments, diabetics had to use animal insulin obtained
from slaughterhouse animals. Knowledge of the structure of insulin was
a prerequisite for this genetic engineering breakthrough.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter


Properties constitute the second aspect of matter that is of particular
concern to chemists. Properties are the identifying characteristics of a
substance. Just as we recognize a plant by its shape, structure, texture,
color, and smell, we recognize various chemical substances by their
characteristic properties. Every chemical substance has a unique set of
properties which differentiates it from other substances. If two samples
of pure materials have identical properties, they are the same substance.
The properties of substances can be used in a number of practical ways,
such as the following:
Properties help identify an unknown substance. Identifying a mineral
sample in a mine involves comparing the mineral to those of known
mineral samples.

Properties are used to distinguish between different substances. A


pathologist can tell the difference between kidney and gallbladder
stones based on their properties.
Properties are used to characterize new substances. Any new
substance will have a set of properties which are unique from all other
substances.
Properties help predict the usefulness and potential application of a
substance. Food should never be stored in containers made from
water-soluble substances. A toxic or irritating substance would never
be used in a lipstick formula.
Two general categories of properties of matter exist: physical and
chemical. Physical properties are properties that are observable without
changing the composition or identity of the substance. Color, odor, taste, size,
physical state (solid, liquid, or gas), boiling point, melting point, and
density are all examples of physical properties.
During the process of determining a physical property, a substance's
physical appearance may change but not its identity. For example, the
melting point of ice cannot be measured without changing the ice to
liquid water. Although the liquid water appears much different than the
solid ice, it is still water because its chemical identity has not changed.
Hence, the melting point of ice is a physical property.
Chemical properties are properties that matter exhibits as it undergoes
changes in chemical composition. Often these composition changes result
from the interaction (reaction) of the matter with other substances. When
copper objects are exposed to moist air for long periods of time, they
turn green; this is a chemical property of copper. The green coating
formed on the copper is a new substance; it results from the reaction of
copper metal with the oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water in air. The
properties of this new substance are very different from those of metallic
copper.

Sometimes, under proper conditions, a single substance undergoes


chemical change in the absence of any other substance in a process called
decomposition. For example, hydrogen peroxide, in the presence of
either heat or light, breaks down into the substances water and oxygen.
The failure of a substance to undergo change in the presence of another
substance is also considered a chemical property. Both flammability and
nonflammability are chemical properties. You should note that chemical
properties cannot be described without reference to other substances. It
does not make sense to say that a substance reacts. The substance that it
reacts with must be specified because a given substance usually reacts
with many substances.

Physical and Chemical Changes


The third aspect of matter that is of particular interest to chemists is
changes in matter. Changes in matter are common and familiar
occurrences. Changes take place, for example, when snow melts, paper
burns, and iron rusts.
Like properties, changes in matter are classified as physical or chemical.
A physical change is a process that does not alter the basic nature (chemical
composition) of the substance undergoing change. No new substances are
ever formed as a result of a physical change. A chemical change is a
process that involves a change in the chemical composition of the substance.
These changes always involve conversion of the material or materials
under consideration into one or more new substances with distinctly
different properties and composition from those of the original
materials.
A change in physical state is the most common type of physical change.
Melting, freezing, evaporation, and condensation all represent changes
of state. In any of these processes, the composition of the substance
undergoing change remains the same even though its physical state and
appearance change. The melting of ice does not produce a new
substance; the substance is water before and after the change. Similarly,
the steam produced from boiling water is still water.

Burning a match is an example of a chemical change.


Changes in size, shape, and state of subdivision are examples of physical
changes that do not involve changes of state. Pulverizing an aspirin
tablet into a fine powder and cutting a piece of adhesive tape into small
pieces are examples of physical changes that involve only the solid state.
Changes in size, shape, and state of subdivision are examples of physical
changes that do not involve changes of state. Pulverizing an aspirin
tablet into a fine powder and cutting a piece of adhesive tape into small
pieces are examples of physical changes that involve only the solid state.
The appearance of one or more new substances is always a characteristic
of a chemical change. Consider, for example, the rusting of iron objects
left exposed to moist air. The reddish brown substance formed (rust) is a
new substance with obviously different chemical properties from those
of the original iron.
Some chemical changes that take place in matter are beneficial because
the resulting products are more useful than the starting materials. Other
changes, such as the rusting of iron, are undesirable because the
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Table 1-1 Examples of physical and chemical changes

solution can easily be recovered by the physical process of evaporating


the water. However, when gaseous hydrogen chloride is dissolved in
water it cannot be recovered by evaporation. The formation of sugar
water is considered a physical change because the original components
can be recovered in an unchanged form. The hydrogen chloride solution
presents classification problems because of the possibility that a chemical
reaction took place.

Change

Classification

Rotting tree stump

Chemical

Sharpening a pencil

Physical

Taking a bite of food

Physical

Digesting food

Chemical

Burning gasoline

Chemical

Souring of milk

Chemical

Breaking a glass

Physical

The changes involved in cooking a steak also present classification


problems. Cooking causes obvious changes to occur, but are these
changes chemical or physical? A cooked steak contains the same
structural units as an uncooked steak. However, heating causes subtle
rearrangement of these structures which makes it difficult to tell that the
cooked steak has changed chemically. Despite the existence of the "gray"
areas caused by a few exceptions, we will continue to use the concepts of
physical and chemical change because of their usefulness.

Cracking a nut

Physical

The Terms Physical and Chemical

resulting products are not useful. By studying the nature of changes in


matter, chemists learn how to bring about favorable changes and prevent
undesirable ones.
The control of chemical change has been a major factor in reaching our
modern standard of living. Two hundred years ago most of the familiar
materials used by humans were only physically changed from the way
they occurred in nature. Today, most of the familiar materials we use are
the product of chemical change. Plastics, synthetic fibers, prescription
drugs, and latex paints are all the result of controlled chemical change.
Table 1-1 classifies a number of changes for matter as being either
physical or chemical.
Physical and chemical changes in matter are usually easy to identify.
However, all changes are not "black" or "white" because there are some
"gray" areas. For example, sugar when dissolved in water to form a

The terms physical and chemical are commonly used to qualify the
meaning of scientific terms. For example, techniques used to accomplish
physical change are called physical techniques. Similarly, chemical
techniques are used to bring about chemical change. A physical
separation is one in which none of the components experience
composition changes. Composition changes are part of a chemical
separation process. The messages of the modifiers physical and chemical
are constant: physical denotes no change in composition and chemical
denotes change in composition.

The Scientific MethodHow Scientists Study


Things
Chemistry is an experimental sciencechemical discoveries are made as
the result of experimentation. Experimentation distinguishes chemistry
and other scientific disciplines from other types of intellectual activity.
The majority of scientific and technological knowledge has been the
direct result of systematic experimentation.
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The general process of advancing scientific knowledge through


experimentation is known as the scientific method. Thus, the scientific
method is a general process for acquiring knowledge and explaining natural
phenomena. The procedural steps in this method are:
1. Identify a problem and carefully plan procedures to obtain
information about all aspects of the problem.
2. Collect new facts and observations about the problem through
experimentation.
3. Analyze and organize the facts to identify and summarize any
observed trends and/or relationships.
4. Suggest a probable hypothesis (tentative explanation) for the
generalized trends and relationships.
5. Conduct further experimentation to prove or disprove a proposed
hypothesis
Generally speaking, scientific advancement comes about as the result of
the application of the preceding systematic steps over long periods of
time but on occasion discoveries have been made by accident. The
scientific method is a methodological and logical process which is well
planned and documented. Using the principles discussed here requires
effort and an intense amount of time. There may be a time when a
serendipitous discovery occurs or when "luck" is involved. However,
preparation on the part of the scientist is key to the discovery. Luck is
being prepared to take advantage of an opportunity. If the scientist is not
ready they will miss the opportunity. Therefore, a scientist must be must
be well trained in their discipline and in the dynamics and procedures of
the scientific method.
The vocabulary associated with the scientific method includes the terms
experiment, fact, law, hypothesis, and theory. Understanding the
relationships among these terms is the key to a real comprehension of

how chemical knowledge has been and still is obtained using the
scientific method.
Identifying a problem is the initial step in the search for chemical
knowledge concerning some chemical system that needs to be studied.
Knowing what other chemists have already learned about the selected
problem is critical to determining what new information is needed.
Experimentation is central to the scientific method. One designs
experiments for obtaining more information about the problem. An
experiment is a well-defined, controlled procedure for obtaining information
about a system under study. The exact conditions under which an
experiment is carried out must always be noted so that the experiment
can be repeated and the information verified, if necessary.
New facts and observations are obtained about the chosen chemical
system by actually carrying out well designed experiments. A scientific
fact is a valid observation about some natural phenomenon. To be valid, facts
must be reproducible pieces of information. If a given experiment is
repeated, under exactly the same conditions, the same facts should be
obtained. All facts, to be acceptable, must be verifiable by anyone who
has the time, means, and knowledge needed to repeat the experiments
that led to their discovery. It is, therefore, important that scientific data
be published so that other scientists may evaluate and check both the
data and the experimental design.
Next, an effort is made to analyze and organize the known facts into
general statements that explain or solve the problem. Scientists use the
facts to offer plausible tentative explanations of the problem. Such
explanations are called hypotheses. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation
or model for observed natural occurrences.
Once a hypothesis has been proposed, experimentation must begin
again. Many more experiments, under varied conditions, are run to test
the reliability of the proposed explanation. The reliability of a hypothesis
depends on the accuracy of its predictions. A valid hypothesis is able to
predict the results of new untried experiments.
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Quite often, repeating patterns become apparent among the collected


facts. These patterns lead to generalizations, called laws, about how the
chemical systems of concern behave under specific conditions. A law is a
generalization that concisely summarizes facts about natural phenomena.
It should not be assumed that laws are easy to discover. Often, years and
years of work and thousands upon thousands of facts are needed before
the true relationships among variables in the area under study become
apparent.
A law is a generalized statement of what happens for a given set of
conditions. A law never explains why something happens or does not
happen. A law only summarizes experimental observations without
attempting to clarify their causes. Thus, a law is simply a verbal
statement or a mathematical equation which summarizes the observed
facts. An example of a verbally stated law is "when hot and cold objects
come together, the temperature of the hot object always decreases and
the temperature of the cool object always increases."
A law is fundamentally different than a theory. A law is a generalized
statement covering a group of common facts relating to an observed
natural phenomenon. A hypothesis is an explanation of "why" the
natural phenomena occur. Therefore, a theory will never become a law.
Also, the difference between a law and a fact is often confused. A fact is a
single observation while a law covers and brings together many
common facts.
It is important for us to distinguish between the use of the word "law" in
science and its use in a social context. Scientific laws are discovered
through experimentation. Scientists investigate but have no control over
the existing laws. In contrast, societal laws are designed to control
aspects of human behavior. They are agreed upon (in a democracy) by
the majority of the people of whom the laws apply. These laws can
change when necessary or at the will of the people. For example, the
speed limit on the expressway (a law determined by society) may be
changed when it is determined that safety issues exist.
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