Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Current
Open ocean current at the sea surface
The most common categories of current are:

wind generated currents

tidal currents (associated with astronomical tides)
circulational currents (associated with oceanic circulation patterns)
loop and eddy currents
soliton currents

Total current = Vector sum of the above

Speed and direction of the current at specified depths represented by a current profile.

Steady Uniform Current

Current is turbulent, but approximated by a mean flow.
For the design value, a 100-year current is often chosen.
Wind generated current velocity at water surface is

U = 0.015 UW
UW = 1-hr mean wind speed at a 10m elevation

Steady Shear Current

Current may vary with water depth.
Shear current is generally linear or bilinear with depth.
In shallow water the current profile is logarithmic due to bottom shear.

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Environmental conditions at several deep water sites [Moros and Fairhurst, Offshore,
April (1999), Courtesy BP]
Brazil

Gulf of Mexico

(Foz de Amazon)

(Hurricane / Loop)
Wind42.0m/s
Wind30.9m/s
50

Wind 20.0m/s
10

40

20

Hmax 11.4m
Hs 6.0m

Waves

Waves
Surface Current 2.5m/s

0m
Max Temp = 28.0C

Nyk High
Ormen Lange
Wind 38.5m/s
20

50

Max Temp =30.0C

(Girassol)

Atlantic Frontier
Faeroe - Shetland Channel

Wind 19.0m/s
10

40

Wind 40.0m/s
20

50
Hmax 32.7m

Hmax 30.0m

Hmax 23.2m
Hs 12.5m
Hmax 9.0m
Hs 4.9m

Surface Current 1.10 m/s / 2.57m/s

West Africa

Northern Norway

Hs 15.7m

Waves

Waves

Hs 18.0m

Hmax 7.5m
Hs 4.0m

Waves

Surface Current 1.75m/s

Surface Current 1.50m/s

Surface Current 1.96m/s

Max Temp = 14.0C

Max Temp =30.0C

Max Temp =18.5C

Min Temp = -1.5C

Submerged Current 1.1 m/s

Seabed Current 0.63m/s

1000m

Min Temp = 4.0C

Min Temp = -1.5C

Seabed Current 0.50m/s

Seabed Current 0.49m/s

2000m

WaterDepth
3000m
Min Temp = 3.0C

3000m

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Seabed Current 0.30m/s

WaterDepth
3000m

WaterDepth
1500m

WaterDepth
1350m

WaterDepth
1000m

Min Temp =4.0C

Seabed Current 0.1 m/s / 0.51 m/s

Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Interaction of Current and Wave

Current alters the shape and size of the waves.
Wave kinematics are modified for waves on a superimposed steady current.
The wave period is modified to an apparent period by the free-stream current
velocity.
A current in the wave direction stretches the wavelength and opposing current
shortens it.
This phenomenon is known as Doppler shift.
The frequency is related to apparent frequency by the Doppler shift as

= A + kU
The last term in the above equation is called the convective frequency.
where
= wave frequency in the absence of current
k = wave number,
U = steady current speed,
A = 2/TA,
where TA = apparent period seen by an observer moving with the current
Apparent wave period due to Doppler shift in steady current
1.3

1.2

T A /T

1.1

1.0

0.01
0.02
0.04

0.9

0.8
-0.015

>=0.1

-0.010

-0.005

0.000

0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

0.025

U/gT

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

In deep water (tanh kd = 1) in uniform current, the wave number is related to the wave
frequency by the relation

4 2 / g
k=
[1 + (1 + 4U / g ) 1 / 2 ] 2
Note that when U is positive (current in the same direction as the waves), the value of k
is smaller so that the wavelength is larger (stretched wave). When U is negative
(current opposing waves), k is larger and the wavelength is shorter.
Horizontal water particle velocity in waves plus current with and without interaction
wave amplitude, a = 0.25 in (6.3 mm),
period T = 1.12 s
water depth = 0.37ft (114mm)

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Wind & Wind Spectrum

The wind effect on an offshore structure becomes important when the superstructure
(portion above the MWL) is significant.
Effects of wind:
Mean speed and
Fluctuation about the mean
directionality of the wind

Wind Speed
Reference height = typically 30 feet (10 meters) above the mean (still) water level.
Steady wind speed = average speed over one-hour duration
Variation of wind speed at a given elevation z

z
U w (1hr , z )=U w (1hr , z R )
zR

0.125

z = elevation of the wind center of pressure above SWL,

zR = reference elevation taken as 10m,
Uw(1hr, zR) = one hour mean wind speed at the reference elevation.

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Wind Spectrum
Wind has a random time-varying part over a mean speed.
According to American Petroleum Institute guideline (API-RP2A, equation 3.3.2-5), the
wind frequency spectrum is described by

S ( f )=

( w ( z )) 2
1. 5 f
f p 1 +
fp

5/3

S(f) = spectral energy density,

f = frequency,
fp = peak frequency, and

w(z) = rms (standard deviation) wind speed.

Recommended range of fp is:

0.01 f p coeff =

fp z
U w (1hr , z )

0.10

Generally, fpcoeff is taken as 0.025.

The standard deviation of the wind speed is given by

z
U w (1hr , z ) * 0.15
zS
w ( z) =
z
U w (1hr , z ) * 0.15
zS

0.125

if z z S

0.275

if z > z S

where zs is the thickness of the surface layer and is taken as 20 m.

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Power Spectral Density (PSD) of wind speed

250

S(f)

200
150
100
50
0
0

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

f = frequency, Hz
S(f) = spectral value at 10 m elevation, (m/s)2-s
For
fpcoeff = 0.025 Hz
Uw(1hr, zR) = 20 m/s
Note above that the wind spectrum has low frequencies and is very wide-banded.

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Construction process, launching and operations

Construction of a Fixed Open Bottom Piled Storage Tank

Towing by Tug with change in draft

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Submergence of Tank by Ballasting

Running Pile from Derrick Barge

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Submersible Drilling Rig for Gulf of Mexico

Model test for submergence

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Construction of the Spar (Technip Offshore)

Offloading of Spar Hull for Transport (Dockwise)

Truss Spar in Dry Tow

Holstein Spar being towed out of site

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Brutus TLP

Spar Upending Sequence (Kocaman et al, 1997)

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Spar Mooring Line Hookup (Kocaman et al, 1997)

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Derrick Barge Setting Deck on Spar Platform (Technip Offshore)

Holstein Spar in place being outfitted

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

ThunderHorse being launched

ThunderHorse being Towed to place

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Seastar fabrication, Louisiana (SBM Atlantia)

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

FPSO design

Installation of the lower turret on FPSO Balder

APL Buoy Turret System

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Rendition of the new bridge left of the existing bridge

Final Drafts of Caisson Showing the Mooring Lines Attached

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Current Flow past New Caisson behind the Roughened Pier

Location of the Immersed Tunnel of the Busan-Geoje Fixed Link

Immersion of TE into trench

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Physical Testing of Rigs Moored above the Trench

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Design tools and evaluation techniques

Assessment of static and dynamic stability

Hydrostatic Loading and Stability

Buoyancy
Static equilibrium of a floating vessel influence of two forces: weight and buoyancy.
Center of Gravity = Weight (mass) center of the body, about which the weight (mass)
distribution is balanced (zero weight moment).
Weight
= Product of mass and gravitational acceleration. It acts downwards
through the center of gravity.
Buoyancy
= Weight of the displaced volume of water () by the body generally,
at its equilibrium position. It acts upwards through the center of
gravity.
When a vessel is floating freely, these two forces must act along the same vertical line
and counteract each other.

B
W

Stability
Ability of a system to return to its undisturbed position after external force is
removed.
The higher the value of the righting capacity (moment), the higher is the stability of the
vessel.
Consider the following two examples:
1.

Box barge

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

The displaced volume is given by

= LBT

T
L

Displacement of a prismatic structure

2.

Ship shaped

The displacement of a ship-shaped vessel is difficult to compute as the ship is

contoured. Usually it is obtained by rigorous calculation from the ship contour charts.
However, for additional computational purposes, each ship type is represented by an
equivalent block coefficient with a prismatic box based on the ship width (beam) length
between its perpendiculars and the floating draft.

= LBTC B
CB is the block coefficient of the vessel.

Displacement of a ship

Transverse stability
Stability is determined by the points of action of weight (the center of gravity) and
buoyancy (center of buoyancy) and the horizontal distance and relative position between
the two. Examine the two cases in the following figure.
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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Case 1 is stable --net moment tends to right the body

Case 2 is unstable -- net moment tends to destabilize the body
Positive and negative stability

W
W

Case 1: Positively stable

Case 2: Negatively stable or unstable

W
M

W
K

G z
B
B

L1
L

Righting Moment of the Vessel & Metacenter Defined

K = keel (bottom point/line) of the vessel,
G = point of action of weight, i.e. center of gravity,
B = point of action of buoyancy, i.e. center of buoyancy.
Let us assume that the vessel heels by an angle given by . This amount of heel moves
part of the body above water and a part that was above below the water. The result is
that it shifts the center of buoyancy from B to B1.
At this orientation the couple acting on the vessel is given by
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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

M = W GZ
Metacenter M
The metacenter is the point of intersection between the line of action of buoyancy
force (vertical) and the centerline of the vessel in its inclined position. Thus the
metacenter changes its position with the angle of inclination of the vessel, hence
the name metacenter.
M = Intersection point of buoyancy line and centerline, i.e. Metacenter.
The metacenter can be likened to the center of oscillation of a suspended pendulum.
Then GM becomes the length of the string, and for the pendulum to swing in a stable
oscillation and return to its original position, the center must be above the pendulum.
GM = Distance between G and M, i.e. metacentric height. Then the moment becomes

M = W GM sin
when M is above G the moment is righting. If it is below it is overturning and the vessel
is unstable.
Metacentric height follows from the above figure:

GM = KB + BM KG
where
KB = distance from vessel keel to the centers of buoyancy
KG = distance from vessel keel to the centers of gravity
BM = the distance between the center of buoyancy and the metacenter:
For an inclination of less than 15 deg,

BM =

I xx

Ixx = second moment (moment of inertia) of the waterplane cross-sectional area about
the x-axis (middle line).
GM > 0 -- floating system positively stable

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

For a submerged object to be stable, the center of gravity must be below the center of
buoyancy. But since the point of action of buoyancy is fixed along the line of gravity
and does not change, the metacenter is B itself. The criterion GM > 0 thus still holds
well.
Typical GM values for a semi-submersible is 6 m, and a FPSO in ballast around 3 m.
Longitudinal stability
Longitudinal stability of a ship

Ml

G
B

longitudinal metacentric height (similar to the transverse case,):

GM l = KB + BM l KG
BM l =

I yy

where
Iyy = second moment of waterplane area about the y-axis
For a typical vessel, since BMl is an order of magnitude larger than (KB KG), we can
assume GM l BM l
Types of stability for a floating vessel:
Stable in the static condition (e.g. due to a steady wind force),
Stable in the dynamic condition (e.g. when a sudden gust blows along with a
steady wind),
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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Reserve stability in case the vessel suffers a damaged condition, e.g., when one of
its compartments is flooded.
A floating ship or a FPSO is very stable longitudinally compared to the transverse plane.
On the other hand, the transverse stability of a ship is much less and the ships often
capsize, if they are caught in a large transverse wave. The fishing vessels are
particularly vulnerable in such waves in the sea.
Example: compute righting moment versus heel angle
Square cylinder of 50 ft side and 100 ft draft with a 50 ft freeboard
CG of the cylinder = 60 ft below the waterline.

Rotated Geometry of a Simple Floating Structure for static stability

Assume vessel is rotating about the point of intersection of still water level as the
pendulum point
The line of action of the gravity force of the object as shown in Fig.
Three separate sections
the original volume,
inclined position at small angle with the top out of water and
inclined position at large angle with the top partly in water.
The calculation in two parts a rectangular block and triangular section.
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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Figure 4.8 Locations of CG and CB

The stability curve for the floating circular cylinder is shown in Fig.
Curve is continued until the moment becomes zero at an angle of 80 degrees.
Note that the curve corresponding to the approximate formula matches the complete
curve for an angle up to 15 deg well.
5.00E+09
4.50E+09
Righting Moment, ft-lbs

4.00E+09
3.50E+09
3.00E+09
2.50E+09
2.00E+09
1.50E+09

Righting Moment - STAB

1.00E+09

W*GM*theta

5.00E+08
0.00E+00
-5.00E+08 0

20

40

60

80

100

Angle of Tilt, deg

Comparison of Righting Moment

Arctic SPAR

Righting Moment Curve for an Arctic Spar Concept

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Dynamic stability
Stability requirement to withstand a sudden environmental change, e.g. a gust of wind.
Example of a 30,000 t displacement cargo vessel
righting moment distribution (product of buoyancy and righting arm).
heeling moment caused by a steady 100-knot wind.
Dynamic stability curves for a 30,000t cargo vessel

Heeling
Moment

Moment

Righting
Moment

2nd
Intercept

C
B

15

30

45

60

75

90

Heel Angle

If A, B and C are the designated areas, such that (A+B) is the area under the righting
moment curve up to the dotted line (called the second intercept) and (B+C) is similarly
the area under the heeling moment curve up to the second intercept. Then the ABS rule
requirement implies

( A + B ) > 1.4( B + C )
The 40% excess is a safety limit, and denotes the work required to be done by an
external force (in addition to the heeling moment) to capsize the vessel. For semisubmersibles, the excess requirement is 30%.

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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

Stability in damaged condition

A vessel should be compartmentalized sufficiently to withstand flooding from the sea of
any one main compartment. Further, in the damaged condition, the vessel should have
sufficient stability to withstand a 50-knot wind (ABS MODU rules). The final waterline
in the damaged condition is to be below the lower edge of any opening through which
downflooding may occur.
Flooding of a compartment results in sinkage as well as trim. There are two methods of
assessing stability in this condition:
Lost Buoyancy Method:
Flooded volume treated as lost underwater volume
loss of water plane area calculated
sinkage and trim estimated
iterations carried out to get final position of vessel
Added weight method
flooded water treated as added weight
new displacement and KG evaluated
corrections for water plane area lost and displacement adjusted up to sinkage
condition
repeat calculation to get convergent results
Both methods are equivalent.
Other considerations
Partially filled tanks affect stability. Half-filled tanks shift liquids when the vessel
heels, thus moving G. This creates an adverse effect of decreasing stability. If the
liquid cargo has density c, then the metacentric height is corrected to include effects of
all partially filled tanks:
i
GM (new ) = GM c xx

For crane vessels operating offshore, when a load w is lifted from deck, the metacentric
height changes by

GM (new ) = GM
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Dynamics of floating structure and model testing

where h is the distance of the crane tip from the deck level.
Effect of Flooded Column
The stability rules are intended to prevent catastrophic loss of a vessel, even if a
compartment floods.
The semisubmersible P-36 was lost after an accidental flooding due to explosion in one
of the columns Each maritime catastrophe leads to an investigation and rule review,
which often results in new standards. As a result of the P-36 accident, a new rule have
been proposed to have reserve buoyancy on the deck of semisubmersibles, and to
prevent storage of hydrocarbons in columns meant for stability.

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