Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
DISCUSSION OF SYLLABUS
The syllabus for this course discusses several points,
including how the course is different from an
engineering course, how it is related to engineering
disciplines, why engineering students should take the
course, the course objectives, topics to be covered, class
attendance policy, and how grades will be determined.
Keep in mind especially the following points:
(1) The course outline on page iv is only a guide. We may
or may not complete the topics listed for certain
weekProthero and Schwab, 2014omplete all topics by the
end of the course. If I travel out of town, the class will be
taught either by one of my colleagues or a graduate
teaching assistant.
(2) Students will be placed in teams and will help with
setting questions for the four exams that will comprise
60% of the course grade. I will send out the question
guidelines to be used by each team. My questions will be
added for exams, but will not be seen by students ahead of
time.
(3) One Friday afternoon, April 24, has been set aside for
a field trip to a location within the Rolla City limits. This
is a compulsory exercise. If you have to work or have
another lab on that day, please inform your supervisor or
instructor about this trip ahead of time. Every team will
write a field trip report, which will constitute 10% of the
course grade.
(4) I take class attendance very seriously. Inform me by
either e-mail if you will not be in class. I reserve the right
to drop any student who misses four class periods without
prior permission.
(5) I will use Blackboard to post messages, assignments,
question guidelines, students quiz questions, and send
out e-mails. Check Blackboard and your emails daily.
(6) I will use videotapes to complement some topics in
this course, such as deltas and reefs.
(7) I hope we will all have fun together in this course.
Email when you have questions.
Stratigraphy
Sedimentary
Petrology
Superposition
Correlation
Faunal Succession
Historical
Geology
Uniformitarianism
2
We will spend two months discussing the
composition of sedimentary rocks, diagenesis, and the
major categories sedimentary environments. The course
will end by focusing on the techniques used for
interpreting stratigraphy, namely lithostratigraphy,
biostratigraphy, geochronology, chronostratigraphy,
magnetostratigraphy, stable isotope stratigraphy, seismic
and sequence stratigraphy, and basin analysis.
Mineralogy of Sediments
Terrigenous.
Derived
from
pre-existing
rocks,
terrigenous, detrital, clastic or siliciclastic particles are
mainly composed of quartz, potassium feldspar,
plagioclase feldspar, clay minerals, rock fragments and
accessory minerals, especially heavies. Examples include
garnet, rutile. zircon, kyanite, olivine, and pyroxene.
These particles form sandstones, conglomerates, shales,
and siltstones, which can be either extrabasinal or
intrabasinal.
SECTION 2
WEATHERING AND SOILS
Introduction
Sediments and sedimentary rocks would not exist
without weathering. This process involves the
erosion, and subsequent transportation and
redeposition of pre-existing igneous, metamorphic
and sedimentary rocks. The process by which rocks
weather depends on: (a) source composition, (b)
climate, (c) drainage, (d) topographic relief, and (e)
relative rates of physical and chemical weathering.
Physical or Mechanical weathering: This process
occurs mostly by the action of water. It is very
important in temperate regions. In freeze-thaw
action, water increases in volume by 9-10% when it
freezes. This expansion exerts great force when
water freezes in cracks and pores of rocks. This
process can cause rapid mechanical breakdown of
rocks. Insolation refers to stresses generated when
minerals are exposed to changing temperatures,
which result in differential thermal expansion and
contraction. This process is common in arid
environments, such as the Sahara and Mohave
Deserts. Stress release occurs when rocks buried
beneath overlying material experience high confining
pressures. If overburden is removed, pressure drops
and the rocks expand, resulting in cracks. Organic
activity (e.g., plant roots, microscopic organisms)
can promote physical and chemical weathering.
Other forms of mechanical weathering include
the abrasive action of water (and whatever is carried
by the water) and the action of glaciers. Exfoliation
and spheroidal weathering ultimately result from a
combination of physical weathering processes.
Chemical weathering: This is far more important
than physical weathering, and is enhanced by the
latter. This is because mechanical break-up of rocks
at the Earth's surface increases surface area open to
chemical action.
First to Weather
CaPlagioclase
Olivine
Mg Pyroxene
Ca-Mg Pyroxene
Amphibole
NaPlagioclase
Biotite
KFeldspar
Muscovite
Quartz
Last to Weather
CO2+H2O
H +HCO3
2H +CO32
+
Other sources of H include organic acid produced
by biological activity.
Reaction of carbonic acid or organic acids with
orthoclase:
+
3KAlSi3O8+2H +12H2O
orthoclase
KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 +6H4SiO4+2K
muscovite
soluble
sericite
illite
silica
illite
3Al2Si2O5(OH)4+2K
kaolinite
Na smectite
soluble silica
+
soluble Na ions
Anorthite
Ca smectite
soluble silica
2+
soluble Ca ions
Amphibole
Pyroxene
Ca smectite
soluble silica
2+
+
2+
Biotite
Ca , Na , Mg ions, &
FeO(OH) (limonite)
limonite further weathers:2FeO(OH)
Fe2O3(hematite)+H2O
Olivine
Quartz
Chlorite
2+
Mg ions
2Fe(OH)3
smaller quartz grains!
4
Product
Clays
Sediment
Shales, siltstones, mudstones, matrix
in sandstones; also argillaceous
components in carbonates
Silica
Bedded cherts, siliceous fossils
(diatoms, radiolarians, etc.) and silica
cements
Fe(OH)3
Hematite stains (Fe2O3), iron stone,
iron formation
2+
+ Evaporites including gypsum, anhydrite
Ca & Na
and halite
2+
2+ Carbonates including limestones and
Ca & Mg
dolomites
Quartz
Sandstones, siltstones, silt and sand
component of other sedimentary rocks
Table 2.1. Partial list of weathering products and the
sediments that they form.
Soils
Accumulations of weathered material on the Earths
surface are referred to as soils. They can be thin or
several meters thick. Soils consist of weathered bedrock
material, organic material added by living organisms,
and additional chemical elements that move through the
soil in ground water. Several processes aid the
formation of soils:
(1) Plants and animals interact with the sediment,
absorbing nutrients and leaving behind their wastes and
remains.
(2) Burrowing organisms (ants, worms, rodents, etc.)
churn the soil, thereby altering it from that of freshly
weathered sediment.
(3) Rainwater percolates through the sediment and
moves chemical elements though the soil. Laterites
form in tropical soils.
Zone of leaching:
Zone of accumulation:
Not all soils have the idealized pattern shown in Figure
2.1 and tremendous variations do occur. For example:
Pedalfer soils:
Pedocal soils:
Laterite soils:
Paleosols
Paleosols are fossil soils that have been buried and
preserved in ancient rocks. They have been used to
reconstruct ancient climates and vegetation pattern,
especially in the absence of other proxies. They have
been used to infer the existence of organisms for which
there are no body fossils (e.g. millipedes). Since they
are surfaces of weathering and erosion, they often mark
unconformities. They can be recognized in the field
because of enrichment of organic matter and also
reddish iron oxides that become more intense in color
toward the top, noticeable decrease in weathered
minerals toward the top, and disruption of bedding by
organic activity. The various paleosols identified in the
literature include platy, prismatic, columnar, angular
blocky, subangular blocky, crumb, and granular. Read
the textbook (p. 27-30) for more details.
SECTION 3
CLASTIC TRANSPORT AND FLUID
FLOWS
3) Suspension:
Figure 3.1. The forces that act upon a particle on a stream bed.
Although the force of gravity tends to hold the particles down,
the lift and drag force of the fluid tend to pull the particle up off
the streambed and downstream; C.G., center of gravity (from
Prothero and Schwab, 2014).
6
The capacity of air to transport by saltation or
suspension is poor because of its very low density and
viscosity in comparison with water. This deficiency is
compensated for by (a) frequently very high velocities
and (b) high amplitudes of upward movements resulting
from impacts of particles. The three populations of
sediments (i.e., traction, saltation and suspension) may
be recognized on frequency cumulative curves.
The drag force of the current and settling velocity
of the particle determine the distance the particle
travels. The velocity with which the clast settles
through a fluid is calculated using Stoke's law of
settling (see page 10 of class notes, and p. 39-40 in
textbook textbook for detailed description).
(c)
Graded bedding is common. Turbidity currents may move
over long distances on surfaces with little or no
inclination.
External
shear
planes
Slump
Figure 3.4. Common types of gravitational sedimentary flows.
SECTION 4
SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES
Sedimentary structures are among the most useful tools
for studying the sedimentary record, and they can be of
physical, chemical or biological origins. Sedimentary
structures can also be depositional, post-depositional or
due to the effects of erosion. Sediments are normally
transported by the methods described in the last lecture.
Bedding
Bedding is a combination of grain size, composition,
shape, orientation, packing and, occasionally, color.
Bedding can also be created in chemical precipitates and
bioclastic materials. Beds or strata or layers are >1 cm
but laminae are <1 cm. They could be plane or
horizontal, inclined, unidirectional or multidirectional
(Fig. 4.1). All bedding types are affected by flow
velocity, while unconformities result from erosion and
break in sedimentation.
3
2
1
Hypothetical
Horizontal
beds
Figure 4.1 Bedding patterns.
Inclined
8
Mud cracks:
Chemically induced structures. These are mostly
concretions or nodules that are due to localized processes
of precipitation. They may contain fossils and are usually
calcitic. Some of them may be composed of dolomite,
hematite, silica, pyrite, siderite or even an evaporite.
Concretions roughly follow bedding and while many of
them are centered on fossils, others follow burrows and
rootlets.
Figure 4.3. Definition diagram for the basic types of crossbedding. The middle and basal cosets show planar and trough
cross-bedding, respectively (from Collinson and Thompson,
1989).
X-ray photographs of cores can reveal these nonobvious structures that are mostly on a small scale.
Shales and micaceous siltstones have very fine
laminations, which lead to fissility. Some mudstones
have very fine "stripped" appearance of alternating
lighter and darker layers (about 1 mm to a few
centimeters thick).
Structures due to deformation and disturbance
Physically induced structures. These can result from
overpressure or undercompaction, which can lead to
liquefaction and fluidization. Examples include (Fig.
4.4):
Load casts:
Ball-and-pillow structures:
Flame structures:
Figure 4.5 Relation between types of bioturbation and hydrodynamic conditions of deposition a, intensely
bioturbated argillaceous silt, trace fossils compressed and almost unrecognizable; b, fine-grained sand,
intermediate stage; c, coarser-grained sand with preserved sedimentary structures, trace fossils usually
recognizable (from Chamley, 1990).
Figure 4.6. Summary diagram of the most common trace fossils and ichnofacies. Traces numbered as follows:
1 = Caulostrepsis; 2 = Entobia; 3 = unnamed echinoid borings; 4 = Trypanites; 5, 6 = Gastrochaenolites or related
ichnogenera; 7 = Diplocraterion; 8 = Psilonichnus; 9 = Skolithos; 10 = Diplocraterion; 11 = Thalasinoides; 12 =
Arenicolites; 13 = Ophiomorpha; 14 = Phycodes; 15 = Rhizocorallium; 16 = Teichichnus; 17 = Crossopodia; 18 =
Asteriacites; 19 = Zoophycos; 20 = Lorenzinia; 21 = Zoophycos; 22 = Paleodictyon; 23 = Taphrhelminthopsis; 24 =
Helminthoida; 25 = Spirorhaphe; 26 Cosmorhaphe (from Frey and Pemberton, 1984).
10
SECTION 5
SILICICLASTIC TEXTURES
Different siliciclastic rocks warrant different methods of
quantitative analyses. For example, grain size analysis of
conglomerates differs from those of sandstones. Large
clast sizes of conglomerates permit fabric, grain surface
features, grain shape, and grain roundness to be studied in
the field.
11
Standard deviation: The sorting value or uniformity in
grain size within a sediment sample. Steep cumulative
curves indicate good sorting while broad, flat curves
The data obtained are usually in the form of weight indicate poor sorting. Visual estimates are shown in
percentages of each size class. They may be plotted as a Figure 5.2 on page 12.
histogram or a frequency curve (see Fig. 5.1.). Geologists
usually plot the cumulative frequency curve or a Skewness: Measure of asymmetry in the population. This is
probability curve on which percentiles can be read off caused by a shift of the mode to the left (positive skew,
directly from the graph. Four statistical parameters, called excess fine particles) or right (negative skew, excess coarse
methods of moment, are commonly used. These are the particles).
mean (statistical average), standard deviation, skewness
and kurtoses, in addition to the median (50th percentile: Kurtosis: Peakedness of a frequency curve. Measures the
grain size in the middle of the population), and the mode relationship between the sorting in the central portion of the
curve to that in the tails.
(the most frequently occurring grain size) (Table 5.2).
Statistical Analysis of Grain Size Data
Table 5.2. Formulas and verbal scales for graphic size parameters (from Folk and Ward, 1957).
12
Grain Shape
Differences in grain shapes result from variations in a
combination of internal structure, and the origin and
history of the particles. Shape can have an incredible
bearing on the porosity of a rock. Are the clasts
equidimensional (equant)? Are they disk-like sheets or Figure 5.3. Standard images of roundness and sphericity used for
flakes? Are they needle-like (prismatic) or elongate? quantitative estimates of grain shape (from Powers, 1953).
Open packing enhances higher permeability while close
packing is associated with low permeability.
Textural Maturity
Surface Textures
Surface textures are affected by physical and chemical
phenomena. They are expressed as abrasion, corrosion,
faceted surfaces, frosted surfaces, polished surfaces,
overgrowths, etc. Striations are common features of
gravels deposited by glacial activity.
Q+C
chemically
immature UNSTABLE
RF
clay content
>5%
IMMATURE
<5%
sorting
>0.5
SUBMATURE
<3.0
MATURE
<0.5
Color
Color is one of the most noticeable features of
sedimentary rocks in the field. It is often an expression
of the chemistry of the rock, and may vary when wet or
dry conditions prevail. Therefore, it is not a reliable
index of identification.
MINERALOGICAL
roundness
>3.0
SUPERMATURE
T E X T U R A L
13
Immature
Mature
14
SECTION 6
SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS
Conglomerates are lithified gravel made up of
rounded to subangular clasts whose diameters
exceed 2 mm. Breccias are lithified rubbles made
up of angular clasts coarser than 2 mm. Because
these rocks constitute 1-2% of sedimentary rocks
and generally lack fossils, they are not as
extensively treated as sandstones and carbonates
in the literature.
Rock fragments are the dominant constituents
of conglomerates and breccias. Quartz is the most
abundant major mineral, while others such as Kfeldspar, micas, and heavies (e.g., zircon,
amphibole, olivine, magnetite) occur as accessory
minerals. The rocks are classified using
framework-to-matrix ratio, stability of the
framework, clast lithology, clast size, and overall
fabric. Table 5.2 and Figure 5.5 on page 76-77 in
the textbook show the schemes best suited for
classifying conglomerates and breccias. The two
broad categories of extraformational and
intraformational varieties are based on the
provenance of the clasts.
SANDSTONES
Grain composition is used to differentiate
different types of sandstone. Components are as
follow:
Grains: Including quartz grains, feldspar grains
(usually K-feldspar), and rock fragments or
labile fragments (chert, multimineralic grains,
volcanic glass, etc.).
Matrix: Silt and clay sized material deposited
with the larger grains. (Or produced by the
15
MUDROCKS
Terrigenous mudrocks are the most common
sedimentary rocks, making up 50-80% of Earth's total
sedimentary rocks. Their main component is clay,
followed by silt-sized particles (of mainly quartz).
They are difficult to classify because of their fine
grain sizes and apparent homogeneity. By definition
shales are composed of 66.67% or more clay
minerals and 33.33% other (usually silt sized) clastic
minerals. In contrast, siltstones are composed of
>33.33% silt sized clastic minerals. Mudstone is
indurated mud in a mixture of silt with between onethird and two-thirds clay. Shale is a mudrock with
fissility or lamination or both. Argillite is a mudrock
that has been subjected to low-grade metamorphism.
Clastic particle sizes are controlled by water
energy (currents and wave action). The higher the
energy of the depositional environment the coarser
the grain size of the sediment because the finer
material will be held in suspension. Sedimentary
structures such as bedding, ripples, and cross bedding
are also related to currents and wave action in
depositional environment.
Fissility in shale (thin bedding partitions) are most
likely due to reorientation of clay particles during
compaction and diagenesis. Clays commonly are
deposited as flocculates or "randomly oriented globs
or clumps" and are further disturbed by burrowing
organisms soon after deposition. Therefore, fissility
is not a primary sedimentary structure.
Color in shales generally relates to the iron and
carbon content and oxidation state of the shale. The
oxidation state may either relate to the depositional
environment, diagenetic conditions or both. A high
rate of water circulation during sedimentation usually
results in more oxic conditions. Stagnant water
results in anoxic conditions. Large volume of organic
matter deposited with clastic material will result in
anoxic (reducing) conditions during diagenesis
because available oxygen will tend to combine with
carbon in organic matter to form CO2.
Black or dark gray color reduced iron (Fe2+)
sulfide, microcrystalline FeS2 tends to be black.
Sulfur comes from the organic matter. The origin
of black shales is contentious, although most
geologists believe they are indicative of either
anaerobic or dysaerobic conditions. They can be
highly fossiliferous, and have yielded some of
the best well-preserved fossils of reptiles,
insects, trilobites, etc.
Green to gray-green color reducing conditions with
low sulfur (organic) content. Iron generally is
still present but is incorporated into carbonates
such as siderite, ankerite, or ferroan dolomite.
16
SECTION 7
SILICICLASTIC DIAGENESIS
Types of cement
Introduction
Compaction
Clay-Rich mudrocks are typically ~60% water at
the time of deposition and undergo a great deal of
compaction (water is squeezed out). Quartz
sandstone us relatively uncompressible, minor
compaction does occur as sand grains reorient
themselves into tighter packing arrangements
during burial. This results in some porosity loss.
Lithic fragments tend to deform under pressure,
therefore litharenites are somewhat more
compactable than quartz or feldspathic arenites.
Litharenites and wackes can be compacted to
the point where lithic grains and matrix deforms
creating interlocking relationships. This lithifies or
binds the grains together and makes the sediment
into rock. In quartz- and feldspar-rich sandstones,
lithification is largely a cementation process.
Cementation
In quartz and most feldspathic sandstones grains
are held together by cement. (Mineral matter
precipitated between grains, after deposition, by
17
Mineralogical Changes During Diagenesis
Mineralogical changes may occur in sandstone during
diagenesis, especially at elevated temperature and
pressure after burial. Clay minerals in matrix and
precipitated as early cement are especially susceptible
to mineralogical change.
Any calcium rich or calcium containing
plagioclase feldspar that has survived the transport
process and early diagenesis can undergo alteration
during burial. Albitization occurs as calcic plagioclase
is replaced by albite (Na plagioclase). As a result of
this process the plagioclase content of most ancient
sandstones (which is small to start with) is almost
entirely albite.
Diagenesis and porosity and permeability
Most of the changes that occur during diagenesis of
sandstone are destructive to intergranular porosity.
Compaction results in tighter grain packing that
reduces porosity, pressure solution further crowds
grains
and
reduces
Intergranular
porosity.
Cementation also reduces pore space and restricts pore
throat size, which decreases permeability. The only
diagenetic change that may improve porosity and
permeability in sandstone is fracturing which occurs
during tectonic deformation.
Sandy sediment commonly has very high porosity
upon deposition (30-40% depending on sorting and
packing of the grains). Many ancient sandstones have
porosity reduced to less than 10% by diagenetic
processes.
Mineralogival Changes
Authigenesis:
Recrystallization:
Replacement:
18
SECTION 8
CONTINENTAL ENVIRONMENTS
Generally, depositional systems are assemblages of
process-related sedimentary facies, which are the
stratigraphic equivalents of geomorphic units. Thus, they
are natural geographic entities in which sediments
accumulate. The concept of depositional architecture is
important because migration pathways for ores and
locations of petroleum reservoirs can be established.
Depositional
environments
may
be
nonmarine
(continental), transitional or marine (Fig. 8.1).
ALLUVIAL FANS
Also called piedmont and pediment, alluvial fans are
deposited at the foot of mountain ranges. They are
therefore a tectonic association, which result from intense
erosion (Fig. 8.2).
Alluvial fan
Horst
Playa lake
Graben
Figure 8.2. Tectonic association of an alluvial fan.
Alluvial fans are usually small-sized and occur as fanshaped deposits with channels, levees and inter-channel
areas at the upper reaches of fluvial discharge basins or
spread as aqueous fan deltas directly into playa lakes.
They are more common in sub-arid regions, although
extensive deposits also occur in humid climates over fault
slopes; for example, at the foothills of the Himalayas
Mountains. Two main mechanisms of formation have
been deduced: torrential discharges (sheet floods)
Beach gravels.
19
streams resulting from occasional or annual floods; (b)
coarse sediment load (sand and gravel), with most mud
bypassing; (c) high gradient which is not as high as
alluvial fan but is higher than meandering streams; (d)
branching may be due to streams choked with sediment
from alluvial fans and glaciers; (e) weak banks.
Erosional base
Streams
are
Flood basin
Longitudinal
bars
Transverse
bars
site of
erosion
Natural levee
Point bar
Figure 8.7. Point bar deposition and the position of the natural
levee and flood basin.
20
During a big flood stage, all the subenvironments become
flooded, but the main velocity remains in the channel.
This velocity is strong enough to move the coarse lag
deposits within the channel. As the flood subsides there is
gravel lag deposition, followed by the formation of trough
cross-beds, small tabular cross- beds and ripple
laminations. Some tranquillity results in the deposition of
silts and clays. Eventually the water level goes down, and
the process is repeated during the next flood stage.
Deposition is rather variable and occurs in pulses. The
overall depositional style in a meandering fluvial system
forms a classic fining-upward sequence (Fig. 8.8). This
sequence represents a lateral accretion, which is due to
channel avulsion. Mud is deposited during channel
abandonment.
Highly
variable,
can be
repetitious
Mud layer
(may have roots)
Small ripple
cross-bedding
Climbing ripple
lamination
Tabular
cross-bedding
Horizontal
lamination
Large scale trough
cross-bedding
Natural Levee
A natural levee is the raised bank of a river. During
flooding, water spills out of the channel and goes through
the levee into the flood basin. The water loses its velocity
rapidly during the spillover, depositing coarse material
(usually silt-size) quickly. These deposits form a raised
bank. Modern examples can be found in the Atchafalaya
and Mississippi Rivers in Louisiana. The levee is not
usually preserved, and it is the first area that is eroded by
the channel. Very rarely, it may be preserved in an
abandoned channel.
Flood Basin with Overbank Deposits
The flood basin occupies the topographically lowest
portion of the flood plain. Its characteristics include poor
drainage, slow rates of accumulation, and fine, organic
sediments, such as coal, black shale and dark-gray shales.
Marshes, swamps and lakes typically occupy the flood
basin.
Crevasse Splay
This localized sub-environment is formed as a fan delta,
when the river flood breaks through the levee wall into the
LACUSTRINE SYSTEMS
A lake is a landlocked body of standing, nonmarine water,
which may vary greatly in size, depth and salinity. They
are circular or elongate in plan view and lenticular in
cross section. Size ranges from a few meters to 100,000
square kilometers, and are usually thin (<200 meters). The
study of lake deposits is called limnology. Gilbert (1885)
made the first description of a delta in the Pleistocene
Lake Bonneville, Utah (the remnant of which is the
present Great Salt Lake). This gave rise to the Gilbert
delta, which represents the simplest type of a delta
system.
Depth classification results in two major types of
lakes (Fig. 8.9):
(1) Shallow lakes: These lakes are muddy, and they have
a delta plain and a Gilbert delta on the side. Ox-bow
lakes, sinkholes and tectonic lakes (basin-and-range
grabens) may be classified here.
(2) Deep lakes: These include (a) those that turn over
during spring and fall (associated with varves) and (b)
those that do not turn over.
Generally, the epilimnium is characteristically shallow,
warm, agitated, oxygen-rich, has low pH, and any iron
and organic deposits are oxidized. The hypolimnium is
deep, cold, still, oxygen-poor, dense, has reducing
conditions, and its organics are preserved.
A lake may have periods of turn over before and after
freezing. With a maximum density of water at 4C,
sediments settle out when freezing occurs. The overall net
effect is the formation of laminations called varves. In a
typical lacustrine setting, the sequence coarsens upward.
Where clastic input is limited, chemical sedimentation
21
predominates, and if there is excessive evaporation (in
arid, shallow lakes), evaporites form. Carbonates are
deposited where there is limited evaporation. Sometimes a
lake may be more saline than seawater (hypersaline).
Lake deposits are important sources of oil shale, uranium
and coal. They may be fossiliferous and the presence of
freshwater fossils is diagnostic. An ancient example is the
Green River Formation in Utah, Colorado and Wyoming.
Modern examples include the Great Salt Lake, Utah;
Dead, Sea, Israel; and the Great Lakes of North America.
* Sequence
* Sedimentology
* Fossils
EOLIAN SYSTEMS
PR
OT
* Setting
A
Wind
current
Tangential
truncation
* Geometry
B
Figure 8.10. A, Deposition of dune sands; B, internal
morphology of dune sands.
22
In order to correctly interpret dune deposits, the top of the
sequence and the wind current direction are important.
Dunes tend to be negatively (coarse) skewed since most
of the fine materials are removed by wind erosion. Where
there is no negative skew, a bimodal distribution in which
faceted boulders and cobbles are overlain by sands and
silts may occur.
Dune Types
The following are the common types of dunes, some of
which are illustrated in Figure 8.11.
F.
H.
G.
GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS
Glaciers presently cover 10% of the earth's surface in
contrast to 30% during the maximum episode of
glaciation in the Pleistocene. Records of at least five
major glacial periods in the geologic past are preserved in
the stratigraphic record:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
23
__
Modes of Transportation and Deposition (Fig. 8.13)
__
24
SECTION 9
COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS
DELTAS
A delta is a deposit which is partly subaerial, and is built
by a river into or against a permanent body of water
(Barrel, 1912). The term delta (D) was first used by the
Greek philosopher Herodotus (490 BC) to describe the
sediment at the mouth of the Nile River in Egypt. Deltas
are the most complex of all depositional systems, with
dozens of subenvironments. Ancient systems are of great
economic importance, being the primary sources of
fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas).
Distribution of Deltas
Deltas will form when more sediment is supplied at
the river mouth than can be removed by tides, waves and
longshore currents. Their distribution worldwide is
affected mainly by tectonics, and less so by climate and
geomorphic constraints. Landmasses that are covered by
ice sheets lack major deltas, while many deltas form in
coastal plains of passive margins (e.g., Niger), or in
broadly downwarping cratonic basins (e.g., GangesBrahmaputra). Collision coasts lack wide, shallow
shelves and have very few significant deltas (e.g., Ebro,
Po in Italy, Colorado).
Processes
Various processes control delta development and
maintenance. These processes may operate in the delta,
adjacent to the delta, or may be geographically remote
from the delta. They include:
25
Classification of Deltas
Classification is based on the interrelationship
betweensediment supply and the major processes
operating in the dynamic environment. The primary
effects that are normally considered are riverine
processes and their sediment load, wave energy and
tidal energy influx. Four basic delta morphologies
occur (Fig. 9.2). Elongate deltas are river-dominated
and constructive with large volumes of sediment, as in
the Mississippi Delta. Lobate deltas are intermediate
to fluvially dominated. They have smooth outlines and
a well-developed network of distributaries (e.g., Ebro)
Figure 9.2. Various delta types. A Lobate (intermediate to fluvial-dominated); B, elongate (fluvial-dominated); C,
irregular (tide-dominated); D, arcuate or cuspate (wave-dominated) (from Reading, 1986).
26
Figure 9.3. Classification of deltas based on processes and morphologic response (from Galloway, 1975).
Fluvial-dominated
Wave-dominated
Tide-dominated
Geometry
Elongate to lobate
Arcuate
Estuarine to irregular
Channel type
Straight to sinuous
Distributaries
Meandering
distributaries
Flaring straight to
sinouous distributaries
Bulk composition
Muddy to mixed
Sandy
Variable
Framework facies
Framework orientation
Parallels depositional
slope
Parallels depositional
strike
Parallels depositional
slope
27
Depositional Sub-environments
Deltaic sub-environments range from the fluvial delta
plain to the marine prodelta (Fig. 9.4). The overall
sequence usually coarsens upward.
Delta Plain. This consists of subaerial and subaqueous subenvironments, some of which are
intertidal. These can further be subdivided into:
(1) Distributary channels and associated point bars
and
levees:
The
channels
deposits
are
characteristically fining-upward sequences, with
cross-bedded sands oriented downstream and herringbone bedding in tide-dominated situations. Channel
abandonment causes in-filling of channels with silts,
clays and organics.
(2) Interdistributary bays and marshes: These
correspond to the lowest velocity subenvironments in
the flood basin. They are usually filled with water
and experience deposition of silts, clays, plant debris
and shell debris. Where small tidal ranges occur,
Figure 9.4. Typical cross section across the Niger Delta and adjacent marine shelf, showing sediment types,
morphology, and distribution (from Allen, 1970).
28
LITTORAL ENVIRONMENTS
Littoral environments extend from coastal plains as
dunes and cliffs to the sea at a depth of several tens of
meters. Deposition is controlled by the actions of waves
and tides (Fig. 9.5).
Beach-Barrier Complex
29
action. Washover deposits may occur when the dunes
themselves experience excessive storm action, and the
beach sands are eroded into the back barrier lagoons.
Characteristics of beach sands:
30
SECTION 10
CLASTIC MARINE AND PELAGIC
ENVIRONMENTS
SHELF DEPOSITION
The continental shelf is that marine region that is <200
meters deep (Fig. 10.1). Clastic sedimentation occurs
where
(a)
(b)
Seventy percent of continental shelves today are covered
with relict sediments called palimpsest sediments. What
are these sediments?
Figure 10.2. Idealized distribution of various classes of sediment
on continental shelves, where sediments are in equilibrium with
their environment. White arrows-warm water; dotted arrowsupwelling water; black arrow-cold water (from Reineck, 1968).
31
Differences Between Marine and Eolian Sand Waves.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Mud Deposition
Mud deposition occurs off coasts with weak tidal and
wave processes, and is common on the outer shelf; e.g.,
SW Gulf of Mexico, Bering Sea and Bay of Biscaye. The
deposits include heavily bioturbated terrigenous coastal
mud to open marine hemipelagic deposits. Differential
settling of clays occurs, with calm conditions favoring
smectite deposition as opposed to illite and kaolinite.
Figure 14.3. Main tidal sand ridges and sand waves in the
southern North Sea (from Galloway and Hobday, 1983).
Sedimentary Sequences
The types of sedimentary sequences formed depend on
the changes in relative sea level and hydrodynamic
processes on the shelf, i.e., storm and tidal processes (Fig.
10.4). Transgressive sequences show an upward decrease
in grain size, which is due to onlap. Regressive sequences
increase in grain size as a result of offlap. A variable
profile results from aggradation or balanced
accumulation. Shelf deposits are of economic importance
because (a) stratigraphic traps of hydrocarbons are formed
by sands within impermeable shales; and (b) the shales
are source rocks for hydrocarbons.
32
slumped and deformed shales; (c) olistostromes, which
constitute a chaotic assemblage of exotic brecciated
blocks, and (d) turbidites.
Continental Rise
The continental rise occurs on passive margins, and is
1,500 m to 4,000 m deep and 300 km to 400 km wide.
Accumulations of sediments as cones or lobes are due to
either (a) deposition by gravity current transportation at
right angle to the coast, or (b) deposition by contour
current transportation parallel to the coast. Contour
currents are products of normal oceanic circulation, as
water masses of different densities move relative to one
another. Continental rise sequences contain sediments
brought in by sliding and hemipelagic shale.
Turbidites. These sediments are produced by turbidity
currents, the most important transport process in the
environment. A complete turbidite form is referred to as a
33
Example: Tertiary turbitides of the Northern Apennines..
(Reading Assignment); p. 206-208 in the textbook.
*Tectonic Setting
*Lithofacies
Figure 10.6. Geometry of submarine fans and the associations of facies, according to Mutti and Ricci Lucchi
(1972) (from Lewis, 1984)
PELAGIC SEDIMENTATION
The study of pelagic sediments was pioneered by
the voyages of the British ship HMS Challenger,
from 1872 to 1876. In recent years, the deep sea
drilling project (DSDP) and ocean drilling program
(ODP) have focused solely on abyssal and hadal
environments) where pelagic sedimentation takes
place (i.e. sediments settling out of the overlying
water column). Such sediments are composed
mainly of terrigenous clays, skeletal materials and
minor amounts of authigenic components. They
Upwelling:
34
(2) Calcareous oozes:
* Sequence:
*Fossils:
35
Figure 10.7. The global pattern of deep-sea sediments. Calcareous oozes are restricted to low latitudes. Most
siliceous oozes lie close to the poles, although some occur in the equatorial Pacific and Indian Oceans. The areas
of low productivity in the center of oceanic gyres have mostly pelagic clays (from Riley and Chester, 1976).
Figure 10.8. Dominant clay minerals on the ocean floor (modified from Berger, 1974).
36
SECTION 11
CARBONATE ROCKS
Carbonates are mostly autotochnous sediments (mostly
intrabasinal) resulting from biological and biochemical
processes within the basin of deposition. Their
deposition is controlled by several factors, including:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
COMPOSITION OF LIMESTONES
(g)
Coated Grains
Frequency
Conc.
(ppm)
various
8.3
pH
Figure 11.1. Stability states of carbonate ions.
37
crystals (generally <4m) of aragonite and or HMC
produced by the breakdown of larger allochems (grains)
by mechanical and especially bacterial action. In some
cases clay size crystals of calcite and aragonite may be
directly precipitated by seawater.
Cement (spar)
Cement is carbonate mineral precipitated in the pore
spaces of carbonate sediments and sedimentary
rocks. In other words cement is deposited during
the diagenetic process just as it is in clastic rocks.
In the case of carbonate rocks cementation can
begin very early; almost immediately upon
deposition.
In the marine environment cement is either
aragonite or HMC.
In the freshwater aquifers cement is usually LMC.
Dolomite cements commonly precipitate in the
deep burial environment, in aquifers saturated with
evaporated seawater shallow environments, or in
other specialized diagenetic environments.
Some classification systems categorize all of the
carbonate components (grains, mud, and cement) as
orthochemical. This is not a good term because it
implies that the carbonate sediment formed "in
place" which is not always true. Carbonate grains
and mud can be transported some distance from the
place where it is formed to where it is finally
deposited. The only one of the above components
that is truly orthochemical is cement, which is
formed in place. This is true, of course, of cements
in clastic sedimentary rocks as well.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBONATE ROCKS
Limestones: There are two classification systems in
common use for limestones, Folk (1959, modified in
1962) and Dunham (1962) (Fig. 11.2). Both of the
classification systems are based on texture
(fundamental properties of grain size, shape,
orientation and packing) and enable the geologist to
make inferences on the origin of the limestone.
Folk's classification system is primarily used for
thin section petrography and is rather difficult (but
not impossible) to use in hand specimen or on
outcrop. Dunham's classification is more easily
applied to hand specimen or fieldwork (Fig. 11.3).
The primary usefulness of both Folk's and
Dunham's classifications is that an estimate can be
made as to relative energy of the depositional
>0.5 mm
0.25 0.5 mm
0.125 0.25 mm
38
Figure 11.2. Top, Folks classification of limestones. Bottom, Textural maturity classification proposed by Folk.
39
Figure 11.3. Classification of limestones proposed by Dunham (1962). A, Dunhams original scheme. B, Modification
of Dunhams classification by Embry and Klovan (1972).
Carbonate Diagenesis
Carbonate sediments begin to undergo lithification
almost instantly upon sedimentation. In contrast to
sandstones the character of carbonate rocks can
change radically during diagenesis.
Cementation and porosity reduction Holocene
and Pleistocene carbonates average about 40%
porosity. Even after burial and compaction such
limestones average 20 to 30% porosity. Ancient
carbonates usually have <10% porosity, most are
<5% porosity. What happens to all of the porosity?
It is filled by cement.
Environments of carbonate cementation (Fig. 11.4)
Vadose is the zone of aeration, above the water table.
Water is moving downward or is held by surface
tension in pore throats and between grains.
marine
vadose
fresh vadose
Water Table
Sea Level
fresh phreatic
Carbonate
Rocks
Figure 11.4.
cementation.
mixing
zone
Main
environments
marine phreatic
of
carbonate
___
40
porosity.
Stylolite
partially disolved
skeletal grain
insoluble
residue
partially disolved
ooid
amplitude
Cements:
Marine aragonite and HMC.
Fresh LMC (aragonite speleothems in karsted
areas).
Deep burial phreatic (saline formation waters
and basinal fluids) LMC, dolomite, &
ankerite cements.
Solution Seam
41
Seawater is a good source of Mg2+ {seawater
model). Seawater, of normal salinity, circulating
through the marine phreatic zone may dolomitize
CaCO3 sediments, especially at depth where pressure
is increased by the hydrostatic head (thus increasing
the solubility of HMC and Aragonite). Seawater has
been suggested as the dolomitizing agent for
subsurface sediments at Enewetak Atoll and on
peritidal flats on the coast of Belize.
Evaporated seawater may be a good dolomitizing
fluid because evaporation tends to concentrate Mg2+.
If the seawater is evaporated to the point of gypsum
(CaSO42H2O) precipitation the ratio of Mg to Ca is
increased, further favoring the formation of dolomite.
Dolomite is commonly associated with depositional
environments where evaporation of seawater may
have occurred and evaporites have formed. Dolomite
has been observed in modern carbonate sediments,
associated with evaporation and evaporite minerals,
in places such as the Persian Gulf and the Coorong
Lagoon of Australia.
Mixed fresh and seawater (mixed water or
DORAG model) may also facilitate the
dolomitization reaction. In the phreatic mixing zone
water composition will commonly be undersaturated
with respect to calcite and aragonite but
supersaturated with respect to dolomite. Dolomite
should theoretically replace limestone under such
thermodynamic conditions. This mechanism was
Figure 11.6. Schematic representation of various dolomite models (from Boggs, 2012).
Karst
Karst is created by the dissolution of carbonate rock
(limestone and dolomite) by ground water. This
most commonly occurs involving fresh water
charged with atmospheric CO2 in the following
reaction:
H2O + CO2
rain water atmospheric
carbon dioxide
+ HCO3
carbonic acid
42
of ground water further increases porosity in these areas
until, in some cases, cavern sized open spaces form.
Any region underlain by carbonate rocks of any age is
subject to karst development. This is especially true of
Missouri where nearly the whole state is underlain, at
some depth, by carbonate rocks. The karst features of
Missouri have played a colorful role in our state's
history (e.g., Jesse James cavernous hide-out near
Sullivan, MO) and literature (e.g., in Mark Twain's The
Adventures of Tom Sawyer).
Karst terrain presents a large variety of problems to
engineering and environmental geologists:
(1) Water moves very rapidly in a karst ground water
system. Unlike a "classic" porous medium, such as
sandstone, where porosity is measured in millidarcies,
water in a cars system can flow as underwater rivers.
Pollution entering at one point, such as a
sinkhole, can affect a large region very rapidly.
In many cases it is difficult to predict the
pathways of contaminants in such systems.
Human and animal waste products may
contaminate water supplies distant from the
43
SECTION 12
CARBONATE ENVIRONMENTS
REQUIREMENTS FOR DEPOSITION
The most basic requirements for carbonate
production and deposition (summary of factors in
Section 11) are as follow:
(1) Lack of or low amount of clastic input, e.g., the
only siliciclastic material in the Bahamas is wind
blown silt and clay particles from North Africa.
Clastic material is usually detrimental to the
organisms that produce carbonates.
(2)Warm tropical or subtropical conditions.
Temperature affects carbonate solubility. CaCO3
and MgCO3 are less soluble in warm water than in
cold because of a) the high hydrating energy of
Ca2+ and Mg2+ and b) CO2 is less soluble in warm
water than cold, therefore there is less H2CO3
(carbonic acid) in warm water the water is therefore
less acid and can hold less carbonate. Note that
warm oceans do not necessarily have more life than
cold oceans, which are very biologically productive.
The reason for carbonate productivity in warm
oceans has to do with carbonate chemistry as
discussed here.
MODEL
(CARBONATE
REEF
BACK REEF
FORE REEF
Peritidal
supratidal, intertidal beach
algal mats & stromatolites
evaporites & eolianites
Lagoon
reef flat
Barrier
Reef
sea level
Fo
re
Ta R
llu ee
s f
Deep Basin
turbidites, shale
& pelagic ooze
44
Figure 12.2. Hypothetical shallowing-upward sequence on a low-energy carbonate shelf (from James, 1984).
(1) Surf: This is a transgressive sequence, which
deposits calcarenite or carbonate sand. Transgression
is necessary to get into a shallow marine condition.
The surf may not be present.
(2) Subtidal: Either (a) Lagoonal, where low-energy
conditions prevail (with carbonate mud, bioturbation,
fossils, pellets, oyster banks, washover fans, tidal
channels), or (b) Open marine or shoal, if a highenergy environment (with oolite bank or reef, and may
have characteristics similar to lagoonal deposits).
(3)
Intertidal:
This
environment
contains
stromatolites, wavy cyanobacterial or blue-green algal
beds, bird's eye structures, channels and mudcracks;
mangroves may form in humid regions.
45
Stage
Type of Limestone
Species Diversity
Domination
Bindstone to framestone
Low to moderate
Diversification
Framestone, mudstone to
wackestone matrix
High
Colonization
Bafflestone to floatstone
(bindstone) with a mudstone
to wackestone matrix
Low
Stabilization
Grainstone to rudstone
(packestone to wackestone)
Low
in
VIDEO
on
Modern
Environments (17 minutes)
Carbonate
46
SECTION 13
CHERTS
Chert is composed largely or entirely of
cryptocrystalline (or microcrystalline) quartz.
Several varieties occur, e.g., jasper (stained red by
hematite), and flint (stained gray-black by organic
matter). Volumetrically significant cherts exist in
two forms, as nodules in carbonate rocks, and as
bedded cherts. The latter are more commonly
Precambrian in age. Arguments about their origin
has centered largely around two points:
(1) Shallow water vs. deep water, and
(2) Primary chert vs. secondary chert.
Figure 13.1 shows that silica precipitates in acidic
and neutral conditions in the subsurface. Silica
dissolves above pH of 10. Its precipitation is
governed by the following equation, and it is
sourced by fresh silicates and organic siliceous tests.
CaCO3+H2O+CO2+H4SiO4 SiO2+Ca2++HCO3-+ 2H2O
Bedded Cherts
Bedded (or primary) cherts occur as individual bands,
layers or laminae that range in thickness from a few
millimeters up to several meters. The thicknesses of
individual layers are often laterally or vertically
uniform (ribbon cherts), but they can vary. Internal
Figure 13.1. Stability fields for silica. Seawater pH = 8.3, which is slightly basic.
47
Nodular Cherts
EVAPORITES
(3)
(4)
(5)
48
Major evaporite deposits appear to have two
tectonic associations:
(1) Carbonate shelf and starved basins: Classically
called miogeosynclineal basins, these are relatively
stable platforms that sometimes have minor block
faulting. Examples include the Devonian Elkpoint of
Canada, and the Permian Basin of West Texas and
eastern New Mexico.
(2) Redbed and rift association: The presence of redbeds
confirms that continental arid conditions existed at the
time of formation.
Open
ocean
Carbonate
Rock
Gypsum
Evaporation
Ocean water
Reef
Halite
Carbonate
Rock
Gypsum
Halite
Gypsum-Anhydrite Cycle
Anhydrite does not precipitate out of seawater.
However, once gypsum is formed, it can very quickly be
converted to anhydrite, especially in the subsurface.
Therefore, at depths below 2,000 feet, anhydrite is almost
invariably found rather than gypsum. Much of the
gypsum precipitated in the supratidal environment form
anhydrite nodules (see equation below), and most of the
sedimentary structures are destroyed.
CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4+2H2O
In the subsurface where there is low porosity, the
expelled water commonly cause unusually high pore
pressures on the surrounding rocks.
Other diagenetic effects include:
Evaporation
Reef
Density layer
Euxinic basin
49
SECTION 14
PRINCIPLES AND HISTORY
OF STRATIGRAHY
Early views on the earth's history centered largely
around the church's interpretation based on the bible
chapter of Genesis. Early stratigraphers believed in
supernatural forces and the earth not being older than
6,000 years. May believed up to the 18th century that
the earth's surficial geology was accounted for by floods
(Noachian deluge in Genesis, chapter 7). An exception
was Leonardo da Vinci (1452 to 1519), a talented artist
and engineer, who contested that the fossil shells found
high up in the Apennine Mountains in Italy could not be
a result of a universal flood. He suggested that layers of
fossil shells in the rocks were formed when such
organisms on sea shores or sea bottoms were covered by
mud, subsequently petrified, and finally uplifted!
In general two schools of thought existed on the
origin of stratified rocks. The neptunists, led by
Abraham Werner, believed that most rocks
precipitated out of floodwaters. On the other hand, the
plutonists believed in the important role of the earth's
heat in the formation of crystalline rocks.
(2) Secondary:
(3) Tertiary:
ganggebirge):
Non
(1) Superposition:
Abraham Werner. German (1750 to 1817), neptunist,
built upon Lehmann's work. His classification is as
follows:
(2) Original horizontality:
(1) Primitive (Urgebirge): Predominantly crystalline and
unfossiliferous rocks; he believed they were the first
chemical precipitates from water during the earth's
formation.
(3) Original lateral continuity:
50
(4) Alluvial (Aufgeschwemmte): Poorly consolidated
alluvial sand, gravel and clay (deposited by running
water since the retreat of the seas).
(5) Volcanic rocks of Recent origin, due to local
natural burning of coal seams.
James Hutton. Scottish farmer (1727 to 1797),
credited for recognizing the following: (1) vastness of
geologic
time,
(2)
unconformities,
(3)
uniformitarianism, (4) and developed the concept of
rock cycling (erosion, deposition, etc.). Hutton also
recognized the effect of heat on the formation of
igneous rocks.
William "Strata" Smith. English surveyor (1769 to
1839), a Surveyor and civil engineer; considered the
father of stratigraphy; discovered:
(1) The principle of faunal and floral succession:
define!
51
Mesozoic Erathem: J.Phillips, 1840; means "middle
life".
Date
1860
1869
1871
1878
1883
Author
Phillips
Huxley
Haughton
Haughton
Winchell
1889
1890
1892
1892
1893
1893
1893
Croll
de Lapparent
Wallace
Geikie
McGee
Upham
Walcott
1893
1895
1897
1899
1900
1908
1909
Reade
Sollas
Sederholm
Geikie
Sollas
Joly
Sollas
a
b
c
Max.
Thickness (ft)
72,000
100,000
177,000
177,200
12,000b
150,000
177,200
100,000
264,000
264,000
31,680b
164,000
265,000
265,000
335,000
Rate of
Deposit
(yrs/1 ft)
1332
1000
8616
?
6000
600
158
730-6800
6000
316
3000c
100
100
300
100
Agea
(millions
of years)
96
100
1526
200
3
72
90
28
73-680
1584
100
45-70
95
17
35-40
100
26.5
80
80
52
EON
ERA
PERIOD
Quaternary
EPOCH
Pleistocene
Neogene
1.8 m.y.
23 m.y.
Oligocene
Paleogene
Eocene
Cretaceous
Jurassic
200 m.y.
Triassic
251 m.y.
Pennsylvanian
Carboniferous
Mississippian
Paleozoic
1st horses
End of ammonites & dinosaurs
First flowers
145 m.y.
Permian
Mammals dominate;
many flowers
1st elephants
65.5 m.y.
Meozoic
Paleocene
Phanerozoic
COMMENTS
Modern man
Pliocene
Miocene
Cenozoic
DATE
Holocene
Dinosaurs on land;
ammonites in seas
1st mamals
Redbeds & evaporites
Breakup of Pangea
Rise of reptiles
299 m.y.
1st reptiles
318 m.y.
Coal forests
359 m.y.
Many amphibians
Devonian
416 m.y.
Silurian
444 m.y.
Many fishes
1st land plants
1st coral reefs
Ordovician
488 m.y.
Cambrian
542 m.y.
700+ my
Cryprozoic or Precambrian
1.5 b.y.
Proterozoic
2.0 b.y.
1st fishes
Rise of invertebrates;
many trilobites
1st hard parts
Worms & algae
1st sexual repoduction
1st double-walled organisms
Many stromatolites
1st free oxygen
2.5 b.y.
Archaean
3.1 b.y.
3.8 b.y.
Hadean
4.38 b.y.
4.6 b.y.
53
SECTION 15
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
FACIES
The term "facies" is generally credited to the Swiss
geologist Amanz Gressly who first proposed the
concept in 1838. A facies is a body of rock with
specified characteristics. It is defined on the basis of
color, bedding, composition, texture, fossils and
sedimentary structures. Facies are usually applied to
denote consistent characteristics in rocks. For
example, lithofacies places emphasis on physical and
chemical characteristics (i.e., lithology), whereas
biofacies refers to a situation where primary
consideration is given to the biologic or paleontologic
content. Log facies and seismic facies have now been
added to facies usage with increasing use of
subsurface data in environmental analysis. In strict
sense a facies should be a distinctive rock formed
under certain conditions of sedimentation, which
reflect a particular process or environment.
Gradational
Sharp
Erosional
Walther's Law
The importance of facies in sedimentology and
stratigraphy was recognized by Johannes Walther,
who introduced the law of the correlation of facies in
1894. This law states that "facies that occur in
conformable vertical successions of strata were
formed in laterally adjacent environments." By
using this law it is possible to make a logical
interpretation of stratigraphic successions; e.g., a
lagoon should separate a barrier from the coastal plain,
while the shoreface and shelf are seaward of a barrier.
In unconformable successions a break may represent
the passage of any number of environments whose
products were subsequently removed. Therefore, the
preservation potential of environments and their
constituents, especially in subaerial and subaqueous
environments, is very important in the application of
Walther's law. Of more importance is the rate of
burial. Environments that accumulate thick sequences
rapidly (e.g., deltas) have a good preservation potential
while dunes accumulating above sea level are very
vulnerable to erosion.
Facies relationships
When interpreting facies sequences, stratigraphers
must look out for certain relationships that include the
following:
Contacts. Three main types of contacts exist, namely,
gradational, sharp and erosional (Fig. 15.1). In sharp
Cycle 2
Cycle 1
54
FACTORS
CONTROLLING
DISTRIBUTION
FACIES
Rainfall indicators:
55
UNCONFORMITIES
The concept of unconformities is fundamental to
stratigraphic studies. It was first recognized by James
Hutton in the Isle of Arran, Scotland, in 1787.
Unconformity is a rock term which represents any of
the following:
any significant break in time within a stratigraphic
olumn; or
any important stratigraphic discontinuity; or
an interval representing missing time which leaves
no tangible stratigraphic record.
Thus, an unconformity represents either a surface
of non-deposition, a surface of erosion, or a
combination of the two. Diastem is a term used to
describe a short break marking a period of nondeposition, e.g., a bedding plane. In a more general
sense a lacuna denotes a considerable time span
missing from the rock record, and is composed of a
degradational vacuity (a break due to erosion), and a
hiatus (a time interval when strata where never
deposited).
Types of unconformities (Fig. 15.3)
Angular Unconformity. This represents an angular
discordance separating two units of stratified rocks. It
normally results from large-scale diastrophism, and
should not be confused with horizontal bedding
overlying large-scale cross-bedding.
Nonconformity. This is recognized where stratified
rocks succeed nonstratified rocks, i.e., igneous and
metamorphic rocks. The unconformable surface is
usually erosive.
Disconformity. In this type of unconformity, an
erosional surface of appreciable relief separates
parallel bedded sedimentary rocks.
Paraconformity. The bedding of the rocks above and
below a paraconformity are parallel, and the unconformable surface is a normal bedding plane.
Biostratigraphic evidence is used to recognize such
obscure unconformities.
Criteria Used for Recognition of Unconformities
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Example: The Grand Canyon (Fig. 15.10, p. 336 in the
textbook)
56
LITHOLOGIC CORRELATION
Lithologic correlation primarily involves the
correlation of geographically separated parts of a
single lithostratigraphic unit. Because of lateral
facies changes, most sedimentologists do not refer
to lithologic correlation as time equivalence.
Physical and chemical criteria of correlation
Each of the following methods has serious pitfalls,
which make the task of the stratigrapher rather
difficult.
Physical Continuity. This method involves tracing of
individual beds from one section to another. It is,
theoretically at least, one of the most reliable
methods of correlation, and is based on the
assumption that deposition of a thin, traceable bed
took a relatively short time span. The method has
several limitations:
(1)
(2)
(3)
STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS
Lithologic Similarities. Rocks in different areas may
resemble one another in various respects, e.g.,
composition,
textures,
color,
topographic
expressions and weathering characteristics. The
greater the number of characters that can be
matched, the better the correlation. The occurrence
of a key bed, e.g. coal, in an area is useful if the key
bed is not repeated in the sequence. The main
limitation of this correlation method is that similarity
in lithologic characters may be a reflection of
similar environments of deposition and similar
source areas, and not of time. Hence environmental
correlation should be distinguished from time
correlation. Geophysical well logs are used for
subsurface correlation.
57
The hierarchy of the units can be shown as follows:
Time!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !!Time-Rock
Rock
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!!!
Note
that the subdivisions
of periods usually begin
with
upper
case
letters,
as
in
Lower or Early, Middle,
!!
Rock Units
Rock units have a hierarchy but they do not have a
time connotation. The fundamental unit of
lithostratigraphy is the formation. This must have
identifiable and distinct characteristics, and must be
mappable on the earth's surface or traceable in the
subsurface. A formation is named after the
geographic feature (e.g., town, river) near which it is
well developed, and must start with an upper case
letter (e.g., Gasconade Formation, Bonneterre
Dolomite). In informal usage it should not be so,
e.g., the sandstone formations in Missouri.
Formations can be either lumped into groups or
subdivided into members.
58
SECTION 16
(a)
BIOSTRATIGRAPHY
(b)
(c)
(f)
(d)
(e)
(g)
Well known index fossils include trilobites (used for
zoning the Cambrian period), graptolites (Ordovician
and Silurian), ammonites (Jurassic and Cretaceous),
coccolithophores
or
calcareous
nannofossils
(Cretaceous and Cenozoic) and foraminifera
(Cenozoic). Land organisms present special problems
because hard parts oxidize and break down easily, and
the probability of preservation is <1%. Also, several
barriers can hamper migration over land.
Zonation
The vertical stratigraphic distribution of a fossil is called
a range, and a compilation of ranges is termed zonation.
Therefore, a zone is marked by a species' or group of
species' first and last appearances. The various classes
of biostratigraphic zones are called biozones, and they
are controlled mainly by evolution, extinction,
immigration, emigration and environment. Four types
of biozones are generally used, some of which are
illustrated in Figure 16.1.
Assemblage zones. Also called oppel zones, these are
natural associations of three or more fossil taxa. They
are usually locally- and environmentally- controlled,
and they have vague boundaries.
Range zones. These give the total range of useful
elements in the fauna. A taxon range zone is named
after one particular species, while a concurrent range
zone is that with overlapping stratigraphic ranges.
Range zones have a more general application. Four
methods are used in recognizing concurrent range zones
(see Fig. 16.2).
Abundance zones. Also called peak or acme zones, they
are marked by the maximum abundance of a particular
species, and therefore not the total range.
Interval zones. These are intervals between two distinct
biostratigraphic horizons, and they may lack fossils.
59
Figure 16.1. Classes of interval zones. (A) Concurrent range zones, defined by the first and last appearance of
two or more taxa with overlapping ranges. (B) Taxon range zone, defined by the first and last appearance of a
single taxon. (C) Lineage zones, or phytozones, defined by the evolutionary first appearance of successive taxa
in a lineage. (D) Interval zones, defined by two successive first or last occurrences of partially overlapping
ranges (from Hedberg, 1976).
____
Figure 16.2. Four methods of recognizing concurrent range zones in a single section. Widths of lines indicate
relative abundance of specimens. Note that each method gives a slightly different zonation (from Eicher, 1976).
60
Biological Criteria for Correlation
Quantitative Biostratigraphy
61
62
63
Figure 16.7. Multivariate cluster analysis method of correlation. (A) Lithostratigraphy and position of the trilobite
samples from upper Franconia Sandstone (Upper Cambrian) of southern Minnesota. (B) Q-mode dendrogram
resulting from comparison of 65 samples containing 2 trilobite species. (C) Summary of the larger dendrogram,
showing four major clusters. (D) Biostratigraphic interpretation of results. (E) Principal components analysis of the
trilobite data, projected on the first and third eigenvectors (from Hazel, 1977).
64
WELL LOGGING
Subsurface information is used for interpretation in
places where outcrops are limited. Such geophysical
techniques as well logging and reflection seismology
are used for correlation purposes. Information on
lithology, porosity, etc. can be derived from
recovered subsurface materials, i.e., conventional
cores, (most reliable) sidewall cores, and ditch
cuttings (least reliable). In drilled boreholes, the
drilling mud helps to lubricate the drilling area and
keep the subsurface pressure down. Well logging has
been undertaken extensively by the international
firm, called SCHLUMBERGER. There are several
types of logs, each of which measures different
properties.
Resistivity Logs
Resistivity logs were used along with the SP log until
the development of more advanced techniques. They
measure the resisitivity of fluids in surrounding rocks
to an applied electrical current. There are three types:
16-inch (40-cm/ short normal) log, 64-inch (160-cm/
long normal) log, and 18'8" laterolog. Resistivity
increases with decreasing pore space, and the curves
are usually displayed alongside SP/gamma-ray logs
(Fig. 17.2). Note that salt water infiltrated by drilling
mud shows high resisitivity and can be mistaken for
oil. If spacing is increased, it will shift to the left.
Note: The greater the spacing, the more accurate the
reading.
GR/SP
Resistivity
Low
Low resistivity or
high conductivity
(salt water)
High
SECTION 17
Gamma-Ray Log
(-)
(+)
50mV
150
65
Along with SP log, GR shapes depict certain
depositional environments and sea level
fluctuations. For example, a large-scale
coarsening-upward sequence (Fig. 17.4A) often
depicts progradation, and individual coarseningupward units may represent coastal barrier and
shoreface sequences. A fining-upward sequence
(Fig. 17.4B) often indicates transgression on a
large scale, while individual units may be
distributary channel-fills or point bar sequences.
Dual laterolog
GR/SP
Low
Sonic
High
High
Low
Salt water
Tight sandstone
or limestone
Probably
oil,
may be gas
Marine
Coastal plain
Shallow
offshore
Gas
Coastal
barrier
Marine shale
Transgressive
sand
Porosity Logs
Three main types of porosity logs are used:
(1) Formation density log: Measures the density
of rocks as a function of porosity (Fig. 17.5).
(2) Neutron log: Measures the amount of
hydrogen present in rocks, which reflects the
amount of fluid-filled porosity (Fig. 17.5).
(3) Sonic log: Measures sound wave velocity
(interval transit time), which is dependent on
porosity. It is quite useful for correlation (Fig.
17.6).
Neutron
Density
GR/SP
Dipmeter Logs
Often referred to as the geologist's log, dipmeter is
especially useful in petroleum exploration. Its
primary aim is the measurement of the magnitude
and direction of slope of sedimentary features, such
as bedding. For example, a bedding surface cutting
across a borehole at some angle will cause
microresistivity changes to be recorded on the
dipmeter curve, which is recorded with four-tool pad
electrodes. Dip measurements are mathematically
digitized to give arrow plots.
Dip trends. Dip trends can be used to interpret or
recognize structural features (faults, folds) and
stratigraphic features (depositional environments).
Different trends in magnitude and aximuth can
increase with depth, decrease, remain constant, or can
be erratic/chaotic (Figure 17.7). For ease of reference
oil company workers use colors to designate the
trends.
1) Constant or zero dip: This trend is generated by
flat, horizontal bedding (Fig. 17.7A), or tilted,
horizontal beds caused by large-scale tectonism (Fig.
17.7B). Oil company color is green.
Tight
Gas
Oil
Water
66
4) Erratic dip: May show up blank on dipmeter
plot, and can form in the breccia zone of a fault
(Fig. 17.7G).
67
Figure 17.7 Dip trends. A, No dip, horizontal bedding; B, Constant dip, tilted bedding; C, Dip increasing with
depth, down-dip thickening; D, Dip increasing with depth,, drape and channel filling; E, Dip decreasing with
depth, cross-bedded strata; F, Dip decreasing with depth, differential compaction beneath a sand lens; G, Erratic
dips, breccia zone of a fault (from Schlumberger, 1986).
68
Figure 17.8. Dip patterns in faulted horizons. A, Series of parallel fault planes; B, Change in dip across fault
plane; C, Drag along the fault plane, upper block; D, drag along the fault plane, upper and lower blocks (from
Schlumberger, 1986).
Figure 17.9. Dipmeter results from some unconformities. A, Disconformity; B, Angular unconformity.
69
Figure 17.10. Variable dipmeter patterns in folded structures. A, Symmetric fold, anticline; B, Symmetric fold,
syncline; C, Overturned anticline; D, Asymmetric fold, anticline; E, Asymmetric fold, Syncline; F, Recumbent
anticline; G, Plunging anticline.
70
Figure 17.11. Dipmeter results from different depositional environments. A, Distributary channel sand,
Louisiana; B, Dipmeter log of a well drilled southeast of a reef; C and D, Dipmeter data from wells drilled in a
turbidite environment.
71
SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
Reflection seismology is primarily concerned with
compressional or longitudinal waves, which are
elastic body waves in which the particle motion is in
the direction of propagation. Geologists and
geophysicists have now begun considering shear or
transverse waves and surface waves more seriously in
seismic reflection studies.
Principles
Reflection is a process of convolution and it is
produced by abrupt changes in seismic velocity,
which usually denote a sharp contrast in density.
Reflection coefficient f() = 22 11
2 2 + 1 1
where = density, and = velocity.
Figure 17.13 illustrates the basic principle of seismic
reflection. For example, a very dense medium will
have high velocity whereas less dense medium (e.g..
gas) will record low velocity. Three-dimensional and
4-dimensional seismic reflection seismology are now
being widely employed by geophysical companies,
instead of the conventional 2-D method.
Seismic Profiles
The vertical scale of seismic profiles is the two-way
travel time, which may or may not be linearly related
to actual lithologic thicknesses. Profiles are produced
by changes in density (e.g., bedding) and they are used
to identify large-scale underground structures and
unconformities. Most times, only the most prominent
lithologic breaks appear on the seismic record. Unlayered structures are characterized by a random
scatter of reflections, such as the core of a reef, and a
salt dome (Fig. 17.14).
72
Downlap. At the base of a sequence, initially
inclined strata terminate down-dip against initially
horizontal or inclined strata.
Onlap. At the base of a sequence, initially
horizontal strata terminate progressively against
initially inclined surface; or initially inclined
strata terminate progressively against a surface of
greater inclination.
Concordance. Relationship in which strata at the
top and base of a sequence do not terminate
against the upper and lower boundaries,
respectively. Synonymous with paraconformity.
Overstep or overlap. Relationship between beds
overlying
and
underlying
an
angular
unconformity. This is usually recognized on a
regional scale.
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Fluctuations in sea level are important driving
mechanisms for shifting depositional environments in
space. Consequently, some strata are buried and
preserved in the stratigraphic record according to
Walther's law. Others may be eroded and represented
by unconformities. Sloss (1963) was one of the first
stratigraphers to recognize extensive, large scale
cycles in the stratigraphic record of North America.
These unconformity-bounded cycles or sequences are
thicker near the continental margins (geosynclines)
and thinner in the cratonic interior (Fig. 17.16). Each
typically starts with thick quartz sandstone at the
base, which is overlain by carbonate rocks and
increasing shales toward the cratonic edge. Some of
the boundaries may be marked by tectonic events,
e.g. Sauk-Tippecanoe boundary experienced Taconic
orogeny in eastern U.S.A. These unconformities can
be matched up between some continents.
Stratigraphic Cycles and Their Causes
Erosional truncation
Toplap
Downlap
Onlap
Concordance
Overstep or overlap
Vail Curves
Seismic reflections have revolutionized sequencee
stratigraphy in the last 25 years. They were used
to develop the Vail curves, which interpret the
fluctuations in sea levels throughout geologic
time. These were based on the recognition of
unconformity surfaces discussed above.
73
74
Figure 17.17. First- and second-order cycles during the Phanerozoic (from Vail et al., 1977).
Figure 17.18. Cenozoic time scale, showing third-and fourth-order cycles (from Haq et al., 1987).
75
Systems Tracts. A complete cycle has three
components: lowstand systems tract (LST) or
shelf margin systems tract (SMST), transgressive
systems tract (TST) and highstand systems tract
(HST) (see handout). According to Van
Waggoner et al. (1988, 1991), the cycle starts with
a fall in sea level, LST, during which incised
valleys are formed on the continental shelf, and
fluvial deposits prograde onto the shelf edge. If
there is no significant drop in relative sea level,
SMST stage is formed instead of LST.
When sea level starts to rise, TST stage
begins and marine deposits are laid down.
Eventually, a highstand is reached (HST) during
which deltas can form and result in the deposition
of floodplain and shallow marine sediments. The
erosional base of the cycle is called a sequence
boundary, and it could be a type 1 (with LST) of a
type 2 (with SMST). Smaller subdivisions are
called parasequences and parasequence sets.
Important points:
(1)
(2)
(3)
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY
GEOLOGICALLY
INSTANTANEOUS EVENTS
Magnetic polarity stratigraphy or magnetostratigraphy deals primarily with surface outcrops. It must be
used with other geochronologic method to achieve a
high precision.
Concepts
(2) Turbidites.
76
(3) Chemical remanent magnetization (CRM):
(b)
(b)
(c)
77
Figure 17.19. The large scale pattern of the earth's polarity history, (A) Time scale according
to Cox (1982). Mixed polarity predominates except during the long Cretaceous normal and
the Permo-Carboniferous reversed episodes. The pre-Carboniferous polarity was poorly
known at the time. (B) Time scale according to Molostovsky et al. (1976), based on data
from the Siberian Platform. This time scale goes back to the Cambrian, though the relative
lengths of zones and the dating are not as well constrained as for the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
time scale (taken from Prothero and Schwab, 2014).
CHEMOSTRATIGRAPHY
Some stable isotopes (those which do not decay
with time) can become more or less abundant
with respect to others during oceanographic and
climatic changes. These isotopes exist in welldefined ratios in the ocean and atmosphere as a
result of fractionation by their differences in
atomic weight, and it is now used for
stratigraphic interpretation. Stable isotope
stratigraphy is not independent but needs another
time control, such as biostratigraphy, in order to
be efficient. All the methods in current use carry
out measurements on exclusively marine
organisms.
Oxygen Isotopes.
The common isotopes of
oxygen are 16O (which accounts for 99.756%)
and 18O (which is heavier, and is usually present
in the ocean). On examining foraminifera in 1947,
Harold Urey and Cesare Emiliani found out that
oxygen isotopic ratio (d18O/16O) fluctuated with
changes in temperatures caused by ice ages.
Further studies (e.g., Urey, 1951) have revealed
that fluctuations in oxygen isotopic ratio are due
to both temperature and ice volume effects. Figure
17.20 illustrates oxygen fractionation during
glacial-interglacial cycles, and how the seawater
becomes enriched in 18O during glacial intervals.
Oxygen isotopes are measured with respect to an
arbitrary laboratory standard called PDB (= Pee
Dee Belemnite), since calcite from belemnite is
78
used to calibrate the mass spectrometer. The ratio
is calculated using the following equation:
79
SECTION 18
GEOCHRONOLOGY
Dating
Method
U/Th/Pb
Pb/Pb
Fission track
K/Ar
Ar/Ar
Rb/Sr
C/N
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay is used for measuring the
absolute or numerical ages of rocks and events.
Called radiometric dating, it was pioneered early
in the 20th century. Its use depends on the
observation that the rate of decay of radioactive
elements is constant. It may involve the loss of
protons and/ or neutrons. There are three types of
decay, all of which take place entirely within the
nucleus.
(1) Alpha decay: Loss of protons and neutrons.
238U 234Th + 4He (a-particle)
(2) Beta decay: Increase in atomic number by 1,
from uncharged neutron emitted by the parent
atom changing into a positively-charged proton.
Example:
40K 40Ca + e- (b-particle)
(3) Capture of beta particle: Electron capture turns
proton into a neutron, thereby reducing the atomic
number by 1.
40K + e- 40Ar + g-particle
Another kind of emmision in the radioactive
decay process is called gamma radiation. It
consists of a form of invisible electomagnetic
waves having even shorter wavelengths than Xrays. The underlying basic principle is that a
radioactive "parent" element decays into a stable
"daughter" element at a constant rate. Therefore,
the rate of decay or lambda (l) is given as the
fraction of the initial number of parent element
atoms. which decay in unit time (per year). The
half-life period (T) is the time necessary for onehalf of the number of parent element atoms to
decay. The relationship between T and l is:
T = 0.693/l
The decay of the parent to daughter may take
place in one step or in a series of steps, and T and
l should be accurately known for precise dating.
In general, the most reliable rates are derived from
igneous rocks because the moment of
crystallization of a mineral yields a sharp starting
point. For metamorphic rocks, the minerals yield a
date for the last metamorphic event. Table 18.1
lists some of the radiometric dating techniques
and the minerals that are used.
80
207Pb
Lead/Lead.
Because
accumulates
approximately six times as fast as 206Pb, an age can
be obtained if the material used was free initially
from the two isotopes. Based on the assumption that
206Pb and 207Pb are always radiogenic, it is possible
to obtain an estimate of the earth's age since the crust
crystallized. This is done by comparing the isotopic
ratios of lead ores of differing geological ages.
81
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY
Chronostratigraphy
attempts
an
integrated
correlation of biostratigraphy, geochronology,
magnetostratigraphy and other dating techniques
(Fig. 18.2). It is called time-rock stratigraphy
because it establishes time relationships among
geologic units. Often times, two data sources may
not agree or tie in, and discrepancies can occur in
data collection, as in radiometric dating.
Chronostratigraphic methods fall into two
categories:
Dating.
There is a very reliable biostratigraphic
control, but it is not correlatable with other continents.
Tephochronology has improved correlation within the
Turkana Basin. However, it is not useful outside areas
of volcanic ash falls. Magnetostratigraphy gives the
finest resolution of time and best correlation with
other parts of the world. It is defined within a
framework of biostratigraphy and radiometric dates.
Continental Scale: Western Interior Cretaceous of
North America
Setting. This region extends from the Gulf of Mexico
to the Arctic Ocean, through Texas, New Mexico,
Utah, Colorado, Iowa, Idaho, Wyoming, Nebraska,
Montana, Saskatechewan, etc. The region extended
north to south for about 5,000 km during the
maximum transgression.
The shallow marine
sediments include pelagic shales, chalk, limestone and
sandstone. Some nonmarine sediments that were
deposited during regression are coal, shale and
sandstone. The Zuni transgression was responsible for
much of the deposition during the Late Cretaceous.
82
Oligocene, which was later named by von Beyrich.
Lyell did not recognize the Oligocene because (a) his
type areas were local and time-transgressive, thus
making correlation difficult; and (b) most of the
faunas were endemic, shallow marine molluscs, such
as oysters. These limitations have now been overcome
by DSDP and ODP legs, which have dredged very
thick sequences of rocks. The occurrence of
planktonic foraminifera, calcareous nannoplankton,
diatoms and radiolarians within these sequences
permits global correlation.
83
SECTION 19
BASIN ANALYSIS
Basin analysis is simply the application of
stratigraphy and sedimentology to analysis of the
geologic history of a basin. It also includes aspects
of
paleontology,
paleoecology
and
paleogeography. The following are the general
approaches used toward achieving this goal.
Sediment Body Architecture
As a first step, all the sedimentological and
structural characteristics of the rock (e.g.,
lithologies, their thicknesses and relationship to
one another) are considered. This entails the use of
cross sections, and stratigraphic maps such as
facies, isopach and isolith. The recognition of the
sand body architecture is usually a first step toward
establishing a depositional system. Sediment body
architectures
could
be
wedge-shaped,
anastomosing, linear, and tabular, among others.
Provenance
Provenance involves using petrographic data to
reconstruct the origin of sediments. The following
sets of data are particularly useful:
Heavy Minerals. Heavy minerals are generally
used for reconstructing provenance because every
assemblage is diagnostic of the source area.
Examples:
(1)
(2)
(3)
STRATIGRAPHIC DIAGRAMS
AND MAPS
Data Gathering in the Field
Accurate measurement and precise description of
field data are important in establishing spatial
relationship of rocks over geographic areas. Such
data may be from outcrops or from the subsurface,
with the latter being obtained by drilling and remote
geophysical methods, such as seismography.
Important field characteristics, which should be
recorded in words, sketches and photographs,
include:
(1) General lithologic characters, sequences and
relationships of lithologies, e.g., types of contacts.
(2) Coloration: Note whether rock is wet or dry.
(1)
(2)
84
(6) Fossils: Make accurate identification:
pinch
out
85
Isopach
Isochore
Figure 19.5. The difference between isopach and isochore.
This
shows
variations
in
86
Paleogeographic Map Shows the distribution of
ancient environments at a given point in geologic
history (Miall, 1984; Fig. 19.8). It is usually
derived from lithofacies distribution and other
inferences. Block diagrams are very useful devices
for summarizing paleogeographic interpretations
(Fig. 19.9).
87
TECTONICS AND SEDIMENTATION
Accumulation of sedimentary sequences is
controlled mainly by tectonics, and in the last three
decades, the plate tectonic model has been used to
interpret sedimentary sequences. Accumulation
occurs in the stable interiors of continents
(cratons), and the margins of continents
(geosynclines). The term geosyncline was introduced by James Dana in 1873.
Cratonic Sedimentation
The center of a continent is composed of the
Precambrian shield or dome, and sediments are
added by lateral accretion, especially on the sides
of the dome (Fig. 19.10). As a result, sediments are
thinner toward the dome, and they are mainly
composed of shallow marine sandstones,
limestones and shales, with occasional fluvial and
deltaic sequences. Such was the mode of
deposition of Sloss' sequences of North America.
Cratonic sedimentation was more common during
the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras, and the
sequences are bounded by unconformities. They
are much thinner in comparison with geosynclinal
sediments. Good examples of cratonic basins can
be found in Africa (Chad, Iullemmeden) and the
United States (Illinois, Michigan). Continental
margins have thick piles of sediment accumulation
(averaging 7 miles or 35,000 ft) in deeply
subsiding basins. The sediments are usually
deformed.
marine
(shelf)
2) Molasse:
Figure 19.10. Idealized section of a dome and basin in the
craton, showing thinning of all units away from the basin
and toward the dome. This results partly from deposition
of a greater thickness of each unit in the basin and partly
from truncation and overlap along unconformities (from
Prothero and Schwab, 2014).
Geosynclines
Geosynclines can be subdivided into two parts
(Fig. 19.11):
Plate Tectonics
The similarity between the boundaries of continents
was first noted as far back as 1620 by Sir Charles
Bacon. Then in 1912, Alfred Wegener (a German
meteorologist) published his idea that continents have
drifted apart since their formation. This concept of
continental drift remained controversial until the
1960s when its application to tectonic studies was
revived.
88
What were the earliest evidences for continental drift?
1)
Convergent Margins
Convergent margins can result from three situations:
2)
3)
4)
By 1970, it became clear that (a) the crust was and
is still being formed at spreading centers (ridges)
and (b) continents are consumed at sites of
collision called subduction zones. The model of
plate tectonic became much clearer once it was
recognized that crustal plates had a core of silica
continental crust and a thinner but denser fringe of
basaltic oceanic crust. Three types of plate margins
have been recognized:
Divergent Margins
Divergent margins occur in the following settings:
1) Oceanic: Spreading centers where oceanic
rifting occurs, e.g., mid-oceanic ridges. Nothing
happens sedimentologically in the spreading
center, but some deposition occurs at the
continental edge (i.e., at the passive margin basin).
An example is the Baltimore Canyon Trough in the
U.S.A.
89
90
REFERENCES
Ager, D.V., 1981. The Nature of the Stratigraphic Record,
2nd Edition: John Wiley, New York.
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