Building and Sculpture Techniques In India: Part II: Classical and Later Times

Author(s): Hermann Goetz

Source: Archaeology, Vol. 16, No. 1 (MARCH 1963), pp. 47-53
Published by: Archaeological Institute of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41667300 .
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Stylistic differences in successivephases of Inthanthe

dian architecture
appearmuchmorestriking
them.
In
for
technicalinnovations
reality
responsible
transition:
timber
therewas an almostimperceptible
was used
withor withoutbrickfillings,
construction,
in theHimafortemplesup to theeleventhcentury,
layasevenmuchlater.For palacesand privatehouses
it has continuedin use up to the presentday, although,exceptin thehousesof therich,it was more
to balconies,ceilings,lintelsand
and morerestricted
timber
as
becamescarceand expensive.
doors, good
and houseplatStonewas firstused forfoundations
and
Building
forms(and thisis still the custom),and the early
typesof genuinemasonrycontinuedto be used for
theMiddleAges,and fordams
fortifications
through
Sculpture
Techniques
and dikesuntilmoderntimes.In the case of other
was imitatedin stone,
buildingswood construction
survivedfora longtimein
and thistypeof imitation
In
India
the shapes of doors,windowsand otherimportant
partsof brickbuildings.On the otherhand, later
timberarchitecture
acceptedthe formsand decorationsof the stonestyle,and to some degreeHindu
of the Islamicperiodalso adopted
stonearchitecture
of a rubbleand mortar
forms
and
decoration
the
Part II: Classical and'*Later Times
construction
maskedbytilesor stoneslabs.It is thus
clear that the dominanttechniquedeterminedthe
style.
The firststageof stoneconstruction,
whichimitatedthe timberstyle,began in the fourthor fifth
Stoneslabs wereset uprightin groovescut
century.
is practically
intostonebeams(Figure1). The effect
the same as that of modernprefabricated
concrete
slabs mountedbetweensteelpostsand girders.This
By Hermann Goetz
techniqueseemsto have been inspiredby the abundancein Rajasthanof naturalsandstone
slabsof various sizes.For thisreasonit has continued
to be used
ofIndianHistory,
ArtandArchaeology
Professo!
and
in
the
to
the
there
adjoining
presentday,
up
Heidelberg
University
eitherfor entirebuildingsor at least for
provinces,
etc.The bestexamples
balconies,projecting
sunroofs,
of thelaterpurestyle(generallysixteenth
and early
seventeenth
centuries)are the earlyRajput castles
(Figure2) and thepalacesfortheMughalemperors
Akbarand Jahangir,
especiallyat FathpurSikri(see
and Lahore.Balconiesof the
1),
Ajmer
Figure
Agra,
PartI of thisarticle
in Archaeology1.5 [1962]
appeared
centuriesoftenshow the
and nineteenth
252-261
eighteenth
finestpossiblejoinerywork,withslabs only1.5 cm.
and grill
thick,cut intothemostdelicateornaments
work.Suchworkwas also done in marble,especially
in thepalacesof Shahjahan.
Aboutthe year400 a massivestyleof stoneconwas introduced
fromRomanSyria,and this
struction
dominatedHindu templearchitecture
the
throughout
Middle Ages. The stylistic
characteristics
of imperial
Romanartwereimmediately
Indianizedand became
47

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ceilingslabs,manyof whichare now cracked.The

of 1 m.-1.50m.; linwallshavean averagethickness
withinabouttwo decades,but tels and ceilingslabs varybetweenca. 30 cm. and
almostunrecognizable
theconstruction
of templesareas highas sixtymeters
;
techniqueof the Near East,involv- 1 m. A number
often
for
founstones
some
of passageways(e.g. at Sriranslabs
tons,
inghuge
weighingmany
ceiling
side
dations,walls and ceilings,columnsand pilasters, gam) are so huge and wide thatthreechariots,
horizontal
lintelsand corbeledarches,becamea per- by side,could pass beneaththem.
manentfeature.True archesare rare (thereare exHow thesegreatstonemassescouldbe movedhas
in
the
of
been
much discussed.The equipmentwas of the
Bhitargaon,Bodhgaya,
temples
amples
morecommon simplesttype:riverboats,bullockcarts,levers,ropes
Martandand Mul-Dvarka); somewhat
of threeslabs,the and pulleys.A fifteenth-century
aresemi-hexagonal
ones,consisting
carvingon thewalls
centralone horizontaland the othertwo inclined. of Raichurshows a big cart with massivewheels
With the exceptionof Kashmir,wherea trifoliate drawnbya teamof bullocks(Figure3). It probably
archbecamethefashion,arches,whethercorbeledor represents
thetransportation
of a block12.50m. long
true,werenotvisible,possiblyin reactionagainstthe whichis now nearthe westerngatewayof the fort.
fortheBrahminsre- The liftingof such stoneswas achievedby filling
archesof Buddhistsanctuaries,
as theirworstene- therisingbuildingeitherwhollyor partlywithearth,
Buddhist
^heretics"
the
garded
mies.In mostcases corbelingservedonlyto lighten so thatthe sectionunderconstruction
was alwaysat
the immenseweightpressingupon the lintelsand groundlevel.It has been assumedthata spiralramp
led up to thetop of the artificial
mound,but thisis
not correct.Famous templeswere repeatedlyrewithoutinterrupting
theiruse for reliconstructed
was
services.
This
gious
possibleonlyif the portion
not underreconstruction
remainedaccessibleinside
1. Sectionofwallin a palaceof theMughalemperor and out. And in the case of the greatBrihadisvara
in
Akbarat Fathpur
Sikri.The wall slab is mounted
thegrooveof thecopingstoneof theconduit,
which
templeof Tanjorewe knowthata straight
rampsix
is insidethewall.Sixteenth
mileslong was laid out to raisethestonesup to the
century.
top of theVimana (61 metersabovegroundlevel).
For lighterworksimplebambooscaffolding
was and
still is used, sometimes
to a heightof six or eight
stories.During this construction
the outersurfaces
of theblocksweregiventheroughshapeof thefuturesculptural
decoration(Figures4, 5). Onlywhen
theearthwas removedweretheoutlinesof thesculpin (Figure6), and thenthestone
turesfirstscratched
was chiseledaway.It is amazingthatdespitesucha
whichpermitted
method,
hardlyanycorrection,
sculpdecotureswerespoiledonlyrarely.The filigree-like
rationson thewallsand ceilingsof manylatetemples
could,of course,be obtainedonlyby moredelicate
- drilling,
methods
andgrinding.
cutting
Complicated,
undercutornaments
and leafwork,even
completely
all carved
movablechains,wheelsthatcan be turned,
fromone stoneblock,are foundin mostmonuments.
The factthattheseare executedon large blocksis
responsiblefor the somewhatone-sidedimpression
of Indian sculpturewhichwe receivein museums
today.The pillarsand slabsadorningearlyBuddhist
could be easilyremoved;so could the
monuments
idols in the mediaevaltemples.These have only a
thinbackground(1-2 cm. thick) and are not connectedwiththe wall, as theyhad to be consecrated
separatelywith complicatedritualsin orderto beof the deity.But the sculpcomethe dwelling-place
India

continued

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workofsandstone
Notethejoinery
beamsandslabs(thebricks
2. TheearlyRajputcastleofRamMahalat Chanderi.
area laterrepair).Earlyseventeenth
century.

tureson thetemplewalls,withtheirfriezesillustrat- heaps of roughlydressedblocks,as can be seen in

life and the epics,or withtheirminor some ruinsdismantled
by the Muslims(Figure 8).
ing everyday
deitiesand elegant,fashionableSurasundaris
(heav- The templespireswere hollow, forminga conical
in some cases
enly nymphs)are not detachableand, even when corbelvaulton top of the sanctuary;
of slightlyinclined,almost
merefragments
of a collapsedruin,theyhavefirstto theywere constructed
sizebya stonemason.
verticalstone slabs. Also on top of the cult halls
be cutintomanageable
Suchheavystoneswerekeptin positionmerelyby (mandapa) are foundcorbeledcavities,sincetheexsurvivedeven teriorroofis considerably
theirweight,and manymonuments
higherthanthelow domes
are
likewise
of
the
which
corbeled.
The
with
wall
blocks
interior,
earthquakes hardlyanydamage.
It
that
such
is
evident
and
sometimes
werejoinedwithinfinite
exactitude,
huge
richlydecorated
kept
into buildingsneededtimefor theircompletion,
at least
on the bottomfitting
in positionby projections
to fifty,
while differences
groovesin thetop of therowbelow (Figure7). In tenyearsbut oftentwenty
latertimesthe stoneswerealso joined by meansof in stylein mostof thegreattemplesrevealcontinuous
lead,bronzeor ironclamps.In somecasestheceiling workover severalhundredyears.Dates on inscripof the enslabswereso heavythattheyhad to be strengthenedtionsthusrefereitherto theconsecration
of individualchapels,
steelbeams(up to 8 meterslong). tiretempleor to thecompletion
byhand-wrought
consistedof mere halls,ponds,etc.
The interiorof the foundations
49

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Eleventh-twelfth
executed.
laidoutandpartly
on theplinth
oftheJainBastiat Lakkundi,
4. Sculptures
century.
schist,thus achievingbeautifuleffects.This polyof thefourstartedas earlyas thebeginning
chromy
in the sixteenthcentury
and reachedits perfection
The Muslim invasion (ca. 1200-1400) brought teenthand seventeenth.
In thelate sixteenth
century
- the use of mortar,genuine silverand
decisiveinnovations
wereadded,and underthe
mother-of-pearl
arches,vaultsand domes.The coresof mostwalls, Mughal emperorShahjahan (1628-1658) Tuscan
madethickin orderto standthelateralstressof the mosaicand theincrustation
of marbleand jade with
vaultsand domes,consistof rubbleembeddedin costlystoneswere also used. However,this latter
mortar.On the outsidethe walls werecoveredwith technique
had notbeentotallyunknownin India,for
or stucco,encaustic
tilesor stoneslabs in Jainatemplesthe idols oftenhad eyesand ornapaintedmortar
and held mentsinlaidwithrockcrystal,
blackmarble,yellow
1.5-5cm. thick.These lastwereroughened
in positioneitherby adhesionto the mortaror by limestoneand even metal.On the otherhand, enof panel slabs betweenhorizontalslabs caustictileswhichwereknownfromthe Near East
theinsertion
which becamecommononlyin thePanjaband,to somedesetintothemortarcore.This panelingsystem,
affordedsufficient
depth for the bas-reliefof the gree,in and aroundDelhi and Agraand in theDekthe use of slabs of variously han, thatis to say,in ratherdryareas. Even there
arabesques,permitted
- white and black marble,yellow, theyhavedeteriorated
coloredmaterial
badly,and theglazehasmostly
brownor red sandstone,greenishchloriteand blue peeled off.In NorthernIndia theyfirstappearedin
India

continued

at RaichurFort.Fifteenth-sixteenth
ofa hugestoneblock,shownon a rockdrawing
3. Transport
Photoformer
Haidarabad
Department.
century.
Archaeological
50

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5. Incomplete
at Halebid.A.D.1141.
sculptures,
Hoysalesvara
temple,

intoa
scratched
6. (Right)Outlinedrawing
marbleslab to guide the sculptor.Third
Museum.
Nagarjunikonda
century.
of a Hindutempleat Paras7. Foundation
Note the
por, Kashmir.Eighthcentury.
forholdingthenextrowof stones
grooves
in position.

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- red sandstoneforsubstructures
finedtransition
and
modest
more
marble
for
inlay
outbuildings,
impor"
tant subsidiarybuildings,gtewaysand minarets,
marblefor prayerniches,domes,and especiallyfor
the imperialrooms.After1710 marbledisappeared
becausethe quarriesin Rajasthanhad slippedfrom
imperialcontrol;and soon sandstonewas also superseded by the cheapermarblestucco,the sole exceptionsbeingthemausoleumof Nawab SafdarJangat
Delhi (1756) and someearlybuildingsat Lucknow.
beentheprincipalconstrucVaulting has generally
tionformin all EasternIslamiccountries,
including
India. The ogival and the keel arch,rarelyalso the
roundand the horseshoearch,are seen everywhere,
thetrefoiland thecuspedarchbeingmerelyelaborationsof theogival.The largestarchesare at Bijapur,
especiallythatof theGagan Mahal (witha span of
vaultsare probably
18.50 m.). The mostremarkable
thoseof thelateralnavesof theJamiMasjid at Jaunpur. The largestdome is thatof the mausoleumof
SultanMuhammadAdilshah,the famousGol Gumof 38 meters,
baz at Bijapur(1659), witha diameter
ogivalarches,on top of a hall
restingon interlacing
41 meterssquare.It was not,as it mightseem,inspiredby St. Peter'sin Rome (diameter42.50 m.)
butprobably
byHagia Sophiain Istanbul,as Ottoman
artwas thento somedegreein fashionat Bijapur,but
The domesnextin size
thiswas notslavishimitation.
are thoseof thetombsof DaryaKhan,a Lodi noble,
at
ofa Paramar
ofthesubstructure
8. Interior
temple
westof Mubarakpur,
Delhi, and anotherDaryaKhan
Bhilsa,now crownedby the Bijai Mandaimosque.
at Ahmedabad.Thereare a numberof othertombs
centuries.
andfourteenth
Eleventh
with remarkabledomes, though these are much
smaller;forexample,thatof theTaj Mahalmeasures
only17.50m. in diameter.
The shape of thesedomescontinuedto change:
continued
India
are
centuries
and fourteenth
thoseof the thirteenth
are
fifteenth
the
of
those
hemispherical,
the fifteenth
century(mosaicsmade of small pieces shallowcaps,
theybecameogivaland
and Srinagar)and becamemore whilein thesixteenth
century
arefoundat Jaunpur
and sevenbuttheydisappeared wereraisedon drums.In thelatesixteenth
commonin thesixteenth
century,
theyassumedthe"onion"shapethen
afterabout1640 exceptin Lahoreand Sind.Thoseof teenthcenturies
and Iran; thereafter
theybethoseof Hai- in fashionin Turkestan
Bidarare of thelate fifteenth
century,
The
more
and
more
came
of
results
the
bothare
onion-shaped
pointed.
darabadof thelate sixteenth;
Persianinfluence.The Hindus had an aversionto domesalwayshave twoshells an inner,rathershaland an exterior
one,separated
bya
and neverused it; however,thereare low cupola-ceiling
glazedpottery
a
system
The greatpalaceof Raja Man Singh highdrumand strengthened
by complicated
twoexceptions.
Tomar at Gwalior (about A.D. 1500) has splendid of woodenand irongirders.If thereare windowsat
at
in the Rajputstyleexecutedin en- all, theyare in the drum;onlytheBibi-ka-Rauza
wall decorations
in
the
domehas
to
a
also
were
these
1678)
and
openings
(a.D.
used,
caustictiles,
Aurangabad
though
to Maharana shell proper,in orderto make it conformto the
lesserdegree,in the palace attributed
thatthe graveshouldbe open
RatanSinghat Chitorgarh
(about 1530). In classic orthodoxprescription
In
rain.
and
sun
to
red
were
of
Mughalbrickhalls of theeightbuildings
ordinary
Mughal architecture
centuries
nineteenth
and
eenth
in
white
of
ones
(Lucknow,Tira,
marble;
early
many
sandstone,
important
horizontalceilingsconalso
find
we
dewell
a
is
there
mausoleums
and
many
etc.)
palaces,mosques
52

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installations
structed
in a daringvaultingtechniquestrengthenedcement,steelgirders,pipes and sanitary
means
were
of
mortar.
from
overseas
and
much
had
to
be
by
veryeximported
The transition
fromthe supporting
withcompromises
had to
walls to the pensive.Thus experiments
domeswas achievedin manyways.Generallyit is be made.The Britishcolonial"bungalow"consisted
theusualone fromthesquareto theoctagon,thento of one or twocentralhallslightedbysmallwindows
a polygonof sixteen,thirty-two
or even sixty-fourbeneaththe cornice,flankedby living rooms and
of lesserheightbutlikewisewithskylights,
sides,and at lastto thecirculardrum.The squinches bedrooms
consistof one or severaltelescopedarches,or of sev- and finallybathsand dressing-rooms
openingon a
eral rows of diminutive
arches,sometimesalso of garden.The frontand rearwerehiddenbehindhigh
withcolumnsgenerally
of brickscovered
obliqueslabs or beams.Occasionallythe transitional colonnades,
forma concavesurface.In theMughalpe- withplaster.The ceilingswereformedby sandstone
members
riod complicatednetworksof triangular
or elliptic slabsor brickvaultsresting
on teakwoodbeamsor on
and stalactites
late Mughalarchitecture
werefirst a seriesof arches.Similarly,
panelsand real pendentives
Fromthelate fourteenth
introduced.
to thesixteenth was adaptedto the new styleof living,withchairs
century
buildingsof octagonalgroundplan,withan and tablesinsteadof carpetsand cushions,and Euexterior
intoits
assimilated
galleryofhalftheheightand,on theaverage, ropeanmotiveswereincreasingly
archesand eightbuttresses
were also in traditionalarchitectural
and ornamentalforms.In
twenty-four
fashionalong with the ordinarycubic main build- the late nineteenth
centurytherewas a revivalof
as well, the exterior Indo-Islamicarchitecture,
ing. In the sixteenth
century,
plannedin the European
cornersof mausoleums
weresometimes
thusclipped, mannerbut withmanymeaningless
turrets
and roof
withsquinchesrestoring
thesquaregroundplan just pavilionsintendedto emphasizetheIndiancharacter.
beneaththe cornice.However,whereMuslimengihas become
In recentyearsmodernarchitecture
neerswere not available,the Islamic arches,some- dominant,but retainingsuch traditional
featuresas
timesvaultsand domes as well, were imitatedin sun roofsand lightbreakers,
and largescreensoutcorbeltechnique,
even in a mannerin- side the exteriorwalls ia orderto reducethe light
occasionally
termediate
between
thetwo(Figure9) .
and heat.This modernstylemakesampleuse of steel
and concrete,
and it has beenone of thefirstaimsof
In the Islamic period improved
to establisha seriesof cehydraulic
arrange- the nationalgovernment
mentswereintroduced.
Palaceshad halls withwater mentand steelworksprovidingthe necessary
buildand waterfalls.
The wter ingmaterial.
channels,
basins,fountains
was liftedbymeansof leatherbagsor Persianwheels
set in motionby bullocks.Sometimes
the waterwas
liftedin severalstagesto a sortof watertower.Channels were laid out on top of aqueductsor garden
MekkaMasjid,
9. Islamicarchin corbeledtechnique.
Haidarabad.
About1600.
walls,or insidethehousewalls (see Figure1), and
enteredtheroomsbeneathsmallbridgesor through
slotsin marbleslabs.Minorconduitspassedthrough
conicalclaypipes telescopedone into the other,or
bronzeand lead pipes.Behindthewaterfalls
through
werenichesfor coloredlamps.The bottomof the
channelspassing throughthe halls was decorated
withreliefscales.As the pressureof the waterwas
reachedon an average
weak,thejetsof thefountains
a heightof only5-10 cm., and therefore
the pipes
had to*be extendedso thatthe bronzemouthpieces
were 20-60 cm. above the bottomof the basins.
Wherethewatersupplyitselfwas insufficient,
channelsonlya fewcentimeters
broadand deep wereled
in order to avoid
throughcomplicatedlabyrinths
andyetachievea maximum
of evaporation.
stagnation
Even a sortof primitive
flushtoiletwas knownat
leastas earlyas thesixteenth
century.
Withthecomingof Europeancivilization
modern
In Britishtimes
buildingmethodswere introduced.
53

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