Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IN p AND n GERMANIUM
Muhammad
Table of Contents
Abstract .........................................................................................................................1
Introduction ...................................................................................................................1
Theory ...........................................................................................................................1
Method ..........................................................................................................................5
Experimental Apparatus Malfunction .......................................................................7
Analysis.........................................................................................................................7
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 11
References ...................................................................................................................12
Table of Figures
Figure 1 - Wiring diagram for resistance vs. temperature measurement ..................... 5
Figure 2 - Wiring diagram for Hall voltage measurement ........................................... 5
Figure 3 - Hall Effect ................................................................................................... 6
Figure 4 Plot of UH versus B for p doped Ge............................................................ 8
Figure 5 - Plot of UH versus B for n doped Ge ............................................................ 9
Figure 6 - Basic Schematic of Experimental Apparatus to Indicate Orientation in the
B Field .................................................................................................................... 10
ii
Abstract
The Hall Effect is used to confirm that the predominant charge carriers are positive
holes in p doped Ge, and electrons in n doped Ge. Further voltage-current analysis of the
samples at room temperature, allow us to calculate various properties of the
semiconductor samples such as their resistivity, carrier density and carrier mobility.
Introduction
Semiconductors have many unique and useful properties that make them very useful
for a variety of applications. The properties of a semiconductor can be further controlled
by doping with another material. Different materials have different effects on the
properties of the semiconductor. One of the major effects of doping is on the
determination of the predominant charge carrier in the semiconductor. The Hall Effect is
an important phenomenon that allows us to study the various characteristics of a given
semiconductor in great detail.
Theory
In the Hall Effect, a potential difference is produced across a conductor perpendicular
to both, the direction of current flow and the magnetic field (which has been applied
perpendicular to the current). In this situation, the magnetic field exerts a transverse force
on the moving charge carriers of the current which tends to push them to one side of the
conductor. A buildup of charge at the sides of the conductor will create an electric field
which will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage between the
two sides of the conductor (Nationaal instituut voor subatomaire fysica 1988). The sign
1
of the voltage will be dependent on the sign of the charge of the predominant charge
carrier.
For simple metal and doped semiconductors, where there is only one type of charge
carrier (either electrons or holes), the Hall voltage, VH, is given by
VH =
(1.)
Where I is the current through the conductors length, B is the magnetic flux density,
d is the thickness of the conductor, e is the electron charge, and n is the charge carrier
density of the carrier electrons.
The Hall Coefficient is defined as
RH =
Ey
jxB
(2.)
Where j is the current density of the carrier electrons. In SI units, this becomes
RH =
Ey
VH
=
jxB
/
(3.)
In general, the Hall voltage is not a linear function of the magnetic field applied.
However, it can be easily calculated, if we assume that all carriers have the same drift
velocity. This can be done in two ways (Nationaal instituut voor subatomaire fysica
1988).
VH
coefficient is given by RH = j B =
. So the Hall
= eq
(4.)
(5.)
Also, for intrinsic conduction, the relationship between the conductivity, , and the
temperature, T, is given by:
= 0
(6.)
1
2
(7.)
(8.)
Where and are the mobilities of holes and electrons and p, n are the
carrier densities of holes and electrons. Since the mobilities are a function of
temperature, the Hall coefficient is also a function of temperateure. Infact, the
Hall coefficient can even become zero or change signs with changes in
temperature.
Explicitly, the temperature dependence of the Hall Coefficient for the p doped
sample can be fitted to (Dept. of Physics n.d.)
() =
+ ( 4 + 02 2 )(1 2 ))
2
(9.)
( + 4 + 02 2 )(1 + ))
() =
1
+ ( 4 + 02 2 )(1 2 ))
1
( + 4 + 02 2 )(1 + ))
(10.)
Method
The experiment was to be conducted in 3 parts.
The aim of part 1 was to measure the conductivity in undoped Ge to determine the
band gap. To accomplish this, the experimental apparatus was to be wired as shown in
Figure 1. After activating the data acquisition software to monitor the resistance, the
heater circuit is activated, and the resistance and temperature data collected.
The next part of the experiment was to observe the Hall Effect, and calculate the Hall
coefficient and conductivity at room temperature. For this purpose the p and n doped
samples were used (i.e. this step was repeated twice; once for each sample). The the
experimental apparatus was wired as shown in Figure 2. After ensuring that a current of
approximately 1mA was passing through the circuit, the apparatus was placed within a
magnetic field, such that the face of the semiconductor strip was perpendicular to the
magnetic field Figure 3. The Hall Voltage, UH, was then measured for varying magnetic
fields.
The final part of the experiment was to study the effect of temperature on the Hall
Effect. For this part, the experimental apparatus was setup as in Figure 2. However, this
time, the magnetic field was set at a constant amount, while the temperature was varied
by activating the heater element of the circuit. The data acquisition software was used to
measure the temperature and Hall voltage, as the semiconductor was heated, and then
cooled. This part was to be repeated twice; once for the p doped material, and once for
the n doped material.
For the first part of the experiment I required resistance versus temperature data
for the undoped sample (whereas Data Set 1 was for the doped samples).
The data of Data Set 2 covered the same data that I was able to collect in the
second part of the experiment, hence I did not use it.
The third step required Hall Voltage versus Temperature data for the p and n
doped sample, which was not covered in the supplied Data Sets.
Analysis
As mentioned previously, due to a malfunction in the heater circuit, I was unable to
perform the first part of the lab. If I had been able to obtain the Resistance (R) versus
Temperature (T) data for the undoped Ge sample, I would have used it to plot ln(R)
versus 1/T for the undoped sample. From Equation (7.) it is expected, that for an undoped
sample, such a plot would be a straight line, whose gradient, m, may be used to determine
7
= 2
(11.)
(12.)
As I was unable to experimentally determine a value for Eg, I will be using the
commonly accepted value of 0.66eV for further analysis (Bar-Lev 1984).
The data collected in the second part of the experiment, was used to plot Figure 4 and
Figure 5. Using the gradient, m, of these plots, and Equation 2:
=
= /
(13.)
(14.)
If I had been able to perform the final part of the experiment, I would have Hall
voltage versus Temperature data for the semiconductors. This data could have been fitted
to Equations 9 (for the p doped sample) and 10 (for the n doped sample), to determine k,
the ratio of the electron to hole motilities, and N0, the effective density of states for each
of the samples.
Conclusion
The Hall Effect provides a very useful means to determine various properties of a
semiconductor such as the nature of the predominant charge carrier, and the charge carrier
density. In the case of p-doped Ge it was confirmed to be positive holes, and in the case
of n-doped Ge it was confirmed to be electrons. We determined, that at room temperature
our sample of p doped Ge has a Hall coefficient of 3.31 x 10-3 m3/As 0.03% and a
carrier density of 1.39x1021 m-3 0.03% at room temperature, and our sample of n doped
Ge has a Hall coefficient of -4.503 x 10-3 m3/As 0.03% and a carrier density of
1.89x1021 m-3 0.03%.
11
References
Bar-Lev, Adir. 1984. Semiconductors and Electronic Devices. 2nd. Prentice Hall.
Dept. of Physics. n.d. "Lab Manual PHYS 360/460." University of Waterloo.
LD Didactic GmbH. n.d. LD Physics Leaflets. Huerth: LD Didactic GmbH, 7.2.1.1,
7.2.1.4, 7.2.1.5.
Nationaal instituut voor subatomaire fysica. 1988. December 03.
http://www.nikhef.nl/~h73/kn1c/praktikum/phywe/LEP/Experim/5_3_02.pdf.
Pal, Sambit Bikas. n.d. Indian Institute of Science Education and Research.
http://sam.botcyb.org/reports/temperature_hall_coeff.pdf.
12