Gold Elixirs

A Cross-Cultural History
of Therapeutic Gold

__________

J. Erik LaPort

Soul and Spirit of Elixir-Alchemy

Thesystemswhichconfronttheintelligenceremainbasicallyunchanged
throughouttheages,althoughtheyassumedifferentforms
thereisnothingsodisastrousinscienceasthearrogantdogmatism
whichdespisesthepastandadmiresnothingbutthepresent.
FerdinandHoefer

It is natural but somewhat incorrect to approach an understanding of

early alchemy by examining the subject through the lens of modern
perspective.Byplacingourselvesinasmuchasispossibleintotheculture,
history and philosophy of the environment from which alchemical
traditions emerged, we can gain unique insight into elixiralchemys
meaning,motivationandlanguage.Whenapproachingthesubjectfrom
themindsetofatimetraveleronethingbecomesevident,philosophical
and religious motivation was far more prevalent in the past than the
prime motivating factors of production and profit that motivate
contemporaryresearchanddiscovery.Alchemyoriginatedintheancient
pastandadvancedintunewiththereligious,philosophicalandcultural
valuesoftheday.
Assoonasprimitivemanbegantoquestforknowledge,initiaticspiritual
practices arose and along with them, an early relationship between
spiritualityandtheuseofsubstancestoattainhealth,insight,longevity
and immortality. In the Eastern tradition of alchemy, these substances
tooktheformofelixirs;theearliestofwhichwerecalcinedmetals,(or
metalash, types of rust in simple terms) and later mercurybased
compounds. Alchemy addressed the manipulation of minerals, metals
andaboveallgold,whileseekingmeaningineverythingtheyrepresented
in the natural world. Alchemists intuitively realized the importance of

J. ERIK LAPORT

minerals to health and longevity, reinforcing this stance through

experiment,observationanddirectexperience.Theyascribedthemost
valuetogold,theKingofMetals,duetoitsincorruptibleandenduring
nature.
Golds indestructibility and immortal character, combined with its
characteristic incorruptibility defined its potential as the basis for the
ultimateelixir.Toanelixiralchemisthowever,duetoitsinertcharacter,
metallic gold contained a very weak lifeessence. Indian and Chinese
alchemistsdiscoveredmethodsbywhichtheybelievedinfusedgoldwith
lifeessence, animating soulspirit. A donor was needed that would
transplantlifeessenceintotheperfectbodyofgoldthustransforming
goldintoanelixir.Thecatalyst,generallybutnotalwayscrimsonincolor,
wasoriginallysourcedfromtheplantkingdomandlaterfromthemineral
kingdom.Findingacatalystdidnotpresentmuchofachallengeasearly
Indian and Chinese experimenters were intimately familiar with every
leaf, fruit, root and bark in their immediate environment imbued with
therapeutic potential. They believed that the resulting gold elixirs
containedaperfectcombinationoflivingandimmortalproperties.The
indicatorthatgoldhadbeenfusedsuccessfullyandinextricablywithlife
essencewasaresultingheavyyetextremelyfinecrimsoncoloredashor
powder. The hard metallic nature of gold had been replaced with soft
yieldingone.Metallicgoldscolorhadbeenmagicallytransformedfrom
lustrous golden to crimson blood red and consequently the goldelixir
wasbelievedtobealive.
Definingalchemyhasalwaysprovenproblematic.Theenthusiast,elixir
alchemist, historian of chemistry and spiritual seeker will all offer
different definitions of alchemy. Elixiralchemy is a term used in this
treatmenttoindicatetraditionsofalchemyspecificallyconcernedwith
creating bioavailable mineral/metal medications with an emphasis on
goldasaningestiblesubstance.InEasternmedicaltraditions,pharmacy
has historically been divided into two branches 1) curative, and 2)
xiv

INTRODUCTION

rejuvenative (Indian) or tonifying (Chinese). It may initially appear as

thoughelixiralchemyfromthevarioustraditionsiseachunique,distinct
and quite separate, but they all share commonalities arising from
complexculturalintercourseandsharedphilosophicalcurrents.Thebasis
andcommondenominatorforanyformofelixiralchemywastheideaof
ananimatingspirit,organiclifeessenceboundwithorimpregnatedinto
aninorganicalchemicalsubstance,usuallyametal.Thisanimatingspirit
and/orsoulwereacceptedasthesourceoflifeandgrowth.Ifelixir
alchemyisdefinedbytheattempttoinfuseanimatingspirit,soulorlife
essence into calcined metals, then India may rightly claim the most
ancient tradition of alchemy. If however, as is believed by alchemists
knownasmercurialists,elixiralchemyisdefinedbytheintroductionof
sulfurandmercurytocreatealchemicalsubstances,Chinalaysclaimto
themostancientmercurialistalchemicaltradition.
Originally, humans experimented with herbs, plants and other organic
mattertoaffecthealth,butitturnedoutthatherbalpreparationsserved
besttomaintainhealthorrestorebalanceonceapersonshealthbegan
tofail.Initiatedspiritualpractitionersalsodiscoveredthatcertainplants
and fungi could engender profound nonordinary states of
consciousness. The origins of the healer and shaman stem from such
earlyexperimentationanddiscoveryinthevegetablekingdom.Although
theplantkingdomdidsupplythemeanstomaintainhealthandafford
the potential for spiritual insight using visionary plants, florae alone
offeredverylittleinthesearchforlongevityandimmortality.Ittooka
new class of seeker to explore the potential for these in the mineral
kingdomtheelixiralchemist.
Alchemicallyspeaking,plantsservedasasourceoflifeessencebutwere
too short lived to donate properties of longevity and immortality. Yet,
thesepropertieswereabundantandavailableinthemineralkingdom.
As early man discovered minerals and metals, he developed the
technology to manipulate and ultimately calcine them to a soft ashy
xv

J. ERIK LAPORT

powderthroughsimpleopencalcinationorbytheuseofvariousplant
extractsandjuices.Themetalpowdercontainedthelifeessenceofthe
plant, which made it alive and more herbal than metal from the
alchemicalperspective.InancientIndia,thistechnologyattainedahigh
degreeofsophistication;processesofwhichhavechangedverylittleand
are still in practice today. Indias surviving tradition of elixiralchemy
offers a unique window into the past, allowing researchers to analyze
elixirs and test their efficacy alongside modern pharmaceutical
counterparts.Aswewilldiscover,inmanywayssurvivingtraditionalgold
elixirshaveprovenequalto,orfarsuperiorinsidebysidestudies.
Later along the timeline of elixiralchemy, the Chinese discovered and
becamefascinatedbyabeautifulredcrystalknownascinnabar,which
upon heating, reduced to liquid mercury and dry sulfur. This was an
importantdiscovery.Theusesforcinnabarwithintherealmofcalcined
metalsandspecificallygoldbasedelixirsofferedmanynewpossibilities.
Theintroductionofmercuryandsulfurtoalchemywouldripplethrough
everyalchemicaltraditionthroughouthistoryinsomeformoranother.
Alchemists saw profound potential for change in calcined metals,
mercury,sulfurandmostimportantlygold.Tograspatrueunderstanding
ofelixiralchemystheoryandtechnology,itisnecessarytoapproachthe
subject from two perspectives philosophical and technological. The
philosophical frame of reference had a profound influence on
technological advances in elixiralchemy traditions. The primary
philosophicalorspiritualinfluenceswerefirstAnimismfollowedlaterby
DualismandDialectics.

xvi

INTRODUCTION

Animism & Calcined Elixirs

MerriamWebsterDictionarydefinitionofanimism:animism,noun
1.

: a doctrine that the vital principle of organic development is

immaterialspirit

2.

:attributionofconsciouslifetoobjectsinandphenomenaofnature
orinanimateobjects

3.

:beliefintheexistenceof[animating]spiritseparablefrombodies

Inaddition;
"thegeneraldoctrineofsoulsandotherspiritualbeingsingeneral"
SirEdwardTaylor,Anthropologist

Animismwasmansearliestattemptatunderstandinglifeandgrowth.
Anything alive contained inherent potential for growth. From the
perspective of alchemy, the MerriamWebster definition #1 above is
mostapplicabletothisdiscussion.Originsoftheanimisticworldvieware
prehistoric,stemmingfromthatterrifyingandwonderfultimeinhuman
history when people knew how to live in harmony with their
environment. Tribal bands of huntergatherers experienced direct
contactwiththenaturalworldandsensedameaningandroleinongoing
partnership with the drama of life. Animals, plants, the landscape and
forcesofnatureallinteractedwitheachotherinaworldwherehumans
weresimplyapartofnature,ratherthanseparatefrom,superiortoor
holding dominion over it. This worldview afforded primitive man the
beatificexperienceofthemysterious.Itwasthisprofoundexperienceof
theunknown,andtheprimalfearaccompanyingit,whichpromptedman
toquestionthenatureofexistenceandhisplaceinit.
Throughout human history, man has naturally contemplated the
possibilityofananimatingspiritorsoulinanimals,plantsandpeople.An
earlyhunterobservedalivinganimalfullofvitalityoneminute,onlyto
laydeadathisfeetthenext;bodystillwarmandapparentlythesameyet
xvii

J. ERIK LAPORT

completelydevoidoflife.Hereasonedthatinvisibleanimatingspirit,soul
or lifeessence was responsible for life and growth principles thus
departed.Insomecasesearlymanbelievedthatanimatingspiritwould
enteranewbodystimulatingarenewedgrowthprocess,whereasother
traditionsheldthatanimatingspirittransmigratedfromadeadbodytoa
newone,thusinfusingitwithacontinuationoflifeandgrowthprinciples.
Animism has served as the foundation for many ancient philosophical
systems in both the Eastern and Western traditions. Most early
philosophical systems accepted the basis of Animism. Noted
anthropologist Sir Edward Taylor, responsible for the definition of
Animismcurrentlyacceptedinanthropology,viewedallformsofreligion,
bothprimitiveandmodern,asanimistic.WiththediscoveryoftheDNA
molecule,modernsciencehasvindicatedtheancientspiritualanimistic
worldviewinsofarasorganicmatterisconcernedinthatallorganiclife
isanextendedfamilybillionsofyearsold.
Primitive man did not limit the presence of lifeessence to merely the
animalandplantkingdoms.Thelifecycleofaplantisapparenttoeven
themostuntrainedeye.Conversely,alchemistsobservedcrystalssuchas
salt seemingly growing from seawater or gold veins located in the
presenceofcinnabarandothersulfurcontainingoredeposits.Fromthis,
they formed a theory of organic geology in which minerals also were
understood to be alive and growing. Animism postulated that life
essenceresidedinanyformofmatterasasparkorfractalofthegreater
collective spirit an interesting concept for primitive man and, in a
manner of speaking, scientifically accurate from a modern frame of
reference where we understand lifeessence to be energy in
transformation.Modernsciencehasrevealedthatnomatterisfreefrom
energyandinfact,theyareoneandthesame,yetsomehowevenmore.
EventheUniversecontainsalifeessence,obvioustoprimitivemaninthe
lifegivingpowerofthesunandtheanimationofheavenlybodiesinthe
nightsky.

xviii

INTRODUCTION

Lifeessence was hidden energy housed in the matter of a body

responsibleforitsgrowth,whetherthatbodytooktheformofananimal,
plantormineral.Thedifferencebetweenthemwasunderstoodasbeing
relatedtostrengthorqualityoflifeessencevarying fromonebody to
another.
In Animism Soul and Body are really one, like steam and ice, or like
energyandmatter,whenonecanchangeintoanother.

Andelsewhere,
Energytendstoexpandbutenclosedinmatterforcesthelattertogrow
asmuchasitcan.Dr.S.Mahdihassan

Thingsthat weremoreanimated containedastrongeranimatingspirit

butusuallyaveryweakbody.Animalsandplantsfellintothiscategory.
Mineralsandmetalshowever,containedverystrongbodieshousingvery
weak,yetstillpresent,lifeessence.Thequestionthenbecamewhether
itwaspossibletoremoveaweaksoulfromastrongbodysuchasgold,
andreplaceitwithastronglifeessenceasatransplantderivedfroma
plantoranimal.
AncientIndiansfoundauniqueanswertothischallengeintheformof
calcined minerals and metals. Renowned biochemist and alchemy
historian, Dr. S. Mahdihassan wrote at length on the subject and
employed a useful tool in the form of simple equation format to aid
understanding the basic principles of elixiralchemy, which I have
adoptedthroughoutthistreatise.AccordingtoMahdihassan,thesimple
equationforthecreationofanalchemicalcalcinedorganometallicelixir
asfollows:
Metal=StrongBody+WeakLifeEssence
Plant=WeakBody+StrongLifeEssence
Elixir=MetalBody+PlantLifeEssence

xix

J. ERIK LAPORT

The Indian alchemistphysician began with minerals and metals and

attemptedtoinfuseastronger,morevibrantlifeessenceintothem.This
process is the very bedrock on which the foundations of Indian elixir
alchemywerefirstlaid.Oncetheprocesswascomplete,themineralor
metalhadchangedcolorandwasnolongerhardorbrittlebutrathera
soft,extremelyfineandsubtlepowder.Sincethesoftandyieldingwas
associated with life and the hard and brittle with death, the soft, fine
powdery texture of the calcined metal was clear evidence that life
essence of the organic donor had successfully been transplanted and
conjoinedwiththemineralormetalbody.Thenewsubstancecontained
afreshunionofincorruptiblebodyinfusedwithvibrantlifeessence.The
result was viewed as a living elixir with the potential to transfer its
properties to a subject in the form of increased and emergent life
essenceandlongevity.
Animisticbeliefsystemsholdthatoneslifeessence,souloranimating
spiritsurvivesthebodysdeath.Thisviewisparalleledintheprocessof
creatingalchemicalelixirs.Insomewhatsimplisticterms,themethodof
calciningmetalscanbeunderstoodasaformofreincarnationinthatthe
alchemistwascausingthetransmigrationoftheplantssoulawayfrom
itsdeadbodyandintoanewmetallicbody,resultinginanimprovednew
substance.Transmigrationofthesoulwastheanimisticexplanationfor
birth.Theprocessmayalsobeseenasaformofresurrection,wherethe
bodyofthemetalisfirstkilledthengivennewlifeessenceafteritsdeath,
resulting in an improved, purified and resurrected form as an elixir. In
either case, the alchemist believed he was simply replicating a natural
process to improve the raw starting materials. The calcined metal was
considered alive with the potential for growth, much like a seed.
Ingesting the elixir converted growthpotential into the dynamic life
processinthebodyofthepersoningestingit.
Asaseed,thepurifiedlifeessenceoriginatingfromtheorganicmatter
wouldengendermorelifeandgrowthwhiletheimprovedmetallicbody
xx

INTRODUCTION

wouldtransmititsincorruptibility,supplenessandlongevitytotheuser.
Once ingested, such an elixir was believed to bring man to a state of
perfection.Whencastuponabasemetal,itwasbelievedtotransmute
themetaltotheultimateperfectionofgold.Indiancalcinedmetalelixirs
were considered organometallic, not because the product contained
both,butratherbecauseoftherawmaterialsusedintheprocess.The
resultingelixirwasnotquiteherbalnorwasitmetaleither.Itwasviewed
as a unique new substance containing properties of both. Herbal and
organomineral substances such as coral, pearls and shells of eggs or
marinelifecouldbefoundoccurringnaturally,butorganometallicelixirs
couldonlybebroughtaboutartisanallybytheskilledhandofanelixir
alchemist.
Blood - the Essence of Life

Lifeessence or soul was intimately associated with blood. Greek

philosopherssuchasDemocrituscontemplatedwhethertheseatofthe
soul was the brain or heart. Chinese philosophers made no distinction
between heart and mind whereas Indian traditions pay special
importance to several centers and especially the third eye. Ren
Descartesexpandedtheideabyidentifyingthepinealglandastheseat
of the soul. Early animists however, understood blood, milk and their
byproductstobethecarrieroflifeessenceorsoulinanimals,andfound
counterpartinthevegetablekingdominplantextractsandjuices.These
substancesservedasdonorsoflifeessenceintheproductionofcalcined
mineralsandmetals.Theparallelbetweenblood,juiceandlifeessence
as understood by early animists can be grasped by the following
equations:
Life=Growth&Reproduction
Growth&Reproduction=Body+AnimatingSpirit(LifeEssence)
LifeEssence=AnimalBlood=PlantFruitJuice&Extracts

xxi

J. ERIK LAPORT

The Sanskrit word for lifeessence is Satva, which translates loosely as

vital breath. Satva has a very close parallel in the Chinese word Qi
(pronounced chee), which translates loosely as breath, air, energy or
vitality;inotherwords,animatingspiritorlifeessence.Inbothtraditions,
theseconceptscorrelatetoblood.Forexample,thejuiceorextractofa
plant, its blood, contains the largest concentration of the plants life
essence,orintodaystermsitsbioactivesubstances.
According to Mahdihassan, Indian and Chinese alchemists would
eventuallyconsidercrimsonorbloodcoloringinnatureasanindicatorof
stronglifeessencewiththecapacitytotransferordonateitslifeessence
totheuser.Theyobservedlifeessence,SatvaorQiintheplantkingdom
manifestasgrowth,floweringandfruiting.Plantswerealiveandgrowing
thus,theycontainedSatvaorQiastheactiveprincipleofgrowth.Red
plantsorplantswithredorheartshapedfruit,especiallycrimsonones,
were uniquely important as they indicated the most potential for
containingbloodjuicelifeessence.Fruitsymbolizedthefinalemanation
oflifeessenceoftheplantkingdomatitspeak,thereforefruitjuicewas
consideredverypotent;allthemoresoifitwasfromcrimsoncolored
fruit.Thehighestconcentrationoflifegivingnutrientsisoftenfoundin
fruitandtheirjuices,whereasmanymedicinalphytochemicalstendtobe
concentratedintheroots,barkandleaves.Toamodernchemist,plants
areastorehouseofuniquephytochemicalsandbioactivecomponents.In
additiontotheobviouspresenceofSatvaandQiintheanimalandplant
kingdoms,indicationoflifeessencecouldalsobedirectlyobservedinthe
mineralkingdomintheformofcrimsonorbloodredcoloredminerals;
themostancientofwhichwasredochre.Anunderstandingofwhatred
ochresymbolizedtoearlymanwillaidinanapperceivinghowalchemists
viewedlifeessenceasitpertainstothemineralkingdom.

xxii

INTRODUCTION

Red Ochre - Blood of Mother Earth

Redochreoccursnaturallyasthemineralhematiteconsistingofdryiron
oxide(Fe2O3),orinsimpleterms,puredryrust.Somethingaboutochre
musthavefascinatedprehistoricman,whoutilizeditforatleastamillion
yearsasabodyadornment,topainthiscavewalls,adornhisweapons,
employ in ancient funerary rites and later as an ingested medicine.
Crimsonincolor,redochrewaspowerfulmagictoourancientancestors
and an appreciation of exactly what this magic signified is crucial to a
furtherunderstandingofthedevelopmentofelixiralchemy.Paleolithic
man intuitively understood blood as correlating to vitality through the
inevitablecombinationofbirth,injuryandhunting.Whenbirthbrings
newlifeintotheworld,atthewoundingofahunterorpreyandatakill,
blood was present in abundance. Circulation meant life and to bleed
implied weakening and possible death. This would have been an easy
intuitiveobservationforearlymanwitnessingthedeathofawounded
hunter or his prey. Naturally, blood came to represent lifeessence or
soul.OchrewasreveredbyprimitivemanasMotherEarthsbloodand
soulandassuch,itoccupiedacentralroleinPaleolithiclife.Ochrecame
tocharacterizeorsymbolizelifeessenceoftheearthmanifestedinart,
ceremony, personal adornment and funerary rites. It was present in
ancientAfricanburialgrounds,EuropeanNeanderthalsites,withChinas
PekingManandisstillawidelyusedpigmentwithnativepopulationsthe
worldover.Itwasthebloodoftheearthanditsritualuseboundthelife
essenceofearthtothatofman.Itinfusedtheearthssoulintotheartor
ceremony. Native populations still use ochre ceremonially and for
everydayadornmentinIndia,theMiddleEastandAfrica.
Prehistoricuseofochreasamedicinemayhaveascientificbasisinthat
blood,ironandoxygenareintimatelyrelated.Todayweunderstandthat
hemoglobinisanironcontainingproteinthatfacilitatestransportationof
oxygen ultimately responsible for the crimson color of blood. In India,
ochre survives as a medical remedy for bloodrelated ailments in the
xxiii

J. ERIK LAPORT

Unani (pronounced yunani) branch of medicine. Traditional Chinese

Medicine(TCM)stillvaluesochreasabloodandlivertonictocounteract
iron deficiency. Because of this, ochre qualifies as one of the most
ancient,ifnotthemostancient,naturalmineralmetalelixirstoremain
inusethroughouthumanhistory.ReverenceforOchreestablishedthat
theEarthalsohadabloodpermeatedwithlifeessence.Thenotionofa
techniqueforremovinglifeessencefromaplantandtransplantingitinto
ametalsuchasgoldwas basedonahypothetical model derivedfrom
Animism.However,oncetheprocessseemedtoshowallindicationsof
success,thisobservationconfirmedthehypotheticalmodelasareality
to the alchemist. Indian, Chinese and Persian alchemistphysicians
processes worked, but not for the reasons they thought they did.
AlchemistswouldeventuallyreplaceOchrewithCinnabarastheirvitality
containingmineralofchoice.
Modern research has revealed that the organic matter derived from
plants and animals to impart soul acted as a reducing agent, which
through a chemical reaction either broke down the metallic electron
bonds of gold or chemically reacted with it. Modern analysis has also
demonstrated that ancient Indian processes to create calcined gold
elixirs, called Bhasma or Kushta, resulted in medicinal dry gold
nanoparticles. This particle size is important because it makes gold
nanoparticlesbioavailableinthedigestivetractandthuseffectivewhen
taken orally. The most ancient form of goldelixir technology, calcined
gold as Indian Swarna Bhasma, was very likely the earliest gold nano
technologyknowntoman.Indianelixiralchemistsimmenselyimportant
contributiontoalchemywasthediscoveryoffantasticlowtechmethods
tocreateanumberofothercalcinedmineralsandmetals(metalsalts,
metalashesandnanoparticles)artisanally.

xxiv

INTRODUCTION

Dualism & Mercurial Elixirs

Dualismaddressedtheinherentpotentialforreproduction.Asprimitive
peoplessocialstructureevolvedfromPaleolithichuntingandgathering
tooneofseminomadicherdingandNeolithicfarming,sotoodidtheir
philosophicalorspiritualframeofreference.Femalegatherers,originally
relying on an incredibly varied number of species, realized they could
simply grow a somewhat restricted but more reliable crop to supply
nourishment. This marked the point where primitive man living in
partnershipwithnature,beganhisretreatfromitresultinginthedualism
ofhumanityvs.natureinanattempttodominateit.Lifebecamemore
sophisticatedandthushisinterpretationofexistenceandrolewithinit
resultedinadualisticviewofreality.Thisperspecitveservedasamodel
toexplainobservednaturalphenomenasuchasnight/day,male/female,
sun/moon,hot/cold,dry/moist,young/old,sickness/health,etc.Dualism
seemed to provide an answer to the question of birth which animism
could not. Natural observations of the duality inherent in nature
ultimatelyresultedinaphilosophicalorspiritualframeofreferencethat
pervaded early civilizations and has continued till today. Although the
following may be criticized as oversimplification, matterenergy, wave
particle, spacetime, energymomentum dualities illustrate a con
temporary scientific observation of dualism. Professor of Chemistry at
CaliforniaStateUniversity,Dr.GeorgeB.Kauffman,inhisseriesTheRole
ofGoldinAlchemy,borrowstheChinesetermTaichitodescribeDualism
explainingthat:
TheTaichi,thefirstmatteroftheuniverse,iscomposedofyinandyang.
Itisa'mathematicalmodeloftheuniverse'and'afruitfulconventional
representationofreality,asaretheequationsofphysicsandchemistry'.
Relativity theory, the binary system of computers, the proton and
electron,conceptsofchemicalvalenceandthewaveparticlenatureof
lightaremodernillustrationsofTaichi.'TheorganizingprincipleofTai

xxv

J. ERIK LAPORT

chiservedverymuchthesamefunctioninChinesecultureandscience
ashasmathematicsinWesternsciencesincetheRenaissance'.

Thesimpleconceptofmaleandfemaleprinciplesprovidedthecontrast
needed to distinguish reality and existence in a more sophisticated
philosophicalmanner.Withtheadventofagriculture,farmerscameto
understandhowtopropagateplantsandwithanimalhusbandrycame
theconceptofbreeding.Italsoansweredthequestionofbirthposedby
everysmallchildwhoinnocentlyaskstheirparentswherebabiescome
from.Thediscoverythatinterdependentmaleandfemalelifeessences,
eachwithgrowthpotential,uponunitingresultedinreproductionwasa
philosophicalstepforwardfromanimism.
Since we are approaching Dualism within the framework of the elixir
alchemyofChina,India,PersiaandtheIslamicEmpire,wemustattempt
to understand Eastern Dualism relevant to this discussion. In the
naturalistic philosophies of the East, dualistic forces are seen as
complimentary rather than conflicting. In Eastern traditions, dualism
becameaphilosophyofreciprocalinteractionwitnessedeverpresentin
the natural world. Eastern Dualistic philosophies interpreted the
processesofnatureasaselfbalancingactwhereseeminglyoppositeyet
coeternalbinaryprinciplesareconstantlyinfluxtowardsharmonyand
balance.
Dualismprovidedamodelwhereeverythingcameintobeingthroughthe
interactionofoppositeyetcomplimentaryforcesandthusallofmanifest
creationwasrecognizedasbeingdualnatured.Itrevealedtheprocessof
birth;therequirementsforcomingintobeingandtheinterdependence
of dualistic forces in nature. With regards to elixiralchemy, Dualism
allowed for a quantum leap forward in both theory and practice by
allowing alchemists to understand organic bodies as being dualistic in
thattheycontainedcharacteristicsfrombothfatherandmother.Ifbody
wasdualistic,thenanimatingspiritorlifeessencemustalsobedualistic.

xxvi

INTRODUCTION

Itwasfromthisperspectivethatthetheoreticalframeworkofdualsoul,
soimportanttoancientphilosophiesandreligions,wasappliedtoelixir
alchemy.
Dual-Soul of Cinnabar

Inancientcultures,theshamanplayedacentralroleasspiritualadvisor.
A fundamental aspect of shamanism is the spiritjourney in which the
shamans spirit temporarily becomes disembodied making a spirit
journeytoanotherdimensiontoseekguidancefromhisinnatewisdom
and/or hyperdimensional spiritguides. Typically, visionary plant
substances were employed in order to achieve these states. In some
cases, the combination of rhythm, dance and ritual would suffice. In
otherinstances,thisstatemaybebroughtonwillfullythroughfasting,
prayer,meditation,sensorydeprivationoranynumberofausterities.In
any case, the shaman would return from his spiritjourney or trance
having experienced mystic ecstasy and a nonordinary state of
disembodiedconsciousness.Thespiritworldwasasrealtotheshaman,
orpossiblymoreso,astheconventionalworldwastononinitiatesinan
ordinarystateofconsciousness.
It was from moments of disembodied nonordinary states of
consciousnessthattheideaofDualSoulemerged.Theembodiedsoul,
connectedtothebodyanditsfunctions,stayedwiththebodyandkept
italive,whilethespiritsoulconnectedtoconsciousnesstookthespirit
journey. The ability to achieve a state of disembodied consciousness
whilethebodyremainedbehindaliveandfunctioningwasbestexplained
by DualSoul theory. In his book Indian Alchemy or Rasayana, Dr.
MahdihassandescribesthefunctionsofthetwosubsoulsintheIndian
tradition:
Themalesoul,orYangsoulisSpiritinEnglish.Itisresponsibleforlife
span,themoreofit,longerthelife.ItssynonymwouldbeGrowthSoul.
Itisrichestamongplantsandgrowthisnowheresoconspicuousasin

xxvii

J. ERIK LAPORT

the vegetable kingdom. The femalesoul, or Yinsoul is merely Soul in

English, here called the Soul or Soulspecific. It confers form, and
individuality,propertiespertainingtomatterorbodyasthevehicleof
Spirit,thelifeessence.

Ifthebodyiscomposedofmaleandfemaleaspectsfromthefatherand
mother,thenthesoulmustalsobecomprisedofmaleandfemalesub
souls.Throughoutthisdiscussion,weshallrefertothemalesubsoulas
SpiritandthefemalesubsoulasSoul.SpiritandSoulincombinationwill
be referred to as DualSoul. In Dualism, the Body and LifeEssence are
eachdualisticinnatureaccordingtothefollowingequations:
Life=CompoundBody(DualBody)+LifeEssence(DualSoul)
Body=Paternal+MaternalContributions
LifeEssence=Spirit+Soul
The idea of a DualSoul can be found in many ancient cultures and
philosophicalsystems.ChineseDaoismisheavilydualisticasevidenced
byDaoistYin/Yangtheory.ThepeakofIndianDualismcanbefoundin
Tantra and the worship of Shiva and Parvati. One of the most highly
developed ancient civilizations, the Egyptians, advanced the DualSoul
concepttoaveryhighdegreeofsophistication.Hermeticismprevalentin
Alexandrian Egypt, Gnostic Christian and Islamic traditions all would
identifysubsoulsinsomeformoranother.
Principle

Egyptian

Chinese

Indian

GreekHellenic

Arabic

European

Growth

Ka

Shen

Brahman

Nous

Nafs

Spirit

Reproductive

Ba

Gui

Atman

Ennoia/Epinoia

Ruh

Soul

Thedeterminingfactorintheaboveequationswasaresistancetofire.
Firedestroystheweakprincipleinaplantormetal.Theelixiralchemist
tookadvantageofthisbyusingheattokilltheweaknessintheplantand
metal while fusing their strengths. This process resulted in an elixir
composed of a reformed body containing strong growth and
xxviii

INTRODUCTION

reproductive principles. To the elixiralchemist, an elixir contained the

best of both starting materials; the resulting product being a union of
opposites. Theoretically this sounds rather simple, yet discovering the
substances and developing processes to achieve this in practice took
centuries to perfect. From the alchemical perspective of Dualism,
organometallic elixirs can be better understood by the following
equations:
PlantBody=StrongSpirit+WeakSoul
MetalBody=WeakSpirit+StrongSoul
ElixirBody=StrongSpirit+StrongSoul

TheChinese,liketheirIndiancounterparts,consideredjuiceorextracts
commonly in the form of soups (or tng; ) to be the blood or life
essenceoftheplantkingdom,buttheywerelookingforamoreenduring
lifeessence. Blood of the mineral kingdom in theory would provide a
longevity superior to blood of the plant kingdom (juice and extracts).
Originally,theChineseexperimentedwithlead,theproductofminium,
as the blood of the mineral kingdom. Minium is a naturally occurring
scarlet to brownishredorecomposedofleadand oxygen. Manyearly
Chinesealchemicalrecipesincludeleadderivedfromleadbearingores
such as minium and litharge. Minium had its drawbacks however, and
eventuallyfelloutofuse.Miniumandleaddidnotprovetobethecorrect
answertotheirprobleminfindingtheperfectmineralblood.
Thefinalsolutioncameintheformofcinnabar;acrimsonoresometimes
intheformofarubylikecrystalthatoftenoccursneargolddeposits.The
Chinesealchemistsfascinationwiththiscrimsoncoloredoreledthemto
discover the hidden dualnature of cinnabr. Chinese alchemists
discovered that upon heating cinnabar it separated into its two main
components mercury and sulfur. They also discovered that mixing
mercuryandsulfurtogetherresultedinblackcinnabarpowderthatupon
heating,changedbacktocrimson.ThisproductistheVermilionlaterused
byartistsasaredpigment.Fromthis,theydeducedthatmercuryand
xxix

J. ERIK LAPORT

sulfur were the subsouls of cinnabar and that cinnabar was the life
essenceofthemineralkingdom.Theprocessofchangeandthecolorred
symbolizedlifetotheChineseandsincecinnabarcoulddivideintoitssub
souls easily and change from black to red, observation confirmed the
oreslifeessence.
As subsouls, mercury and sulfur were growth and reproductive
principles, sperm and egg, inherent in the body of cinnabar. Since
cinnabar contained the potential for growth and reproduction, elixir
alchemists reasoned that all metals grew towards perfection from a
sufurmercurybasis.Sulfurwasfrequentlypresentneargoldminesand
mercury was used by miners to extract gold from crushed ore. The
ancients observed an intimate relationship between these three
substances.Goldwasbelievedtooccurbecauseofthecombinationof
mercuryandsulfurinperfectproportionsandhavingundergoneperfect
aging.Cinnabarwasviewedbymostalchemists,upuntilthe17thcentury,
as simply an immature form of gold growing towards the ultimate
perfection of metallic gold, yet first passing through all metallic forms
beforereachingperfection.NotonlyhadtheChinesedevelopedthefirst
sulfurmercury theory, they had also discovered invaluable functional
substancesforcalcininggold.
Sincecinnabarwasviewedasbeingalive,growingandreproducing,itwas
valued as the substance most suitable for a drug of rejuvenation and
longevity.Cinnabarsmineralnatureandassociationwithgoldmadeit
the perfect lifeessence donor to fuse with metallic gold. The elixir
alchemist assumed that by fusing a growth and reproductive principle
withgold,thepropertiesofgoldwouldgrowandreproduceintheperson
ingestingtheelixir.
LifeEssence=Blood=Redness=Cinnabar=Sulfur+Mercury
ElixirofLife=Gold+Cinnabar

xxx

INTRODUCTION

The alchemical Dualism of sulfurmercury theory would go on to

permeate all forms of alchemy. It was exported to India intact where
Indianalchemistswouldadoptitwholeheartedly.Cinnabarservedasa
substance whereby mercuryamalgams could be produced and, since
mercury and sulfur both sublimate easily, provided new processes for
transforminggoldtoafineingestiblepowder.Persianalchemistsofthe
IslamicEmpireconceptualizedsulfurmercurytheoryincombinationwith
Aristotles theory of two fumes which emanate from the earth; wet
vaporousanddrysmoky.Mercurywaswetandvaporizedreadily,while
sulfurwascertainlydryandcreatedasmokewhenburnt.Thisoffereda
structure by which the sulfurmercury theory could be expanded.
Anything wetvaporous that could amalgamate or dissolve became
mercuryinprinciple.Anythingdrysmokythatburntlikesulfurbecame
thesulfurprinciple.Thisallowedthearchetypalsulfurmercurymodel
to be applied to many different substances such as stibnite and other
sulfideores.
The combination of alchemical traditions from the Islamic Empire and
those of Alexandria were eventually transported into Europe where
European alchemists adopted and modified the sulfurmercury theory.
Regardlessofthetraditionorinterpretation,allheldthataselfgrowing
animal,plantormineralbodycontainedlifeessenceandassuchcould
growandreproduce.Reproductivepotentialwasseenasanindication
thatthevitalprinciplewasdualnatured.Dualismansweredthequestion
of reproduction but also offered insight into the possibility of
rejuvenationandunnaturallongevity.Theperfectunionofspiritandsoul
fusedwiththeperfectbodyofgold,asunderstoodbyelixiralchemists,
resultedinaliving,growing,reproducingandeverlastingformofgoldin
theformofafineredpowder.Wheningested,itwasbelievedthatsuch
an elixir would continue to produce new lifeessence the way a tree
continuallyproducesfruit.Thekeytotheentireprocesswastheperfect
unionofspiritandsoulfusedwiththebody.Thisunionofoppositeswas

xxxi

J. ERIK LAPORT

the ultimate goal of alchemy and manifested in alchemical represent

ationastheandrogyne,hermaphrodite,Rebis,etc.
Dialectics and Immortality
Over time, Dualism gradually transitioned to Dialectics as a model for
observed phenomena. With a greater degree of social and religious
sophistication, a more profound understanding of dichotomy evolved
into Dialectics. From the Dialectic perspective, positive and negative
forces were not opposing, nor merely complimentary but actually two
distinct aspects of a greater whole. Dialectics implied a synthesis of
opposites.IfDualismcanbeviewedastwosubstanceswithpotentialto
createacompoundsuchascinnabar,Dialecticscanbeviewedasnotonly
the final synthesis, but the reaction as well. The basic philosophical
Dialecticformulaisasfollows:
Thesis+Antithesis=Synthesis
Dualismasamodelwasactuallyaconsequenceofvariouslimitationsof
the observer. Dialectics offered a perspective that allowed a more
inclusive and broader understanding of apparent duality. Early Greek,
Chinese and Indian philosophers were developing a Dialectic view of
reality long before modern physics and quantum mechanics would
vindicatetheirperspectives.ClassicalphysicsdrawsaDualisticdistinction
betweenparticlesandwaves.QuantummechanicsoffersaDialecticview
ofthesubjectbecausematterexhibitsbothwaveandparticleaspects.
Dialecticsdemonstratedthatparadoxwasafundamentalpropertyofthe
universe.Phenomenawasunderstoodasexistingincomplimentarypairs
butimpliedtheimpossibilityofanyrealseparationbetweenthem.From
this perspective, opposing forces are not necessarily competing for
dominationbutratherengageinagiveandtakerelationshipreciprocally
toachieveharmonyorbalance.

xxxii

INTRODUCTION

Inscientificterms,thisprocessmaybeunderstoodashomeostasis.The
differencefromthepointofviewofalchemyisthathomeostasisimplies
asettlingorinactionthatoccursattheculminationoftheprocess.From
thealchemicalframeofreference,theunionofoppositesismorelikethe
balance of positive and negative, which results in electromagnetic
energy.Asopposingforcesunite,theysparkandbecomeasingleenergy,
likeanelectricalcurrent,orlikespermfertilizinganegg,whichengenders
life,growthandreproductionin theformofcelldivision.Twounitsof
matter appearing at first to be opposites, actually prove to be
complimentaryunitingintheformofahermaphroditeasthesourceof
creativeenergy.Theimageofthehermaphrodite,androgyneorthetwo
headedRebismaybeviewedasaformoffertilizedeggthatwillgrowand
expand.Agoalinalchemywastocreateacompoundelixirintheformof
ahermaphroditelikesubstanceinaccordancewiththisprinciple.
Ineasternspiritualtraditions,transcendingdualitytoarriveatnondual
realization was the first stage of enlightenment. Through a union of
opposites,theresultisnotdestructionbutrathersynthesisfollowedby
growth and renewal. This concept was portrayed in religious
iconography,artandliteraturebytheimageofmaleandfemalecoitusor
ajoiningoftwointooneasaHermaphroditeorAndrogyne.Manyearly
religions describe a deity or primordial being that is androgynous.
European alchemical art and literature frequently portrayed a
hermaphroditeasajoiningofKingandQueen.Thisuniversalthemeof
the union of opposing forces as occurs in alchemy first appeared in
Easternalchemicaltraditionsasafullydevelopedperspectivecenturies
priortoassumingitsfinalformsinEuropeanalchemy.Thetheorythata
unionofoppositesresultedingrowthandreproductivepotential,which
could then be donated or seeded as a catalyst for transmutation, was
acceptedbyallschoolsofalchemy.

xxxiii

J. ERIK LAPORT

The Elixir of Immortality

Originally,plantjuicesorextractsdonatedlifeessencetothegoldina
goldbased elixir. Later, cinnabar replaced juice as the donor of life
essencebecauseitwasbelievedthat,comingfromthemineralkingdom,
cinnabar had a closer affinity to gold. In addition, because cinnabar
demonstrated a dualsoul nature so powerfully and readily, it was
thought to have a more profound impact on gold; such that the hard
yellowlustrousmetallicbodyofgoldbecamefine,softandmatteredas
a result. Golds transformation happened much easier with sulfur
mercurythanitdidwithjuice.Thiswasanindicationthatthepowerful
dualsoulofthemineralkingdom(cinnabar)wasamoresuitablematch
to gold than lifeessence from the plant kingdom (juice). The basic
Dialecticformulaasitappliestoelixiralchemyisasfollows:
PhilosophicalDialectics:Thesis+Antithesis=Synthesis
PracticalElixirSynthesis:Gold+Cinnabar=Elixir
AlchemicalUnionofOpposites:Sulfur+Mercury=Salt
Synthesis=Hermaphrodite=Cinnabar/GoldCinnabar=Elixir
All organometallic and mercurial elixirs were based on Dualistic
principles.Body/LifeessenceorBody/DualSoultheoriesexplainhow
ametallicsubstancecouldbeinfusedwithlifeessenceinordertoserve
asanelixirtotheuser.Theelixiritselfwasahermaphroditeduetoits
compounded nature. That these elixirs were believed to be crucial to
immortalityiswidelyacceptedwithinthehistoryofthesubject,butwhat
is less understood is the mechanism of action by which they were
supposedtowork.Whatwasthemagichidingwithintheseelixirsthat
drove elixiralchemists to attempt new elixir concoctions, or to be
convincedoftheirpotentialforimpartingimmortality?
Growthandregenerationasabinaryprinciplewasthesourceofcreative
energy,resultinginabodyasitscreation.Thecreatorenteredintoand
became one with its creation, thus achieving final synthesis. Elixir
xxxiv

INTRODUCTION

alchemistsrecognizedaparallelinthe manipulationofmercury, sulfur

andgold.Thegrowthprincipleinherentincinnabaralloweditultimately
to mature to the perfection of gold. The problem was that once gold
achieveditsfinalform,growthandreproductionceased.Elementalgold,
in its purest form, demonstrated characteristics of incorruptibility and
everlastingness,yetbecauseofthisperfection,growthandreproduction
were no longer possible. By combining cinnabar with gold, alchemists
sought to reintroduce growth and reproductive principles into the
perfectbodyofgold.
Bydoingso,itwasthoughtthatthemetallicgoldwouldbetransformed
into livinggold with an incorruptible lifeessence, which would then
continuetogrowandreproducewithoutend.Suchanelixircouldenter
andtakeoverthesystemoftherecipient,whetheritbehumanorbase
metal,causingittogrowtoperfectionbyabsorbingthequalitiesofthe
elixir.Dr.Mahdihassanaddressesthesulfurmercurytheoryasitpertains
to the concept of Elixir. As defined in the passage below, Elixir is best
understoodasanactiveagentoftransformation.Inthisexample,Elixir
referstobothsyntheticcinnabar(Vermilion)andgold:
The theory with its applied form is shared by Indian philosophy and
IndianmedicineasalsobyChinesephilosophyandalchemy.Theproduct
of alchemy is Elixir, union between sulfur and mercury, or better still
Fermentgold,whichisElixirinthevehicleofgold.

Syntheticcinnabaractedasanelixirtometallicgoldthusbringingabout
aprofoundchangeingoldsappearance.Theresurrectedgold,givennew
life, changed from hard yellow metallic in nature to soft, fine, red,
fireproofpowder;indicatingthatithadindeedundergonerenewaltoa
sublimerejuvenatedform.Thehermaphroditecreator(cinnabarasSoul
Spirit)hadenteredandbecomeonewithitscreation(metallicgoldBody)
tobecomeacompoundelixir.Thisnewenlivenedgoldelixiractedasan
agenttoanyonewhoingestedit,meaningthegoldelixirwassupposed
to do for the human body what cinnabarelixir had done for the gold.
xxxv

J. ERIK LAPORT

Onceingested,theelixirplayedtheroleofhermaphroditecreator.The
personingestingit,upontransforming,becamethecreation.Theelixir
and the one ingesting it became unified resulting in an everlasting,
growingandreproducingincorruptiblelifeessenceinotherwords,an
immortal.
Cinnabar(elixir)+Gold(body)=ElixirofImmortality
Elixir(goldcinnabar)+HumanBody(body)=Immortal
Wemusttakeintoconsiderationthatthelanguageofalchemyinevery
tradition is figurative. Those unfamiliar with its figurative linguistic
expressions have often interpreted this language naively and
pretheoretically at face value. Simply put, if one is unfamiliar with the
language and idiosyncrasies of a culture it is impossible to arrive at a
correctinterpretationoftheconversation.Thisistherootcauseofmany
misunderstandingswithregardstoalchemy.Ifthelanguageofalchemy
isfigurative,thenwemustapproachaninterpretationofeveryaspectof
alchemy representationally as well. It was likely understood by those
fluent in the language that immortality incarnate was impossible. We
mayperhapsarriveatamoreaccurateinterpretationofimmortalityby
lookingatitfromtheperspectiveofpredominantEasternphilosophical
views in which alchemists and those ingesting alchemical substances
wouldhavebeenraisedwithandinfluencedby.
Earlyphilosopheralchemistsconfrontedandintuitivelyappercievedthe
essence of life the vast network of interdependent and continuous
processes as a fundamental, universal and eternal principle. This
underlyingprincipleinherentinallcreationwasgiventhetermDaoby
theChinese,theIndiancounterpartbeingDharma.Thealchemistmust
inevitablyconfrontthedilemmaofviewingrealityfromtheconventional
individualisticperspectiveofordinaryconsciousness,oranonordinary
state in tune with Dao or Dharma with self as an aspect of the total
functioning of ultimate reality. Both Dao and Dharma presented an
xxxvi

INTRODUCTION

unconventional unified absolute view of reality where all things and

events in existence were interdependent, impermanent, and relative
partsofaunifiedwhole.Toapersoningestinganelixir,hislifeessence
wasconvertedfromoneperceivedasindependentandindividualwithan
affinity toward the conventional material world to an everincreasing
newformwithabilitytoexperiencetheabsolute,nondualandeternal
principlethroughtheaidoftheelixirandthealchemicalprocessofits
creation. This metaphorical interpretation allows for a definition of an
immortal,intermsofalchemysunionofopposites,asfollows:
Immortal=changeable(Body)+eternal(LifeEssence)
The immortal shifts identification from the changeable, to an
identificationwiththeunchangeable,thenultimatelyrealizeshisnature
as a synthesis of both as the total functioning. The elixir and the
alchemicalprocessbywhichitwascompounded,servedtoawakenthe
initiatetotheinfinite.Thisprocessinitselfmaybeinterpretedasaunion
ofoppositeswheretheindividualachievedunionwiththeabsolute.Such
animmortalhadbecomeundifferentiatedfromtheeternalprinciple,had
transcended duality and achieved unicity and incorruptibility. An
immortalcouldhavebeenaDaoistimmortallivinginaruggedmountain
hermitage, an aged yet supple and vibrant guru on the banks of the
GangesinIndiaorawidelytraveled,multicultural,educatedandwiseSufi
orHakimunderpatronageofaCaliph.Theseimmortalswereconsidered
holymenandassuch,livingelixirsembodyingatimelessprincipleand
abletobringaboutchangeandtransformationinothers.Thetraditionof
ingestinggoldelixirsbeganwithsuchasceticsandinitiatedpriests,and
waslateradoptedbythegreatpatronsofalchemy,royaltyandnobility.
InChina,India,PersiaandtheIslamicEmpire,royaltyandnobilitysought
knowledge and alchemical substances from respected elixiralchemists
whosometimesdoubledasphysicians,philosophers,asceticsorhermit
monks.

xxxvii

J. ERIK LAPORT

It was from this perspective that mercurialists argue the origins of

alchemy as beginning in Asia via sulfurmercury technology fused with
establishedorganometallicrejuvenativemedicine.Othersarguethatthat
itisnotmercuryandsulfurperse,butratherthedualisticprincipleand
theunionofopposites,thehermaphroditeprinciple,whichmarkedthe
beginningofalchemy.Indiabeganitstraditionbyperfectingthecalcining
of minerals and metals using plants and juices to achieve a union of
opposites.Chinabegansimilarlybutlaterdiscoveredandpioneeredthe
use of lead, mercury and ultimately sulfurmercury in the form of
cinnabar to achieve the same. Persian and Islamic alchemists would
adoptandexpandtheseprinciplesevenfurther,mergingthemultimately
withlateAlexandrianalchemy.When Alexandrian andIslamicalchemy
entered Europe and merged with the cathedralcraft and medical
traditions, alchemy evolved into a number of unique styles and
expressions.
Regardless of the tradition, union of opposites, creation of the
hermaphroditeasaprincipleofselfgrowthandvitalitywasthekeyto
elixiralchemy.Asubstancecontainingthehermaphroditicprinciplewas
anelixirinthatitcontainedinherentpotentialtoaffectchange.When
boundwithelementalgoldofhighpurity,itbecametheultimateelixir.
InIndia,goldelixirssurviveintheformofSwarnaBhasmaandMakara
Dhwaja. The only surviving goldelixir from Persian/Islamic alchemy is
KushtaTilaKalan.TibetanandBurmesetraditionsbuiltuponIndianand
ChinesetechniquestocreateTibetanJewelPills,ChintamaniStone,Gold
DustAshandBurmeseGoldAshPowder,whichhavesurvivedtotoday.
Alexandrian substances became known in Islamic alchemy as aliksir
() and alkmy (), eventually being transliterated to elixir
andalchemyrespectively.
Elixiralchemy from Asia and the Middle East would ultimately find its
wayintoEuropewhereitwasinterpretedfromtheperspectiveofexisting
medical and Cathedralcraft traditions such as herbal distillerycraft,
xxxviii

INTRODUCTION

metallurgy, stainedglass making, dye and pigment production and

gilding technologies. In Europe, alchemy would blossom into its own
eclecticformwithanexplosionofnewdiscoveries,techniquesandforms
of expression. Mercurial, antimonial, acetatetincture and mineralacid
based styles would evolve and borrow from one another to create
productssuchasthePhilosophersStone,theUniversalMedicine,Phalaja
Stone,FireStone,AurumPotabileandthePowderofProjectioninvarious
forms. In early modern pharmacy and medicine, goldelixirs found
modern expression as goldsalts, gold cordials, and colloidalgold in
additiontopharmaceuticalgolddrugcompounds.Todaygoldiscurrently
being researched worldwide for therapeutic uses by exploring new
technologies for creating goldnanoparticles and novel organogold
compounds. To gain a better understanding of the contributions each
culturestraditionaddedtothecollectiveknowledgeoftherapeuticgold,
thefollowingchapterswillexploreeachtraditionalongwiththeirmost
celebratedproductsortechnologicaladvancesinsomedetail.

xxxix