SIBEE - Presentation Impedance 2013 Seminar

Metrohm Autolab
Instruments for Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
Outline
The Autolab instrument
Cell connections and configurations
Basics of EIS
Practical EIS
Data analysis
Applications
The Instrument
Instrumentation requirements
for EIS
PGSTAT
Impedance analyzer
Software for data acquisition and
analysis
The instrument
FRA32M impedance analyzer module with

1 MHz 10 Hz range with PGSTAT
Analog PGSTAT with USB

connection to Windows software
FRA32M Module
Module for electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy
32 MHz to 10 Hz
1 MHz to 10 Hz in combination
with the PGSTAT
DC range: up to 10 V
Single sine and multi-sine
FRA32M
New impedance analyzer module
Replaces the FRA2
Works with Autolab PGSTAT series
Not available for AutolabIII
FRA32M
32M stands for 32 MHz
!! MAXIMUM Frequency with
PGSTAT: 1 MHz !!
Future developments to raise the limit
FRA32M
Direct DSG output
20 MHz
32 MHz
What happens above 1 MHz

PGSTAT128N/FRA32M, 500 mV (top)
Sharp decrease @ 700
kHz
~80% attenuation @ 1 MHz
~99.9 % attenuation @ 10 MHz
FRA32M
Uses on-board DSP
Crunches 1 M per channel down to
4096 points
And finally down to 1
Much faster than FRA2
No filtering
FRA2 vs FRA32M
FRA2 vs FRA32M
FRA32M: wrapping up
Very advanced module
Expected product lifetime 10+ years
All procedures are compatible!
The instrument
FRA2 impedance analyzer module

with 1 MHz 10 Hz range
Analog PGSTAT with USB

connection to Windows software
FRA2 module specifications
Frequency range from 1 MHz to 10 Hz

Applied Frequency Resolution of 0.003%
AC amplitude: 0.2mV to 0.35 V (RMS)
Input range of 10 V
Max. frequency limited by PGSTAT
Possible configurations
PGSTAT128N, 302N, 100N, 302F
Multi autolab with FRA32M module
Autolab III with built-in FRA2
Instrumental limitations
Contour plot
Not possible to measure

Z accurately at any
frequency
Cell connections
Cell connections
Autolab potentiostat / Galvanostat
Cell connections
PGSTAT provides 4
connections
CE and WE (current
measurement)
RE and S (voltage
measurement)
Cell connections (2 electrodes)
2 electrode configuration precise control of the

interfacial potential is not critical
This configuration is often used in the characterization

of energy storage and energy conversion devices
Impedance measured between RE and S
3 electrode configuration most common for typical

electrochemical measurements
The RE in close proximity of WE to control the interfacial
potential accurately
4 electrode configuration is used to study the

liquid/liquid interface (two non-miscible electrolytes or
two electrolytes separated by a membrane)
Electrochemical cell
WE/S
CE
RE
Electrochemical
interface
Electrochemical interface
Interface
Electrode
Potential
+
e-
+
+
+
+
+
+
IHP OHP
Diffusion layer Bulk Solution

1- 100 m
IHP Inner Helmoltz plane: ion adsorbed onto metal surface

OHP Outer Helholtz plane: closest ions free to move within the electrolyte
Equivalent circuit
Electrochemical interface model
Equivalent circuit
Uncompensated resistance, Ru
Solution between RE and WE
Concentration, cell setup, Temperature,
conductivity, type of ions, mass transport,
Equivalent circuit
Typical values:
up to 100 (aqueous solution)
KCl 0.1 mol/L 20C = 85.69
up to 10 k (organic solvent)
Between 1m to 1 Batteries
Equivalent circuit
Double layer capacitance, Cdl

Diffuse interfacial capacitance
Concentration, ions, electrode surface,
adsorbed species,
Equivalent circuit
Typical values:
Double layer bare metal
Fe2O3 - Ni2O5
Al2O3
Epoxy cast coating
Asphalt coating
10-50 F/cm2
2 F/cm2
0.5 F/cm2
6 pF/cm2
0.5 pF/cm2
Bernard Tribollet & Mark E. Orazem: Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy, Wiley-Interscience, 2008
Equivalent circuit
Charge transfer resistance, Rct

Polarization resistance
Electron transfer kinetics, Temperature,
electrode composition, morphology,
Equivalent circuit
Typical values: whole measurable range

( m very fast kinetics up to G slow
charge transfer)
Silver 1.59 10-8 m, Copper 1.68 10-8 m
Silicon 6.40 102 m Glass1010 to 1014 m
Teflon 1022 to 1024 m
Equivalent circuit
Diffusion impedance, W (Warburg)

Related to semi infinite diffusion
T, concentration, diffusion coefficients,
viscosity, electrode area
Typical values: depends on the system
Electrochemical methods
Large number of methods available
DC: cyclic voltammetry, chrono
amperometry,
AC: electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy,
Advantage of DC methods
Ex: cyclic voltammetry
Most popular technique in
electrochemistry
Provides a complete overview of the
electrochemical interface
Immediately recognizable
Cyclic voltammetry
Platinum in HClO4 0.1 M
Immediately
recognizable
Cyclic voltammetry
Platinum in HClO4 0.1 M
Added EtOH
Anodic peaks attributed
to the oxidation of EtOH
Disadvantage of DC methods
System is driven away from equilibrium
Response is given by individual
contributions
Information about the rate determining
step can be determined
No information on the internal dynamics
of the system
Disadvantage of DC methods
Iron in sea water
No direct information about
electrochemical interface
Dummy cell case study

Assuming a simple dummy cell

CV staircase method
Using Ohms law and a linear
regression:
Slope = 0.00014241
1/Slope = 7021.98
102 + 2230 + 4700 (7032 )

EIS
Using direct reading of data
shown in the Nyquist plot, R1,
R2 and R3 are immediately
known
R1 = 106
R2 = 4844.1106=4738.1
R3 = 7028.74844.1=2184.6

EIS
Using indirect reading of
data shown in the Nyquist
plot, C1, and C2 are easy to
calculate
max
1
R C
C1 = 9.95 nF using R2
C2 = 10.77 F using R3
Alternative: EIS
Electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy
Study of the variation of the impedance
of an electrochemical system with the
frequency of a small-amplitude AC
perturbation
Advantages of EIS
System remains at equilibrium
Non destructive method
Can be applied in many fields
Corrosion, biosensors, solar cells,
semiconductors, superpacitors, fuel
cells, batteries
EIS Basics
EIS Basics
Ohm's law gives a simple relation
between
dc-potential (E) and dc-current (i):
E
R
I
EIS Basics
EIS is a transfer function between
potential and current
et e sin t
Z()
it i sin t
e sin t
sin t
Z
Z0
i sin t
sin t
EIS Basics
it i sin t
et e sin t
The
current
response
leads or lags the voltage
by a phase angle
EIS Basics
When ac-signals are involved the
relation is:
Z ()=
E ()
I ()
where Z () is the complex impedance.
EIS Basics: complex number

It is common practice to express Z as
a complex function
Z() Z0e
j( )
Z0 cos jsin
Z ZRe j ZIm
EIS Basics: complex number

Real components are located on the
abscissa
Imaginary components are located on
the ordinates
EIS Basics: data presentation

Nyquist plot
Plot of Z vs Z, using iso-metric
axes
Z() Z'() j Z"()

Total impedance Real component Imaginary component

Nyquist
High frequency limit
Low frequency limit

Bode presentation
Plot of |Z| vs log F and vs log F
Phase angle
Z() Z e
j( )
Total impedance Modulus

Bode presentation

3D projection

3D projection
Circuit Element Review
Pure resistor (R)

Ohms law holds at all frequencies for a
pure resistor
Z() R
0
Pure resistor (R)

Ohms law holds at all frequencies for a
pure resistor
Z() R
0
There is no phase shift
Typical examples: Ohmic resistance,

charge transfer resistance
Resistor
Pure capacitor (C)

Impedance (reactance) is frequency
dependent
1
Z()
C
Capacitor
Capacitor
1
1
ZC
j
jC
C
90 phase shift
Typical examples: double layer
capacitance, coating capacitance
Capacitor
Inductance
Inductance
ZL jL
90
Typical examples: instrumental
artifacts, adsorption phenomena
Inductance
RC, series
Impedance of element in series =
impedance of elements
E ER EC
i iR iC
1
Z ZR ZC R j
C
1
Z() R R
C
0
2
RC, series
RC, series
RC, parallel
Impedance of element in parallel =
1/R (1/impedance of elements)
1
1
E ER EC i iR iC
1
1
1
1
jC
Z ZR ZC R
R
Z
1 RjC
Z()
0
2
1
C
R
RC, parallel
Impedance vs admittance
Randles Cell
Electrochemical cell model
> ZCdl > 0
max
1
Zf Cdl
Capacitive
contribution
R
Pure resistive behavior,
no phase change.
R + Zf
no phase change.
Randles Cell
R + Zf
> ZCdl > 0
Capacitive
contribution
0
no phase change.

no phase change.
Randles Cell
Fmax
R + Zf
EIS back to Basics
EIS conditions
3 fundamental conditions
Linearity
Stability
Causality
Linearity condition
The applied AC amplitude must be
small so that the response of the cell
can be assumed to be linear (in 1st
approx)
Important choice of the applied
amplitude
Linearity condition
At fixed DC potential (or current), a small amplitude sinusoidal potential

(or current) perturbation is applied. The response of the cell is a small
amplitude sinusoidal current (or potential)
Linearity condition
All systems are non

linear and the response
depends on the system
Linearity condition
Linearity condition
Potentiostatic or galvanostatic control?
Z is independent of the mode
At what DC potential or current?
Always at OCP?
Depends on the system
Requires knowledge of the system
What should the AC amplitude be?
Linearity condition
FAQ # 1
How to choose the amplitude?
Small enough to stay linear
Big enough to measure a response
Stability condition
The overall state of the system should
not change (significantly) during the
acquisition of the data
Important choice of frequency range
and measurement conditions
Stability condition
Corrosion of the electrode, adsorption
or formation of oxides, discharge of
the device, changes in the
electrochemical interface,
Electrochemical system are unstable
Stability condition
Frequency scan
Frequency scan is performed from high to low frequency

Experimental duration is dominated by the low frequency limit
Stability condition
Min. time for Z at 10 Hz: 10.000 s
Scan from 1 kHz to 1 mHz, 61
frequencies, log. distribution
2 h, 47 minutes (estimated)
Scan from 1 MHz to 1 Hz, 61
frequencies, log. Distribution
7 minutes (estimated)
Stability condition
Duration
The experiment
duration is dominated
by the low frequencies
Causality condition
The measured AC response of the
system must be directly correlated to
the applied AC stimulus
Important to shield the cell from
outside perturbations
Avoiding traps
Avoiding traps
Powerful method but not stand alone
Knowledge of the system is required
3 conditions must be respected
Instrument is not a black box
Whats wrong with this picture?
Bit of scattering in the low frequency range?
Measurement sequence
Step 1: AC signal is applied on the cell
Step 2: AC response is recorded
Step 3: signals are sent to the
impedance analyzer
Raw signals (50 Hz contamination)
Lissajous plot
FFT is computed for both signals
Impedance is calculated from
frequency domain data
Fourier transformed signals (50 Hz)
Nyquist and Bode plots

Updated in the software
Hidden information
Nyquist and Bode plots do not show
all the information
The raw signals are insteresting to
consider
Lissajous plots test the linearity
Lissajous plots
Pure R
Pure C
Real cell
Lissajous plots
Measurement of impedance
V OA
Z
1M
i
OB
D A
OD
sin
33
OA
Lissajous plots
Easy to detect non-linear behaviour
200 Hz / 25 mV AC
20 Hz / 25 mV AC
Raw signals in resolution

The raw data can be
used to verify the data
quality in terms of
limit of detection
Kramers-Kronig test
Basic test for data validation
Equations linking real and imaginary
components of complex quantities for
systems fulfilling the conditions of
linearity, causality and stability
Kramers-Kronig test
Diagnostic tool for impedance data
Test the data for consistency
Recalculates the real/imaginary part
based on the measured imaginary/real
part
Kramers-Kronig test
Invalid data can be easily detected using the KK test:

significant deviation from calculated values indicated violation
of linearity, stability or causality condition
Practical EIS
Practical EIS
Different protocols
Frequency scan: other parameters
are fixed
Single frequency: other parameters
are changed
Combination of both
Practical EIS: frequency scan

Frequency range?
Depends on the systems time constants
10 kHz to 100 mHz is a good start
(always high to low)
Above 10 kHz effects from cables,
reference electrode and connections

Frequency scan
properties
Frequency
distribution
Amplitude
Wave type

Direction: high to low frequency
Frequency scan is performed from high to

low frequency (stability condition)

# frequencies and distribution:
10/decade and logarithmic
! Duration: dominated by the low
frequency
Alternative: multisine
Multisine vs single sine

Multisine: linear combination of
single sines
5
sines signal,
contain a base
frequency and 4
higher harmonics

Multisine: linear combination of
single sines
15 sines signal,
contain a base
frequency and 14
higher harmonics

1000 Hz 0.001 Hz, 61 Freq, single:
2h, 47 min
1000 Hz 0.001 Hz, 13 Freq, 5 sine:
50 min
37 min with 15 sines
Faster but less accurate!
Data analysis
Data analysis
Analysis: crucial part of the EIS
Different tools are available
Difficult and time consuming
Pitfall: extract too much information
Analysis tools
Find circle (quick fit): used to quickly
fit a semi-circle in the Nyquist
Provides a quick estimate using a
R(RQ) circuit
Analysis tools
Find circle (quick fit)
Analysis tools
Find circle (quick fit)
Analysis tools
Fitting using equivalent circuit
User-defined equivalent circuit built
with different elements
R, C, L, Q, etc
Parallel or series
Non-linear least-squares fit
Analysis tools
Circuit description based on
B.A.Boukamp:
Solid state Ionics 20 (1986) 31-44 &
Solid State Ionics 18&19 (1986)
136-140
Analysis tools
Elements
Analysis tools
Fitting tool comes with circuit editor
Elements can be connected

using split and join elements
Analysis tools
Initial conditions,
boundaries, fixed
parameters can be
edited in the dedicated
panel
Fitting progress
Iterative process
Several iterations
required in order to
reach convergence
Report
Problems with data fitting

Non uniqueness of circuits
The 3 circuits give the
same results (identical
2 values)
Problems with data fitting

Knowledge about the system is
required
EIS never to be considered as stand
alone!
Practical examples
Case 1 coating on steel

RE
NaCl
CE
3 electrode setup
Z measured
between RE and WE
Coating
Steel
WE

Pure C
Nyquist
Bode
Pure R

RE
Interpretation?
CE
Ru
NaCl
Cdl
Coating
Steel
WE
Poor fit
Case 1 problem?
Element Q
Used to describe an imperfect
behaviour of a reactance
ZQ
1
Y0 j
ZC
j
C
n = 1 capacitor
n = 0 resistor
n = 0.5 uniform diffusion
0.5 < n < 1 rough electrode
0 < n < 0.5 porous electrode
Case 1 Element Q
Smooth electrode: Cdl = C
Rough electrode: Cdl C Q
Case 1 Element Q
Good fit
Case 2 Partially blocked

surface
Re
Electrolyte
Surface film
Csf
Cdl
Rct
Electrode
Case 2 Partially blocked

surface
Case 3 Coating revisited

RE
NaCl
CE
3 electrode setup
Z measured
between RE and WE
Coating
Steel
WE
Pure C
Two semi-circles
Nyquist
Pure R
Bode

Fitting?

Not the same coating as case 1
What would happen if the coating
fails?
Case 3 Failing coating

RE
CE
Ru
NaCl
Cdl
Coating
Steel
Pores
WE

Ru
Cdl
Coating + pores
Steel

Fit result

when fitting the data
Case 4 Coating with

blisters
Electrolyte
Re
Surface film
Rep
Blister with electrolyte
Csf
Cdl
Zwa
Rct
Electrode
Case 4 Coating with

blisters
Case 5 Two layer coating

Electrolyte
Re
Csf1
Rsf1
Surface
film 1
Rsf2
Surface film 2
Csf2
Cdl
Rct
Electrode
Case 5 Two layer coating
Case 6 Mass transfer

Semi infinite diffusion
Platinum working electrode
[Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3-

[Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3-
Angle of 45
Indication of semiinfinite diffusion
Randles-like
behavior

Warburg diffusion element, W
|ZW| = |ZW|
45
- = /4
W depends on the concentration,
diffusion coefficient and temperature
ZW
j
RT
1
1
2 2
n F A 2 DO CO
DRCR

[Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3-
Semi-infinite diffusion
contribution
Case 7 Forced convection

Finite diffusion
[Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3Hydrodynamic conditions
Falls off towards a
finite impedance
Angle of 45
Indication of semiinfinite diffusion

through a thin layer, a coating
Finite diffusion layer
Typically used for:
O element
ZO
ZO
1
Y0 j
1
Y0 j
tanh B j
ZW
- Diffusion through thin layer

- Ion selective electrodes
- Diffusion through a coating
O element is identical to W
when tanh argument >
Case 7 Fuel Cell
Electrode poisoning by the presence of CO

in the H2 Stream
Typical for fuel cells finite diffusion represented by O
Case 7 Fuel Cell
Red O2
Blue Air
Case 7 Fuel Cell
Air
O2

Finite diffusion layer
O element
B
D
1.61 D1/3 1/6
RDE
For a rotating disc

electrode

Finite diffusion
[Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3-
Finite diffusion contribution

Variation of rotation rate
[Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3At higher rotation rates
diffusion layer thickness,
decreases ZO decreases

Variation of rotation rate
[Fe(CN)6]4-/[Fe(CN)6]3-
ZO
1
Y0 j
tanh B j
YO600RPM YO1200RPM YO2400RPM

B600RPM B1200RPM B2400RPM
Case 8 Bounded diffusion

Tangent hyperbolic diffusion
Impedance of finite-length diffusion
with reflective boundary
Typical of film with electro-active
species, porous electrodes, Li Batteries
Y Y0 j th B j
Z ( )=
1
Y0 j
coth B j

B = time (second) take for a reactant to
diffuse from one side of the layer to the
other.
Thickness of the thin layer
Diffusion coefficient D
B=
D

T element
>45

Case 9 Gerischer impedance

Chemical reaction in bulk solution
Model for porous electrodes
Lithium batteries
1
k j
Y Y0 k j

Model for porous electrodes

Li-Thionyl battery
Summary of mass transport

elements
T, bounded Warburg,
linear finite diffusion
W, semi-infinite
linear diffusion
G, bulk chemical reaction

O, finite-length diffusion
WT= Zinc Air battery

T>450
W 450
Case 10 Inductance
High frequencies inductance
Low frequencies inductance
Z=jL
High frequencies Inductance

Wrong frequencies range, electrode
inductance, connecting wire
Low frequencies Inductance

Adsorption process at electrode surface,
surface reaction or chemical modification
Low frequencies Inductance

Adsorption process at electrode surface,
surface reaction or chemical modification
Case 11 Bisquert2
Transmission line element
Model for a porous or mixed-phase

electrode of thickness L
Case 11 Bisquert2
X3X
X3X
X1X
X3X
X1X
X1X
X3X
X1X
X2
X2
XX
X2
Case 11 Bisquert2
ZB2
X1X 2
2
12 22
L
cot anh
1 2
1 2
sinh
Where is given by
X3
1 2
Case 11 Bisquert2
DSSC V@MaxPP
Case 11 Bisquert2
DSSC V@ OCP
Summary of all elements

Resistance
Capacitance
Inductance
Constant Phase element Q
Y0 and n

Warburg diffusion
Y0
Finite diffusion
Y0 and B
Bound diffusion
Y0 and B
Gerischer impedance
Y0 and Ka

Transmission line
B2
R1 Q1 n1, R2 Q2 n2, R3 Q3 n3, L
If R or Q is 0 means that is not available
Conclusions
Summary
Potentiostat setting
FRA setting
Summary Potentiostat setting

OCP?
Potentiostat or Galvanostat?
Fix DC potential (current) or potential
scan?
Potential scan
Potential Scan: Mott Schottky plot of a
semiconductor
Slope gives number

of dopants.
Intercept gives Flat Band Potential
Summary FRA setting

Frequency range?
Amplitude value?
Single sine or Multi sine?
Example of frequency range:

1MHz -100mHz
Example of frequency range:

10KHz -1mHz
Summary FRA setting

Amplitude value?
Summary FRA setting

Amplitude value?
50 mV = 42.1A
10 mV = 6.4A
Summary FRA setting

Amplitude value?
100mV = 0.18A
200mV = 0.39A
Summary FRA setting

Amplitude value?
Z=1 GOhm
10 mV leads to I=10 pA!!
Take home message

Modern electrochemical
instrumentation and software allows
easy and fast data acquisition
Powerful data handling and analysis
tools are available
Data analysis remains a difficult task
High current density

measurement
Control of programmable electronic loads

or power supplies for high current or
high voltage measurements
PEM fuel cell stack at 200 A

DC current
DSSC devices measurements

IMPS and IMVS measurement on
photovoltaic device through modulation
of light intensity
DSC IMVS measurement at 625 nm,
OCP, E = 1.652 mW/cm2, DE = 10 %

DSSC charge transfer TiO2/dye/electrolyte
Diffusion process of I-/I3-

DSSC charge transfer TiO2/dye/electrolyte
Diffusion process of I-/I3-
Monitoring of impedance in
function of time
Fuel cell measurement, Z measured for

1800 seconds
Battery (LiPo)
Take home message

! System knowledge is always required
! Impedance cannot be considered as a
stand alone
! Careful attention to the data
acquisition settings
EIS only one form of many

Electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy one form of impedance
Rotation rate, mass, temperature,
light intensity, charge, etc
References
The reference handbook on impedance
spectroscopy
Evgenij Barsoukov & J. Ross Macdonald: Impedance

Spectroscopy: Theory, Experiment, and Applications,
Wiley-Interscience, 2005
References
Good reference book, specifically
focussed on Electrochemical
Impedance Spectroscopy
Bernard Tribollet & Mark E. Orazem: Electrochemical

Impedance Spectroscopy, Wiley-Interscience, 2008
References
The reference handbook on
electrochemistry, also covers
impedance spectroscopy
Allen J. Bard and Larry R. Faulkner,

Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and
Applications, Wiley, 2001
www.metrohm-autolab.com
Service and Support

All instruments covered by 3 years
factory warranty
Metrohm Autolab
Instruments for Electrochemistry

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Metrohm Autolab

Instruments for Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

FRA32M impedance analyzer module with

Analog PGSTAT with USB

What happens above 1 MHz

~99.9 % attenuation @ 10 MHz

FRA2 impedance analyzer module

Analog PGSTAT with USB

FRA2 module specifications

Frequency range from 1 MHz to 10 Hz

Not possible to measure

Cell connections (2 electrodes)

2 electrode configuration precise control of the

This configuration is often used in the characterization

Cell connections (3 electrodes)

3 electrode configuration most common for typical

Cell connections (4 electrodes)

4 electrode configuration is used to study the

Diffusion layer Bulk Solution

IHP Inner Helmoltz plane: ion adsorbed onto metal surface

Double layer capacitance, Cdl

Charge transfer resistance, Rct

Typical values: whole measurable range

Diffusion impedance, W (Warburg)

Dummy cell case study

Dummy cell case study

Dummy cell case study

Dummy cell case study

where Z () is the complex impedance.

EIS Basics: complex number

EIS Basics: complex number

EIS Basics: data presentation

Z() Z'() j Z"()

EIS Basics: data presentation

High frequency limit

Low frequency limit

EIS Basics: data presentation

Total impedance Modulus

EIS Basics: data presentation

EIS Basics: data presentation

EIS Basics: data presentation

Circuit Element Review

Pure resistor (R)

Pure resistor (R)

There is no phase shift

Typical examples: Ohmic resistance,

Pure capacitor (C)

Pure resistive behavior,

EIS back to Basics

At fixed DC potential (or current), a small amplitude sinusoidal potential

All systems are non

Frequency scan is performed from high to low frequency

Whats wrong with this picture?

Bit of scattering in the low frequency range?

Raw signals (50 Hz contamination)

Fourier transformed signals (50 Hz)

Nyquist and Bode plots

Raw signals in resolution

Invalid data can be easily detected using the KK test:

Practical EIS: frequency scan

Practical EIS: frequency scan

Practical EIS: frequency scan

Frequency scan is performed from high to

Practical EIS: frequency scan