THE

"

TV

HANDBOOK

DICTIONARY

TELEVISION
PRODUCTION
by
For

HARRY

WAYNE

McMAHAN

concerned

everyone

with

television

the

handbook
of fundamentals"with
industry,this encyclopedic
in
features
built
dictionary
"is a
unique and authoritative "working
tool." Here
the words as well
are
interpreted
the working proceduresof 16 basic operaas
tions
in TV.
While

planned

text,

those in search

may

find

it

be

to

of

read
a

random

readilythrough

Index, togetherwith other

as

running

than

more

created

terms

2,000

the

related

easy-to-use
words

that

that television has

(and appropriated)in

the collectionof the

definition

amplify its meaning. In fact,this book might

well be called a "Step-by-Step
Dictionary"of
the

From

its first

n
m
"

elirj
J~re|inger
v

ten

rl
JJ
JUibrary

years.

book's

at

style,too,

work.

than
Compiled with the assistance of more
in
all
of
and
television,
specialists
phases
50
checked
in
two
thoroughly
preliminary"pilot"
authoritative
editions, this guidebook is an
reference source
the day-to-day
to answer
questions
of TV

Communication

at

work.

Arts

Books

HASTINGS

HOUSE,

NEW

22

YORK

is in

keeping with
its purpose. It avoids the ponderous and the
highly technical; sometimes it oversimplifies;
frivolous note
sometimes
a
or
slang is mixed
with
with
the scientific term"
no
apologies.
For this is the livinglanguage of television
The

PUBLISHERS

San

Francisco,
California
2006

PRODUCTION
TELEVISION

COMMUNICATION
ARTS

BOOKS

TELEVISION

PRODUCTION

The

and

Creative

Techniques
of

Language

TV

today

By

Harry

HASTINGS

HOUSE,

Wayne

McMahan

PUBLISHERS,

NEW

YORK

"

COPYRIGHT

All
be
of

No

in

the

Library

of

Congress

Published
S.

the

of

book

this

written

may

permission

publisher.

Printed

By

part

without

reproduced

MC\!AHAN

WAYNE

HARRY

BY

reserved.

rights

the

1957

United

States

J.

Reginald

Card

Catalog

simultaneously
Saunders,

of

in

America

Number:

57-12801

Canada

Publishers,

Toronto

Carol,

"To

first decade.

of the

(with

May

viewing

staunch

and

Steve

friend

the

very

grow

screen

and

Kip,*

avid

born

of Television's

young

up

Rin-Tin-Tin

on

with

fan,

both

mutual

"Patches"

sides

respect

McMahan)

Acknowledgements

than

More

and

aid

authorities

300

counsel

people might

this book.

on

form

mimeographed

throughout the
Indeed,

television

"pilot"editions

two

( the first in 1955, the second

the text

review

and

industryhave

made

were

1956

in

given
in

that these

so

suggest improvements" incorporatedin

this final version.

the

In

been

whose

James Manilla,

McCann-Erickson,
S. Rollins

the

to

Guild

is due

"Art"

chapters on

list for the many

Chester

In addition

valuable

to

associate

gave

H.

the

on

from

of

Technique,

second

preparation

phases

has

done

of the

W.

freely

of "Film

much

tion,"
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to

this

industry.
Chet, there
author

Curran,

handled

credit

assistant, giving

Rollie and

the

were

many

of The

book
Hand-

perspective revision

tween
be-

versions.

Offenhauser, Jr.,author
Nomenclature

SMPTE

all

on

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Charles

technical

of many

technical

books

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Committee,

definitions. Bob

suggestions
many

for

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and

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For

the

Keuren

networks:

All

Mark

three

Roach, among

Quin,

networks

value

production companies:
of

the

two

earlier

editions

sources:

England: Barry Barren,

film

in

improvement

specialsuggestion list of great

Van

invaluable

data

and

Jim

For

For

third

my

for his

too.

Notable
came

the work

especialhelp on

this score,

at

16.

page

on

tool for the craftsmen

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the first and

William

text

his contributions

only for

throughout the book.

used

specialcharts

contributions.
and

TV

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Production," but

"Live

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practicalworking

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own

has

good rightarm

manuscripts, my

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of the illustrations and

of the three

preparation

gave

from

John

Marc

Asch

others.

many

Paul

Rotha

and

excellent
Nelson
of

Van

others.

help" with

of NBC.

Praag

and

Sid

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

advertising

For

Anthony

Hyde,

For
and

Henry

Whiteside,

Bea

George

Haight,

programming:

Rud

Adams

Gordon

McKee,
and

Mary

hundred

Harris,

Minter,
more.

Cavallo,

Peter

Jr.

others.
For

the

For

opticals:

For

sound:

For

animation:

For

camera:

For

research:

laboratories:

Hugh

Dr.

A.

three

And

letters

the

final

and

sterian

Miles,

William

all
bow

Bill

Dr.

Millard

and

Cal

McKeon,

Bernice

to

go

nurse-maided

thanks

McQuown,
the

Willard

L.

and

Buffington

Betsy

of

preparation

actual

(by

the

his

these,

for

the

and

made

too-busy

grasp

and

2,

1957

who

publisher
dozens

of
His

typewriter.

persistently
calls

phone
and

care

fundamental;

guidance

and
television

many

more

industry.

who
You

gave

put

encouragement,
the

words

Wayne

Web-

in

my

to

ment
com-

his

monumental!

persistence"
of

count!)
from

manuscript

the

Harry

September

others.

Watson,

tedious

long,

Neale,

Russ

to

instrumental;

were

To

Virginia

others.

manuscripts.

finally,
17

wrote

ASC.

and

more.

who

successive

McCabe

Norm

Fernstrom,

thanks

Lennox

Paramount.

Morrow.

many

Secretarily,

Consolidated.

particular.

in

of

of

Wickersham,

universities:

many,

Marion

Wade

Bob

John

Solow

Ryder

Ray

Thompson,
And

Sid

Loren

the

For

coax

Tinker,

Jack

agencies:

mouth.

McMahan

tience
pa-

Foreword
Marion

The

best way

is the

Jr.

Harper,

By

be

to

and

function

in television

expert

an

the

need

for this

grown

with

be

always to

is

This

student.

comprehensive handbook

of

Harry

McMahan.
has

television

For

persistencein adding
as

fine

credential

In

justten

families. It has
for

till late

at

It

night"with

in
an

the

home
of

investment

Here"

ample

talents,skills,and
television

For

the stage from

This

to

from

see

can

than

on

million

100

million

from

earlymorning

in

week

all

than

coast

sponsorship(with

year).

to

is

coast"

all the

versatile

proscenium;

added

all the

who

viewers

their

five hours

(over

theater

with

and workaday
glittering

business.

of show

has

of their time

give it

backstage,for

theater.
but

The

freed

movies

along with free-ranging

of

impact

also

are

called

has
flexibility

very

goes

billion dollars each

the limits of the

in progress

quite

40

some

more

entertainment

much

so

most
history's

is

television

movement,
events

than

props

of

advertisers

day)

stage and

on

room,

be

may

hall that holds

that number

hours

the country

as

built

television

each

more

medium

light;and

year.

people give

average

of the

performance that

more

Hollywood produces in
Because

has

audiences

stages

of

speed

own

experience.

television

assembled

singleshow.

seasoned

years

its

present knowledge

to

as

almost

immediacy" bringing

eye-witnesses.

for the broadest

of

range

production

skills.
have

Viewers

added

watched

electronic

magic

projection of the
sacrifice bunt,
exit"

well

as

country,

convention

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more

doing

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as

have

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of Roses.

fantasy of

the

medium"

equal

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and
to

the

the

techniquesthat

fades, dissolves, splitscreens,

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of

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to

movies.

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and

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of
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North

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camera

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the

across

political

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technicians

task. Oscar

who

bring

Hammerstein

musical, Cinderella, "Being ignorant

9

of

it to

life" have

said

of television

the

medium,

been

I wrote

in

10

FOREWORD

this

show

refused

the

on

This

is

so

remarkable

of

on

today's

keep

We

Harry
He
of

for
for

be

is

has

the

anything,

beginner"

that

and

has

nothing

concentrated

good
as

year's

best

has

in

as

just

experienced

the

to

me,

skill

been

and

tiveness
inven-

its

best

pages
in

the

The

book's

thoroughness

will

all

the

of

depend

what

made

progress

shows

produced

and

mercials
com-

today.

know

we

important.

more

these

consultant
teacher.

of

applications

paralleled

will

improvement

mastery

on

knowledge
career

also

next

the

on

"handbook"

of

to

seems

advances,

but

based

and
skill

it

continuing

sure

McMahan's

commercials

exposition

with

be

can

fields

few

tribute,

inventiveness"

will

In

do

craftsmen.

pace

continuing
far.

could

we

yet."

me

To

assumption

whole

the

gained

experience
television

field"

clarity
make

of

development

it

will

basic

as

creator

with

along
make

vision.
tele-

it

valuable
tool

reference

professional.
Marion

Harper,

the

Jr.

Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

FOREWORD

by

Marion

Jr.

Harper,

15

INTRODUCTION

1.

THE

BASICS

Audio

Meets

Works

19

TELECASTING

OF

Video

Words

Methods

Transmission

Federal

Regulations

to

Work

Television

How

By
Networks

and
Other

OperationalTerms

Stations
Forms

of

Television

2.

30

PROGRAMMING
""

Two

Production

Categories
Format

Programs by Content,
Program
3.

The

Music

and

Programs

Drama

Types

Program SchedulingTerms

"Credits"

40

PERSPECTIVE

PRE-PRODUCTION

of

AdvertisingTypes

Producer

Development

The

Writer

Scripts,Step-by-Step
Miscellaneous

Language

Terms
11

Terms

TV

Plot
mercial
Com-

12
4.

CONTENTS

Advantagesof
Floor

Studio

and

"-

ment
Equip-

of Command,

Words

Steps

The

Signals

67

Film

of Film

Behind-the-Scenes

On-the-Set

TV

Studio

Scenes

of Command

Words

Jargon

81

ACTOR

THE

"-

Production

Advantagesof
Types

6.

Personnel

Behind-the-Scenes

Crew

Visual

Personnel

Room

PRODUCTION

TV

FILM

Control

TV

Live

Terms

Jargon

5.

51

PRODUCTION

TV

LIVE

TV
Special

and Classifications

Unions

The

Classifications

Actor

on

ing
Designations Castthe Set
Greasepaint

Jargon

7.

OF

LANGUAGE

THE

Fundamental

Miscellaneous

101

the

Here's
Terms

for the Film

TITLES

Art

10.

and

Combination
The

Miscellaneous

Camera

Terms

Graphic Art

Backgrounds

Miscellaneous

Scenery Terms
Terms

134

ANIMATION

""

Camera

122

and

Titles

era
Cam-

Film

Shots

Camera

Cameras

Lens

SCENERY

AND

Direction

Curtains

of

Types

and

Mechanism

Camera

Tricks

Speedsand

ART,

Live, Film

Picture

Movement

9.

Lighting

Lighting

Terms

CAMERA

THE

of

Objectives Types

Equipment

8.

92

LIGHTING

Stop Motion,

Technical
Art

Animation
Terms

and

Styles

Cartoon
Personnel

Animation
and

Procedures

Degree

of

cellaneous
Mis-

13

CONTENTS

11.

142

SOUND

"-

The

of

Forms

Sound

Sound

and

Personnel
and

Terms

Equipment

Methods

Recording
Music

Jargon

Terms

to

be

Noted

12.

STOCK

FILM

^-

AND

of

Carrier

13.

and

Of

Time

Room

14.

The

Image
Generations

and

The

World

SPECIAL

AND

of

The

Critical

of

One

and

Third

Rating

Tricks

of

tography
Re-pho-

Terms

191

and

Handling

Problems
Problems

200

AGENCY

The

Agency

Types

Print

Sound

Notes

AND

Cent

Methods

Problems

Faults

Other

Creative

184

Miscellaneous

Quibbles and

of

Cutting
Editing
Miscellany

EFFECTS

Picture

Eye

Terms

TV

Film
Color

QUALITY

SPONSOR

ADVERTISING"

Film

in

OpticalEffects

Magic

PICTURE

Miscellaneous

Terms

EditingProcedures

Negative-PositiveFilm

16.

Miscellaneous

Terms

Space

EFFECTS

EVALUATING

Types

172

SpecialEffects

15.

Laboratory

Processes

Equipment

OPTICAL

157

EDITING

FILM

^-

the

Film

Prints

Film

PROCESSING

of

AdvertisingAgency
Services
Research

Services

Miscellaneous
TV

Other

Contact

TV

Rating
Data

vertising
AdTerms

Services

APPENDIX

212

INDEX

217

Introduction

of the

Sweat and Secrets

workingtitlesof this book was "The Slang,
of TV at Work." This fairly
well describes the intentions in analyzing
the
words and workingprocedures
of a lustyyoung industry.
Television's first hectic decade
created or appropriated
than
more
than 100 highlyspecialized
interrelated
2,000 words alongwith more
new
jobs,
One

in

This

complex pattern.

book

in the 16
attempts to depictthe workingrelationships
the nent
time defining
at the same
operationsof television,
perti-

fundamental

It

terms.
written

for the
of the
amidst

to be

might be

read

as

other words

random

it does

relate its

who

search

meaning.
is stillbeset

of babble," of course,

jargon.As

fusion
conby some
the
of language,

not

Breal has

create, it records.
read this book

chaptertitlesand sub-heads, pointsof

too obvious
Many sections may seem

various
new

and

valuable

there will be

but

phasesof TV,

As

to

its

there
writing style:

intrudes. Sometimes
license with

"cover to cover." But

mined.
deterreadily
in
personnel
experienced
portionswhere they can

interest
to

other

for such selective

ponderousand highlytechnical.
brazen

from

can

be

information.

This book, then, is intended

note

servingthose

Index (at the end

alphabetical
itself
word explains
a bold-faced

which

on

amplifyand

that

few peoplewill
Certainly

find

The

also

it is

pointedout, "In matters

the truth."
become
of the peoplegradually
herein have no rightto be recogPerhapssome of the colloquialisms
nized
kind
of
"truth"
but
is
as
as yet"
remember, a dictionary a
history:
of

from

while

word.

the page

Television's "tower

errors

-StepDictionarybecause
Step-by

running text

meaning of a
book) refers to

called

is

Sometimes

obvious

attempt

scientific term

information.

to

avoid

the

it oversimplifies
or a frivolous

to editorialize. Sometimes

it is prone

the

an

pursuitof

and

has

the

slangtakes

temerity not

to

apologize.
So be it: for this is

the

sweat
slang,

and

book

secrets

about

of TV

15

and changing
language
living

at work!

Credits

Picture

Page
22

Page
CBS-TV

118

Pacific

NBC-TV
26

Title

Studio;

National

of

Association

Radio

Television

"

119

Caravel

124

ABC-TV;

Broadcasters
32

NBC-TV

33

NBC-TV;

Sarra,
Films,

CBS-TV

(Rev-

127

NBC-TV

131

Robert
TV

J.

Wade:

Programs

42, 43

NBC-TV

47

CBS-TV;

49

WCBS-TV,

53

NBC-TV

Studios,

57

CBS-TV

McCann-Erickson,

60

NBC-TV;

61

TelePrompTer

74,75

NBC-TV

ABC-TV

Mat

Studio

Schuller

);

To-

Service
Van

Praag

(Wm.

Agency)

Twentieth

Inc.

138, 139

Animation,

Inc.;

144

NBC-TV

147

Van

149

NBC-TV

158,

159

Hal

161

Van

162

DeLuxe

Century-Fox

Co.
Mitchell

NBC-TV;

Cam-

Company
Fearless

104

Houston

105

Electronicam

108, 109

Van

Praag

for
Inc.

Biscuit

pany)
Com-

Productions

Studios,

Praag

Productions

Inc.

Laboratories;

Praag

Twentieth

Productions

Century-Fox

Corp.

174

Eastern

Effects,

177

Eastern

Effects,

186

Eastern

Effects, Inc.;

National

Corp.
202

Productions

Sturm

Roach

Film

Esty

Inc.

Praag

Van

170, 171

Corp.

Wm.

Animation,

(National

Co.)

99

136

NBC-TV

Productions

era

York

New

(American

( Kell

103

(Hastings

ABC-TV

Television

NBC-TV

mercials
Com-

House)

bacco

96, 97

Staging
and

ABC-TV;

Film

Inc.

Photographers

37

84, 85

Inc.

2, Inc.

Ion)

78

Art

"

WRCA-TV,

(NBC

Screen
New

Inc.
Inc.

Service
York

Spot Sales)

TELEVISION

PRODUCTION

AUDIO

TO

WORDS
HOW

VIDEO

MEETS
WORK

WORKS

TELEVISION

METHODS

TRANSMISSION
NETWORKS

AND

STATIONS

REGULATIONS

FEDERAL

TERMS

OPERATIONAL
OTHER

BY

OF

FORMS

TELEVISION

1
The

Basics

MEETS

AUDIO

in
Television,

of

Telecasting

VIDEO
its derivations

from

Latin

and

Greek,

to

means

see

at

distance.
The

word

named
to be

coined

about

half-century
ago (1909)

but the

longpast the dream stage even then. In 1875, two years

the phonographand a decade before the movie
a man
projector,
consider
that
crude
device
some
GeorgeCarey in Boston built a

invention

before

was

was

television's earliest forerunner.

Edison, Einstein

and

score

of other inventors

and

scientists

tributed
con-

pulses
theorythat picturescould be converted to electrical imto be a full fifty
and transmitted throughthe air,but it was
years
at
later before the experimenterswere
transmitting
pictures,
successfully
film. The following
firstfrom movie
year, 1926, the firstlive television
to the

demonstrations

were

made.

Zworykinand Philo Farnsworth

claim credit for the
in the United
States, each workingindependently,
broadcast
stations were
In the U.S., the first experimental
invention.
for paid
1930s and commercial licensing
in the early
operatingregularly
started in 1941.
broadcasting
J.L.

Baird

However,
World

War

in Britain

restriction

II held up

and

on

Vladimir

the manufacture

developmentof
19

the

of

receivingsets during

for the
industry

next

four years,

THE

20
so

BASICS

OF

TELECASTING

the actual start of commercial

television in the United

beginits firstfull year in 1946. Public

States

to

was

and
spreadrapidly,

interest

TV

by the millions. Inter-city

selling
programming
by connectingtelephonelines developedtwo years later and became
sets
receiving

feasible from

were

soon

in 1951.

coast-to-coast

At the end of the firstdecade

familywas
were

were

""

WORDS

justthe

was

launched.

It

It

firstten years. A

was

new

was

than

More
two

40,000,000
broadcasting,

reaching100,000,000 viewers weekly.The average

tisers
watchingtelevision five hours a day and America's advermedium.
spending$3,000,000a day on the still-growing

sets
receiving

This

of commercial

new

WORK

BY

of communication

means

of entertainment,

means

new

that required
whole
a
industry

hundred

thousand

new

TO

words

new

for

commandeered

were

of advertising.

means

vocabulary.

new

jobclassificationswere

had been

than

created. More
connotations.

new

Borrowed, like a cup of sugar,

everywhere.
and the whole
from the neighbors:
Stage,Radio, Movies, Advertising
field of Electronics. Created,like a lightning
flash,in the heat and
new
of Television's deadline production.
excitement
The

words

from

came

Technical

had

terms

of the business
in
together

The
time

had

earlyinventors
it

Audio

means

Video

means

labored

but
television,

It all started

words

craftsmen

for 39 years before

could

words

now

no

anyone

longerwait.

what

you hear, the sound

what

you

see, the

portionof

television.

television.

pictureportionof

the

refers to any TV program and,

the air. Broadcast is the
it over
the act of transmitting
it

can

noun,

be used

in TV

where

the two

media

as

(At

the

time, theysometimes

same

Electronic
The

science

as

the

more

verb, means

are

considered
as

in
gether.
to-

broadcast

pression,
exhigh-sounding

Media.)

Electron, in

understood

use

many

word
parallel

For instance,advertisers refer to radio and television

media.

found

simplyenough:

course,

Telecast,as

radio and

could work

popularshort form for television. Like

the pace of the business.
hurry,it typifies

is,of
in a

nacular
ver-

complexoperation.

to name

TV

the vivid,volatile

with

artists and
engineers,

that

so

shoulders

rub

to

our

atom-poweredworld,

negativeelectricalchargeof

of the electron,has

come

television.
including
engineering,

to mean

has become

the atom.

the many

popularly

Electronics,the

advanced

fields of

THE

"

HOW

the electronic
telecasting,
"reads" or follows alongeach
In

such

525

are

United

horizontal

BASICS

TELEVISION

beam

lines in

States standards. It is

TELECASTING

21

WORKS
to
light

converts

Line

OF

electric current

or

horizontal unit of the

full television screen,

as

it

There
picture.

accordingto

into
thoughyou had sliced a photograph
then put them back together.
strips,
The number
of lines selected for telecasting
standards in other countries
standard is 405 lines,
varies. England's
France uses
819 lines and
as

525 horizontal

Germany

625 lines.North

States

525 lines

on

is the full term

"reads" each line

line,from

the

top

as

done

read

other line

etc.

total of

on

onlyl/60th

) is interlaced

Total: l/30th of
Each

page

of

to
a

of

of the television

The

then

return

firstset of lines

to

for the full

set of lines constitutes

scans

picture.

by which

the

words, suppose

you
read the

the top and

(1,3, 5,7, etc. ) is scanned

second, and then the alternate

completethe picturein

second

lines).

line after
right,

Scanningrefers to the method

page,

625

book, left to

in alternate sets of lines. In other

alternate lines in between.

in

to the bottom

scanningis

Venezuela:

for line,since the electron beam

you would

or Interlaced
Interlacing

every

standardize with the United

(excepting
Argentinaand

ScanningLine
or

and South America

another

set

l/60th of

(2,4, 6, 8,
second.

picture.

Field. The

two

the
fields,
completing

full picture,
comprise a Frame.
The

there is one
so
keep alternating
continuously,
completed
of
the
motion
30
second
action
times
a
picture
picture
(by comparison,
of
film presentsa completed
24
fraction
picture times a second).Every
of pictures
in front of the cameras
is caughtas the succession
movement
is presented.
sets

the three primarycolors (red,blue, green)must

television,
be transmitted,
blue,the next green. Then
so the firstfield is red,the next
In color

the alternate red, blue and

Color Frame
a

color

green fields are

transmitted

completedpicturein color. Hence, a

frame, as againstonly 2 fields per frame
or

to make

the first

total of 6 fieldsmake
in

black-and-white

television.

Sync (pronounced"sink")is
to the electrical
in

rhythm wifh

which
pulses

the live TV

short for

interlock the
camera.

of pictureand sound
relationship
index at
(Check the alphabetical

and
synchronization

scanningbeam

refers

of the receiver

that sync also refers to the

discuss.
in film work, as later chapters
But

note

the end

of the book

for such

cross

references.)
for any material or so-called Information
either pictureor sound.
electronically"

term
Signalis the engineer's

transmitted

THE

Cable

Wire

or

conducts

Pairs

between
signals

network

company)

between

or

the

telephone
supplying
company
Coaxial

is the
a

word

is a

for

distortion

lines within

Coax

(pronounced"co-axe"),

transmitter

between

or

air rather than

by
and

pointspickup

the Cable
station

the

On

of smaller cables around

simultaneously
signals
The
telephone

sound.

conversations
two-way telephone

another

Microwave,

either

room.

pairof

one

lines

on

can

pair of

one

carry

onlyone

transmission.

two-way

On

telephone

Telephone" Telegraph,

picture and

the
For television,

coax.

the

alteration in

or

nected
intercon-

connecting wire. Slang

capableof carryingmany

carry 600

can

company

is

which

)
nicknamed

Cable, sometimes
axis. This

without

to

the control

a number
telephoneline containing
special

common

or

check

filmed

later time

of transmission

network

between

studio

and

stations,sends 'the

signals
throughthe
strategic
lines-of-sight

Relay towers spaced at

re-transmit
signals,
coveringthe interveningdistance.
used to refer to
and On the Net are slangexpressions
wire.

carried

program

refers to the transmission

the studios,as in the

for

programs

the network.

on

of

case

of

rehearsal

to
signal

or
audition,

or

transmitted

qualitybefore they are

be

at

the air.

on

Closed

method

System,however,

onlywithin

seen

and

23

carrier

transmitter, between

(from American

A.T."T.

TELECASTING

suppliedby
generally

camera

earlier,also

and

Telco

are

(theseare

the live

Line, mentioned
terms

the studio and

stations

OF

for the electric wire

terms

are

BASICS

Circuit is the term

for any

pointsfor paidor privateviewing:not

broadcast

released

between

over

two

or

the air for free

more

public

reception.
either from

Stations transmit
film. It is also

live

productionor

to make
possible

for later transmission

or

film

made

and used as
"kinny"
(pronounced
by using a motion picturecamera

broadcast

Tube,

as

hence

received

on

television

live

tion
produc-

for this is

name

Kinescope and nicknamed

and verb).The kine
noun

to

both
to

transmitted

photographthe

picturetube,

called

is

Kinescope

the derivation.

TVR, short for television

film at CBS-TV.

Lesser

used

is the
recording,

names

in the

Air Check
Telefilm,
Teletranscriptions,
the
Recording,
Kines

previously
duced
pro-

of
recording

privatescreening.The

shortened
KinescopeRecording,generally
Kine

from

are

California time

officialname

include
industry

for

kinescope
Kinerecording,

(borrowed from radio)and

Tele-

British

equivalent.
the
useful in solving
especially
is 3 hours

7 p.m. telecast in New

York

earlier than
would

be

on

New

time

York

problem,since

zone

time.

the air in Los

For

instance, a

Angelesat

4 p.m.

24

THE

But

this is too

BASICS

OF

TELECASTING

kine off the network

for transmission
Should
the

from
Hot

line

this kine

The

be

rushed

negativeimage

is another

The

Sometimes

programming on

desired time

facilities.Such

use

with db, the sound

certain

is not

method
newly-developed

of

initialsdown

to

or

be

confused
of sound.

is the

VTR,
well

recordingpicturesas

tape or so-called electronic tape.This method

clear

of

industry's

sound

as

month

measurement

to

In

interconnecting

a week
possibly

that D.B.

for

D.B.

stations cannot

lack of

engineer's
symbolfor decibel,a

which
Tape Recording,

Repeat, the term

or

Quick

Q.K.

to

Delayed Broadcast, or

D.B.,

the kine is available. Note

later,when

Video

be called

when

TV

whites.

this is often shortened

priorcommitments

would

station

blacks and

telecast

is called

positivepictureon

magic, the

it is called a

of

then

positiveprint)it

that
network,it is possible

because

is held

at, say, 9 p.m.

as

appears

of this kine at 9 p.m. may

use

and this kine

telecast,

and
throughdeveloping

for hot kine and

term

desired,so California makes

4 p.m.

Zone

electronic

by

any rebroadcast.

duringthe

in the Pacific Time

engineersreverse,

Kine

the audience

negative (without waiting for

Kine.

the

reach

earlyto

netic
mag-

on

kine

makinga

fully

diately
picturefilm and has the great advantageof being immethe delayof processingreavailable for rebroadcast,without
quired

motion
replaces

by

film. It also has

to
superiorquality

NETWORKS

Television

as

know

we

it

AND

todaywould

have

kine.

STATIONS

made

slow

progress without

opment,
This competitionforced greater engineeringdevelcompetition.

network

national coverage faster,broughtcolor television to the

convinced
encouragedbetter writingand programming and finally
public,
created

out
Withmedium.
top talent from Broadway and Hollywood to jointhe new
the networks, television might have
between
this constructive
rivalry
taken

Network,
(by

it does

as

cable

Network

network

advertisers and

network

radio,refers

microwave,

or

engineeringadvances
Net, Web,

in

to two

for instance

also refers to the company

this function. A

to

it did in ten.

to do what

thirty
years

may

and

their

Chain

at

and
be

the

time

same

handle

) to
that

the

cast.
broad-

same

organizesand performs

creates

develops

programs,

sales of programs

handles

nected
intercon-

stations

more

or

and

time

periods

agencies.

Hookup
national

are
or

slangwords

in
regional

for network.

its coverage

area.

Split

those selected
indicates a partial
Network
group of stations (forinstance,
market area).
by an advertiser to cover an irregular
Basic

Network

refers to the minimum

number

of stations

an

adver-

THE

tiser

can

to fithis

in turn

leg"of

an

of RCA,
subsidiary

a
Television,

division

ABC

a
Television,

division

for

term

one

portionof

Loop

term

network

is

times
some-

but because

in television

National

are:

Broadcasting
Company

which

of America;
Corporation
of Columbia
BroadcastingSystem;and
filiated
of American
Broadcasting
Company, af-

Theaters.

Paramount

Outlet is

The

the Radio

CBS

with

select other stations

may

of this word, it mightbe well to avoid it.

major national networks

a division of
Television,
a

network.

outer, circular

connotations
confusing

is

25

portion of a network, covered by a single

line. Thus, interconnected
stations in Florida might

used to refer to

NBC

TELECASTING

outer

an

be called the "Southeastern

The

OF

stations,he
buy.Beyond these key-city
market
budgetor
requirements.

Leg indicates
extendingcable or

of other

BASICS

network

station,as in saying:WFAA-TV

is

the Dallas outlet for ABC-TV.

Affiliateindicates
network.
be both
than

It is

station which

where
possible
and

NBC-affiliate

an

from

CBS-affiliate,
using programs

indicates

IndependentStation
its

create

Satellite is
but

own
a

popular

term

onlyre-transmits

for

more

or

satelliteextends the coverage of

affiliation.It therefore

network

station which

programs.

does not

of another
signals

the

country

no

film
buy independent

or

programs

In mountainous

away.

onlyone

lar
programming of a particustation exists in a cityfor it to
the

network.

one

must

uses

station

originate
programs
distance

some

the
receptionis difficult,

anywhere TV

station. Another

name

lator
for this is Trans-

Station.

operatedby a network. C-O

for company
and M
" O for managed and owned
(network) owned
used. Federal restrictions limit a network's ownershipto
are
occasionally
O

TV

seven

indicates

"

station

Federal

or

Communications

for
responsible
authority
stations "in the

Each

may

news,

and

governmental

television
regulating

renew

non-commercial

(and radio)

one

year

(radio

with

balanced

shows, coveringthe fields of

and
education, religion

licensed for

refuse to

is the

supposedto provideits community

of commercial

are

and
licensing

Commission

publicinterest."

station is

entertainment,
stations

REGULATIONS

FEDERAL

FCC

schedule

and

stations.

The

is owned

publicservice.

stations for three

the station license if its

) and

performancehas

Television
the FCC
been

satisfactory.
un-

26

THE

No

BASICS
exact

OF

balance

TELECASTING

of

programming

has performedits
industry
ideals that meet

task of

own

the broad

is

concept of

specified
by the FCC but the
self-regulation
by determining

FCC

The
jurisdiction.

NARTB

vision
Code, adoptedin 1953 by the National Association of Radio and Teleof good practiceand good taste for
sets standards
Broadcasters,

programs

and commercial

of this book

in

content.

Appendix "A,"

500
approximately

This

in part at
code,reprinted

is subscribed

the FTC
to

federal authorities which

or

Federal

studyuntruthful

the FDA

or

and
labelling
and
beer

Tobacco

Food

or

and

Trade

the

majorityof

the

States.

Seal

include
advertising
committee
a special

affect television
which

Commission

has

and copy in all advertising

media;
with the
which is concerned
Administration

claims
conflicting

Drug

instructions
Tax

by

television stations in the United

NARTB

Other

to

the end

on

Division

and cosmetics; and Alcohol

all foods,drugs,

which, among

other

is
things,

the arbiter of

advertising.
Channel

refers to that

portionof

the waveband

cated
spectrum (theallo-

sound and picture)assigned

to each TV
broadcasting
Each different channel is on a specific
its signals.
station for transmitting
casting
of vibration cycles
(the measurement
per second in the broadfrequency
and TV engineersmust keep the station on that frequency
signal)
channels.
to avoid interference with other assigned
VHF
or
Until 1952, all U.S. television stations were
on
Very High
Ultra.
2 through13. Since then UHF
or
Frequency channels,numbered
cated
14 through83, also have been alloHigh Frequencychannels,numbered
by the FCC. Due to the fact that older TV receivingsets could not
the limited audistations without a special
receive UHF
tuning adapter,

range for

THE

forced

ence

than half of the UHF

more

the firstthree years

and

VHP

FM

UHF

modern

TELECASTING

operationduring

cease

TV

27

sets

both

receive

now

stations.

Frequency Modulation

or

OF

stations to

the air. Most

on

BASICS

in television (and one

signals

form

AmplitudeModulation,which
broadcast

is the method

of

of

sound
transmitting

from
as distinguished
radio),

is the sound

transmission

method

AM

or

of standard

radio.

Call Letters refer to the group of alphabetic

letters which identify
each station. The call letters are assigned
to the stations by the FCC,

workingunder
beginwith the
the
and

international agreements. As a
letter "W" in the Eastern United

"C"
Mississippi;
TV

Canada, "X"

its call

announce

This
operation.
or

be made

must

is the final version

the air.

Copiesof scriptsso
advertising
agenciesand

SignOn

is the video-audio

of the broadcast
end of the

day.SignOff
broadcast day.

Network

Time,

Time, refers to the

network

sometimes

and time

by

zones,

one

cases
special
a

program

program

and

content
rials,
mate-

made
including
script
any changes
tions,
are
kept on file by networks, sta-

advertisers.
at the beginning
required
at the
announcement
corresponding

announcement

is the

called

Option Time

network

rightto

station

can

local
of special

set

an

or

Network

Option

affiliatedstation where

the program. For instance, 10

the
a.m.

7:30 p.m. to 10:30 p.m. are established as

this varies according
to network
(although

in other instances

the station has the

of

marked

has firstchoice to sell and

time

and

networks

TERMS

time period
on
specified

to 1 p.m., 2 p.m. to 5 p.m., and

network

be done

and program
copiesof scripts

OPERATIONAL

"As Broadcast"

thirty-

at

available to the FCC.

*-

on

commercials

of both

broadcast. This,alongwith

as
exactly

to

and/or video, periodically

duringits

record kept by
minute-by-minute

of their schedules

stations

station

hour.

refers to the

Log

required
by the FCC and is normallydone
to programming. It must
intervals,
according

each

York;

New

practiceof

of

both radio

to
applies

is

fifteen-minute

at least once

audio

letters,
by

for the

term

letters

"K" West

(radio)and WOR-TV,

Example: WOR
Angeles.

Station Identification is the

States and

This

in Mexico.

stations.

Los

KTTV,

in

generalrule,call

If the network

fails to sell this time,

show. In
locally-originated
in network
option time for
pre-empt periods
interest to its viewers.
or public
schedule

its

own

28

THE

BASICS

OF

TELECASTING

Pre-Emptionrefers

to the

scheduled
previously

practiceof

network

periodfor

time

station

or

taking

in

specialprogram
This pre-emptionalso is called
publicinterest,convenience
or necessity."
Recaptureand the advertiser who loses the scheduled time periodis due
a financial adjustment
for loss of time and talent. Such a credit
or Rebate
over

refund

or

not

also is due

telecast because

the advertiser when

of

be made, called

can

showingat

later time

failure

equipment

Makegood,by
good for the

commercial

or

program
other

or

"in the

Or

reasons.

to make

lost program

ment
adjust-

an

givingthe advertiser

is

an

equal

commercial

or

telecast.
Station Break

Chain

or

station break

) Hence,
.

in later

Local
station

is used

which

Local

periodsnot available
own
programming.
Middle
a

Break

to the

networks

as

runs

refers to the station

broadcast

longerthan

refers to

Cut-In

means

type of

may

live TV

most

Pipe

and

from

piped in

""

network

inserted in

national advertiser's program,

be

gram
pro-

cut-in).But

note

network

listof local

that cut-in

also

for

from

programs

come

Feed

slangterms

are

Chicagoor fed from

to an

mean

given (at

production.
broadcasting
point.A network
original
in Chicagoor Miami
or
originate
any other city(although

Loop, mentioned
also

half -hour) duringany

is

inserted in TV

scene

is the term
Origination

program

identification which

minutes.
thirty

handlingthe product may

stores

to refer to these individual

local station's commercial

(for instance, for

commercials, to be

networks, but restricted for the local station's

mid-pointor approximately
every
which

and ID

indicates the pronunciation

at the breaks in network

interjected
time
to refer to program
an
adjective

are

also is used

for the station identification

(or I.D.,which

commercials

chapters.
as a noun
by the

announcements

programming.

station terms

are

Also called ID

announcement.

discussed

Break

earlier

engineerthe

as

cable

and

for transmit.

Hollywood).
So: The

program

was

network,

can

Miami.

jargon for

FORMS

OTHER

York

New

or

portionof

line linking
two
points.
telephone

OF

TELEVISION

The

of television embrace
fields beyond the obvious
uses
potential
many
form. It is used in privateindustry
to perform many
publictelecasting
unusual
remote

functions. Banks

points.Laboratories
and

Forces

use

use
use

clients and signatures

from
identify
activity
it to studyhazardous
processes in radio-

it to

hightemperature experimentsat a safe distance.

television principles
in guidedmissile projects.

The

Armed

THE

also

Business

salesmen,

and
hold

national

many

remote

or

stockholders
with

meetings or conventions,
points by

cable

stations,

telecast

the

tives
execu-

groups

the telecast
to

29

wherein

other

or

Yet

is unavailable

so

TELECASTING

identical

an

microwave.

or

OF

Conference,

Circuit

and

company

by regularTV
home

for Closed

TV

uses

BASICS

may

reaching

is not

mitted
trans-

generalpublicon

receiving sets.
Theater-TV

motion

is

theaters

picture

and grand
fights
with

form

opera,

paid audiences.
Hotel-TV

is

of closed

inter-citybroadcasts.

in

for instance, have

This

is also called

similar

circuit, delivering
specialprograms
Football

Box-Office

form, with

hotels

prize

games,

this method

used

to

successfully,

TV.

the

serving

of

function

theaters.
Toll-TV

paid form of
sponsorshipto pay
is

commercial

by using

extra

an

also the sound.

cases,

sound

the
means

and

his television
Other

coin

is Zenith

the

insertinga specialcard

paid type
Radio

methods

specialtypes, in

or

box

some

ble"
"unscram-

To

by

program

in

in

such

attached

to

of

television

Subscription-TV,

are:

trade
Corporation's

for this

name

sidiary,
their sub-

Corporation's
plan,through
is Skiatron

Subscriber-Vision

plan.

Electronics

of

the

presenting

addition

to the

picture

familiar

the

to

method

viewer

of the

clude
in-

picture-

the-tube:
refers to the method

ProjectionTV
a

picture, and,

buy

must

movie

Corporation's
plan.

Receiving set

on-

distort

Pig-Squeal TV.

viewer

Telemeter.

International

two

attend

pays

prevent unpaid reception

programs

signalto

Pictures

is Paramount

Television

or

to

pay

viewer

no

vidually
indi-

Pay-As-You-See Television.

or

Phonevision

"

would

With

receivers.

costs, the

nickname

picture,the

for this

terms

Telemeter

the

home

set.

Pay-TV

Fee-TV,

electronic
Hence

droppinga

as

he

as

for

program

Toll-TV
telecasting

Stations

sports event.

the

the program,

receive

to

television

large screen

such

as

the

picture from
Mural

at

theater

This

home).

system,

to

the

utilizes

new

principlenow

sheet

(somewhat

in

on

project the

development,utilizes

similar

in

be

appearance

hung

receiver

mural"

in television's future.

holds

viewed

specialmirror,

enlargeand

new
screen). This revolutionary

and

picture is

receivingtube.

the

electro-luminescent

at

lens-and-mirror

Schmidt

TV,

(or

whereby

great promise

can

on

to

a
a

the wall"

large
movie

like

31

PROGRAMMING

Can

be reviewed

Has

better

More

before broadcast

careful choice of

more
lighting,

flexible in

to eliminate

productionschedule

errors.

angles.
of
availability

camera

suit the

to

talent.
broader

Has

^
realism

on
especially

and

stations

exterior

flexible in

More

opportunityfor locales,hence

advantageshave
this earlydebate between

been

to

answer

more

film

in both

with

combine

the

portionsto extend

often

relyon

have

live commercials.

Live

TV

of individual

TV

Film

TV,

resolved

primary opportunity
time

prime

defender

staunch

and

well
fairly

of film

equalfacility.
Live TV
techniques.

Film

with
as

of network

a high share
originates

problem"now

Top talent works

Many programs

TV.

their

was

than half their

Hollywood"long the

every

has

opposing camps

two

for existence, today program

Meanwhile,

needs

credited to both Live

itself.Networks, at firstbelieving
Live TV

TV.

the

meet

to

use.

Other

but

greater

scenes.

programming

for repeat

achieve

can

the
Live

almost
two

their scope. Film

programs

may

have

TV

programs

programs

may

film commercials.

of Live TV
recording
program material,as described
has improved in quality
in the previous chapter,
through the years to
solve most
of the problems of repeat telecasting.
Video Tape Recording^
the new
method
of recording
a live program,
The

in both

of the

kine film

pictureand sound, on magnetic tape offers a

of
advantages

""

Live

TV

ADVERTISING

whether

But

both

TV

for you to use,

is live

or

TYPES

film,program

dependingon

Film

and

pointof

of many

TV.

PROGRAMS

OF

may

combination

be too

commonplace a

word

Telecast is the

engineer's
And
is more
standpoint.
that the
Package may be the program owner's term especially
indicating
talent and the program
idea and the production
supervisionare included
item.
as
one
selling
for it. Show

word

As

oppositeis

by the

view.

from
glamorous,

radio,the

in

the program

for

your

talent's

SponsoredProgram indicates that the cost of

and the broadcast time are paid for by the advertiser. The
Sustaining
Program which indicates it is sustained or paid

network

or

term

station,often with the

sufficient public
attention
or
Co-Sponsorship

to merit

Shared

hope it will
later.
sponsorship

Sponsorshipindicates

prove

two

or

worthyof
more

vertisers
ad-

take part in each telecast.

buy the same
program and mutually
for such equalsharing.
is a CBS
term
SplitSponsorship
Alternate Sponsorshipindicates two
successive
on
sponsors rotate

32

PROGRAMMING

telecasts of

program.

Normally,this givesone

the firstprogram

on

of the

advertiser

(theother takingminor

telecasts reverse
show).Subsequent

their

major

at the end

mention

major and

tration
concen-

minor

positions

in turn.

indicates
as might be suspected,
MultipleSponsorship,

sponsors

on

three

or

more

single
program.

Only about

one

(that
sponsorship

is,not

of the above

one

forms

)
.

Live

Goes

TV

Magazine Concept refers

much

national networks, has exclusive

four,on

in

sponsor

"Spectacular"

the

to

of buyingtelevision
principle

is bought,without
magazine advertising

as

specific
position.On

successive

vertising
ad-

regard to

shows, the multipleadvertisers within

the program then are generally

rotated to varying positions.
Sometimes
the term Participating
Sponsorshipis used to indicate multiplesponsorship,
but
audience

that

note

participation
program

by

Here
this

is used

network,with the
again

same

in which

show

the

takes part.
itself participates
or

Co-op Program
the

means

manufacturer

CBS

to

indicate

to

and

sold and cut-in

advertising

confusingconnotations, because

are

term

by

indicate

by
partly

an

broadcast

by

originated

the local stations.

advertisers

some

plan partlypaid
advertising

for

by

use

the

for this latter

the local dealer. A better term

is Manufacturer-Dealer

plan or program.
of
Open-End Program is a description

have

openings or

"breaks"

(and radio)shows

commercials

can

be

which

inserted for

of several sponsors.

any

SyndicatedPrograms
to

into which

film

varietyof

sponsors.

are

shows,
bread

film,made
on
generally

company

may

use

available

the program

in

PROGRAMMING

Louisville,
a dairyin Salt Lake
programs

is now

of new
City.The syndication

major factor

PROGRAMS

operationof

in the

and

re-run

the local TV

station.

FORMAT

CONTENT,

BY

33

By content, programs may be classified under the headings of

education, religion,
(including
sports),
publicservice and a broad

news

gory
cate-

of entertainment.

Audience

Allen)

Participation(Steve

By Format
dozens
literally
audience

Quiz

structure,
physical

or

of variations

programs

of basic forms

($64,000

Show

be

may

classifiedin

of music, drama,

speech,

and
participation

Audience
from

persons

events.
special
for any show in which
is the industry's
term
Participation
the studio audience become
the performers
In
camera.
on

this classification are

such

Show, which

from
performers

has the

the
exhibitions;

labeled

types

the Stunt

the audience

Pop (from vox

Vox

as

Show

SpecialEvent
unusual

is the

Latin
populi,

in

crous
ludi-

for "voice of the

audience

timelybroadcast

for any

term

common

Contest

or

competing

people")and the Man-on-the-Street, where the interviewed

members
speakout about themselves or their opinions.

the

Question)

disaster

on
reported
events
spot, etc. Most networks and stations have a special
ment
departsuch programs which interruptand replacethe regular
to handle

interest:

news

schedules.

These

this word

programs

Any

an

sometimes

events

also creeps

stagedon

one-time

a
a parade,
inauguration,

of

over

are

and

termed

finds itself applied

ment
to entertain-

one-time, rather than

broadcast, whether

although
simply Specials,

keyed to

a
news

weeklybasis.
or

entertainment,

34

PROGRAMMING

may

be referred to

applyto

its one-shot

this word

now

as

refer to any

One-Shot.

used

NBC

entertainment

the word

to
Spectacular

programs, 90 minutes

color,and

in

used throughout
the
(asa noun) is generally
of entertainment

type

hour

an
special,

business

not
longer,

or

to

essarily
nec-

in color.

Telethon

coined

was

long,continuous
a

broadcast which

varietyof guest talent

Public

(from television and marathon) to describe

solicitcontributions for

to

Service Broadcasts

commercial

12 hours

might run

describe

or

using

more,

charity.

those programs

for publicinformation
sponsorship

out
withpresented
for the public

or

good.Civic programs, civilian defense,Red Cross and Community Chest

drives are typical
Public Service Announcements
short
matter.
are
subject
for the

messages

purpose. Service

same

used in this area, but it has

it refers to "how

to use" a

a
an
or

connotation
conflicting
product.

different cast and

of ceremonies.

master

has the

is

to

series

sometimes

term

in

in television,
refers
Anthology,

overall title (i.e.,

"The

Features

where
advertising

of dramatic

shows

different storyeach week. Such

Loretta

Young Show") and

is in contrast
anthology

The

presenting
series has

continuinghost

to

series which

roles,week after week, in related

playingthe same
stories (i.e.,
"Wyatt Earp" or "The Danny Thomas Show").
Soap-Operaor Soaperis jargonfrom radio for the daytimestories
especially
designedfor a feminine audience. Soap companies,it seems,
stars

same

the traditional sponsors.

are

is trade talk,from movie

Cliff-Hanger
days,for
which ends each episode
on
a pointof
suspense (the
on

This endingaction
cliff")!
Quiz Show, in case anyone

itself also is called

adventure

an

serial

heroine is
a

"hanging
cliff-hanger.

is stillinquiring
at this late

date,is

the

popularterm for all question-and-answer

type shows where prizesare
awarded
minor
(although
gifts
may be a part of other audience participation
shows.)GiveawayShow is jargonfor any program that awards
or

money

prizesto

contestants

Obviouslymany
could

show,

stunt

in

be
a

of these

definitions overlap.
Hence,

constructed

so

audience.

or

that it

giveaway show

and

an

might be labelled
audience

singleprogram

quiz show, a
show, all
participation
a

one.

Panel

who
figure

Show

is surrounded

guests.Forum
concerned

with

Interview

guests

are

indicates

or

program

by

Discussion

built around

moderator

or

or
"experts"
group of celebrities,

Show

are

terms

for

panelshows

central

special

which

are

topicsof publicinterest.
Show

indicates

and
questioned

drawn

program
out

where

celebrities and

in conversation.

The

term

special
does

35

PROGRAMMING

apply,however,

not

these include

On

Show

is

the other

slangfor

Show

though

even

a husband-andfeaturing

does

to the desired

refer
necessarily

not

toward

to

children. Similarly,

audience:

slanted

those

include

Shows

program

hand, Kid

but
performers

the featured

Women's

show,
participation

audience

any

interviews.

Mr.-"-Mrs.
wife team.

to

daytime feminine

audience.
from
differing

givethe news,
the meaning behind
interpret
Newscasts

which

Commentaries

SportsEvent may
will givethe results
telecast of the game, SportsNews
be a play-by-play
while a SportsCommentary
in sports,
of this and other of the day'scontests
will be devoted

to

the

News

For instance, a

news.

of the game,
sidelights
of today's
significance
games

discussion

players'
backgroundsor perhapsthe

of

the
in

of future contests.

terms

MUSfC

*"

Musical
other

DRAMA

AND

TYPES

song shows, among

be orchestral,
symphonicor

Programs may

classifications.
specific

from the variety

bill of vaudeville
VarietyShows take their name
of entertainment
acts.
days,presentinga diversity
in either of
Musical Varietyor Comedy Varietysuggestan emphasis
these two
Drama
of

directions.
is

broad

stageddialogueand

romantic-historical

from

term

action

with

the

forms

theater,embracingmany

Among

actors.

its sub-divisions

are

drama,

etc.
mystery-comedy,
that amuses
an
audience,from slapstick
Comedy includes everything
the
such
of
a
ction
as
(broad physical
whacking
posterior a man
which
intellectual humor
bent over)to Satire (subtle
pokes fun at our
and way of life).
Musical Comedy is the song-laden
customs
form, with
Comedy Drama is the playform. This in television
justa smidginof plot.
the embarrassing
ments
involveoften becomes
Situation Comedy, wherein
of the players
"I Love Lucy" is a
cause
laughable
complications.
of its amusement
tions
situation comedy,keyingmuch
to the ludicrous situain which
Lucy finds herself. By contrast, a Bob Hope monolog
observations for most
of its humor.
dependson puns and laughable

Drama
and

stories
types include Melodrama, action-type

suspense, such

as

stories. Sometimes
melodrama

form

Mystery,a
as a
jargonized

is

"Private

of excitement

crime
detective),
Eye" (private

called "Blood-and-Thunder"

and

stories,the

ster
gang-

comedy

appropriately
yclept"Thud-and-Blunder".

melodrama

"Whodunit""

dealingwith
well,who

an

unknown

did do it?

is often
culprit,

36

PROGRAMMING

Adventure

is

broad

used

term

to

action

cover

which

dramas

take

outdoors. It includes the familiar American

Western
Drama,
placelargely
known as a Horse Opera or Oater (theyhave to have horses in
slangily
and horses eat oats, don't they?).
Western
a
fictitious,
factual,sometimes
Documentary refers to an apparently
told
often with special
in a realistic reporting
social signifistyle,
cance.
story

Also called in
word

Telementary.
Dramas
Psychological

around

"Frontal Lobe"

is

jargon,used

more

the

presumablyappealsto

problems.These
as
plotand such

well

as

Many other types of

coined

the

often

are

dramas

built

may

be

"Neurotics" in the trade.

as
or
jargonized
"Psychos"

of the

emotional

"twisted" character

has

Another

category in themselves,dealingwith

are

subconscious

and

conscious

series "Actuals".

TV

one

in

to
referring

drama

which

brainyviewer.
of

drama

exist. These

course

only a

are

few

popularclassificationsin television.There are also many

cross-breeds and even
such qualifying
identificationsas Adult Western
(meaningthat the appealincludes story-inclined
grown-ups as well as
audience: action-loving
the typical
Western
children).
more

""

PROGRAM

Various
of

terms

used

are

where

program,

"CREDITS"

the opening and closing

describing
portions
stars and production
title,
personnelare named.
in

The

called the Billboard

opening titleor Main Title is sometimes
(becauseit is like a poster in show business that heralds theatrical
events)or Marquee (becauseit is like the theater's electric canopy out
front that lists the stars and attractions inside).
refers to
in the programming rather than financial sense,
Billing,
of the
the relative importancein title display
other
been

talent
star

to

if his

the show

problemof

many
is

and

name

show

business.

talent to each

and

type?This has long

gets the biggest
By

movie

the
throughout

contracts

if his

title.Who

stars

custom,

entertainment

and

in
specified
world, a performer
so

appears above the title.He is a featuredperformer

is below the title"unless,however, the word
"starring"
cedes
prename

the name!
size
Proportionate

the contract

may

of

type may

demand

be defined in

the star's name

must

or

as

highin type

known

to

get out

the titleof the show

productionexecutive

for his name,

with

no

one

to

demand

else's name

a
on

For instance,

be twice

(and lawyershave been

this point!
on
) In TV it is not unusual
yardsticks
as

contract.

for the star

separate frame
screen

at

or

of

that time.

their

director
the

title

37

PROGRAMMING
In

for

(Max Liebman,

instance),the

be

writer

(Rodgers" Hammerstein) because their

composers
of such importanceto the viewing public.
Cast Title is
of the characters
of

order
too

and

stars

only star

are

names

sidered
con-

of the performers
the listing
(and the names
obviously
theyplay in dramatic shows).These may be listed in

in
importance,

many

the

producer
(Ernest Hemingway), the

the titlemay

the "star" above

instances

some

names

of their appearance,

the order

contract
conflicting
at
are
presented

demands"

if there

or"

are

erally
Genalphabetically.
full

opening,the

the program

title beingheld until the end.

cast

Technical

Director

Credits

Title

What credits do
industryterm for such title listing.
and production
have? It is used both by performers
but,
personnel
of the executive
Credit Title is the listing
production
accurately,
Credits

you
more

and

names

is

an

other

talent and

unseen

preparing,
stagingand
the

or
beginning

show,

of the individuals to themselves

follow the cast title"hence

the

importantto

of the program.

transmission

of

end

craftsmen

or

and

This

the

writing,
at

run

may

both, accordingto the importance

the show.

"Cast
expression

credit
Generally,
and Credits" in

Title.
title or End
closing
titlecredits (from the
"The Crawl" is slangfor the closing

titles

referring

to the

method

one

from
on

of

is to
presentation

the bottom

to the

top

have

of the

the

names

crawl

or

fact that

move

upward

screen).It's nice to have your

name

"the crawl".
Functions

screen

are

personnelwho
production
in later chapters.

of the

discussed

earn

credits

on

the

39

PROGRAMMING

of

Time,

already inferred,

as

period

broadcast
is

the

in

resume

fall

new

without

season

the

losing

period.

time

same

then

weeks,

13

or

scheduled

radio

in

the

at

and

best

the

is

industry

television.

Slot,

Time

sells

network

advertising

an

measured

the

for

term

time,

program

has

agency

Time

Buyers.
Card

Rate

deductions

in

commercials)
be

stations
or

when

or

Clear

To

Time

making

certain

time

8:30

at

be

premium
network

or

p.m.

The
at

night,
and

becomes

to

It is well
in

This

its

sets

the

will

be

work
net-

using

two

Screen

and

for
5

of

for

looking

which
best

the

11

to

p.m.

2 to

time,
C

Actors'
in

Class

has

at

A,

Guild

Chapter

in

the

also

rate.

Some

lower

rates

on

and

have

for

B,

from

1 to

and

day

Class

runs

and

time,

still lower
and

contract

6.

Sundays;

on

as

in

TV

the

to

11

to

lower
6

to

p.m.

Sundays.

p.m.
after

11

p.m.

stations

the

use

card.

entirely different

actors

at

Each

according

time

set

time,

available.

are

audience,

earlier

time,

its

Saturdays

p.m.

broadcast

viewers

of

instance,

potential afternoon

that

discussed

clear

to

slot

time

choice

to

evaluation

own

distinguish still higher

note

period,

trying

open

"We're

refers

case,

CBS-TV,

Class

to

or

station.

or

greatest number

broadcast

remaining

AA

this

the

lower

"We're

sold.

unsponsored

any

through Fridays,

Mondays

by

specific broadcast

previously

network

in

nights
of

of

complement

purchase

counts
dis-

time."

station

because

rate

when

weekday

Other

nights."

to

on

audience.

potential

total

for

arrange

been

not

refers

Time,

rates,

to

Monday

Class

availabilityin

the

(or spot

weeks.

full

or

card, advising

programs

of

the

uses

network

rate

of

number

sponsor

on

the

on

number

limited

increases

means

p.m.

cleared

Class

he

it has

Availability
might

the

costs

simultaneously.

programs

more

when

given

larger

time

printed

are

within

used

are

may

also
when

costs

of

schedule

printed

Discounts

Frequency

station.

the

the

is

ings
mean-

commercials.

THE

PRODUCER
THE

SCRIPTS,
PLOT

Pre-Production

THE

DEVELOPMENT

LANGUAGE

MISCELLANEOUS

TERMS

TV

TERMS

COMMERCIAL

PRODUCER

is vested

in

one

and
organization

keen

the

success

administration

story,the

or

failure of

television program
mind
is the master
in charge

or

the Producer.

man,

he selects the idea

a

STEP-BY-STEP

Perspective

for the
Primary responsibility

of

WRITER

He

of the

completeproduction.
Ideally,

and
director,

the talent. He

have

must

of

showmanshipto visualize how each will contribute to

final result. Most importantly,
he is responsible
for the budget.
"The producer,"
writes Charles W. Curran, "should be a two-sided
sense

individual:
and

shrewd

know

how

businessman
to harness

and

and

time

within

the

restrain

of production.
He
quality
the

that
must

opposingviewpointsof

been

must

nize
recog-

talents of his writers,set

productioncosts

at the

remain

impairingthe
who
can
oncile
recstatesman-diplomat

a
a

that

so

have
be

artist. He

all the studio artisans" and

and

their enthusiasms

budget limits

sensitive

the
exploit

performers,
designers,
cameramen,
same

group

set, without

of

highlyvolatile

and

peramental
tem-

their capabilities.
He must
peoplewithout blunting
know
and how
their demands."
what his audiences want
best to satisfy
Not all producersare so well qualified
and not all actually
have this
full authority,
but it remains
an
ideal,whether in Live TV or Film TV.
There are many
variations in usage of the title producer,
and it is
creative

well to list some

Executive

of these:
Producer

meant
originally
40

the studio executive

who

super-

PRE-PRODUCTION

vised various

PERSPECTIVE

41

Now
it sometimes
is used as the top
producers.
title on a single
production.
Associate
Producer
is a secondary
at times
title,
given as an honor
rather than for working contribution
This practice
to the production.
started long ago by Hollywood movies
financial "angels"
was
to please
who

put

individual

into the

money

project.However,

the title may

be earned

now

legitimately.
Production Supervisor,
in some
with
is used interchangeably
quarters,
TV
producer.Production Director is also used, in some
operations,

alongwith TV Director, to indicate a person who has the production

for a program. However, these words are fuzzyin meaning
responsibilities
and the one
on
a production
simpleword to designatetop authority
is producer.
Assistant Producer, essentially
the same
associate producer,
is a
as
hard-earned

takes

He

man.

title for the

who

man

of minor

care

carries

the decisions

out

of the

the
problemsin coordinating

top

show

in

production.
Production

beginswith

idea. It may

an

the idea may be given to him to

find the rightvehicle for a star or
series show"

as

mystery" to

selected in most

are

often

such

specific
types of

in

conferences

the
may

cases

be

the

The
develop.
it may

filla

be

producer'sidea

idea
to

specific
type of

previoussuccesses,

programs.

follow. In each such Production

Many
the idea
producerwill guide the key peoplein bringing
first meet

with

of the

The

the writer

are

and

outline his

the stars,the director and

shows,

Talent

or

the

Director

Musical

numbers, supervisesscoringand
orchestra for the show. On

Choreographer

to

Once

give them

the

aids in

Since

and

with

the functions
discussed

the development

other

tion
produc-

roles.

conducts
finally
is

Dance

of

the

Director

or

his

key people,he is expectedto

and his work then
responsibility,
may be
essential to

good

director vary in Live

separatelyin the next two
a

selection

stage these numbers.

decisions

of

auditions for
setting
performance agreements

aids in the

arrangingand

selected

authority
alongwith

this will be
the writer:

conceive

Director

dancingshows, there

producer has

largelyconcerned
budget control.

life.He

added.

CastingDirector

musical

to

in
objectives

for the rate of

talent,contracts
principal
pay and
and takes completeauthority
in casting
minor
On

Meeting,

must

Meanwhile,
script.

staff members

to

time period.
Producers
thirty-minute

the basis of their

on

simplybe

may

find

or

coordination

TV

and

Film

But
chapters.

and

TV,
now,

42

PRE-PRODUCTION

PERSPECTIVE

+"

fact and

In

fiction,information

challengefor

wider
of

THE

star's

the

skill in

writingand

medium.

He

He

must

of
potentials
think

be

have

the

words

(for his

also

must

camera

of

the eye and

the

both

artist

and

have

must

creative

peculiartechniquesof

the

in
craftsmanship

He

ear.

the

artisan.

conversation
giftof writingnatural and interesting
know
the interpretative
he must
to be spoken) and
technique(for the action is to be seen). He must

are

in terms

this

morning's
paradoxicaldesire to
Success
relies heavily

spring from

may

medium

other

any

in TV.

for both

write

must

idea

program

than

ideas

offers

television

entertainment,

development of

skill of the writer

He

and

specialtalents, an audience's
familiar.
and the strangely

unknown

the

view
on

communications.

headlines, a

the

WRITER

moving images

greater immediacy,empathy, and

that

translate

impact

than

the

idea

or

story with

in other

his work

writing

fields

might require.
Through study of
the

know

must

One
credit

By

."
.

As
been

may

on

an

not

Idea

do

the

complete job.A
."

by

Plays may

the

radio show

or

television
motion

give
"OriginalStory

program

indicate

."
By
Originalindicates
scriptdesignation,

"Adapted for

or

created for this medium

indicates

through experimentation, he

and

medium

tools of his trade.

writer

"Based

the

may

Television

(whether TV,

play is

from

picture.By

the

radio

that
or

the

story idea

has

movies).Adaptation

book, magazine story, stage play,

same

token,

an

originalTV

play

Director

and

be

may

Plan

Producer

unheard

adapted to a motion picture.

have
of crediting
writers.
a
complicatedmethod

of for 17 writers

story,in which
Guild

to

case

One

and
adaptation,

decision

writer
as

Additional

work

to

lines,not

contributed

SpecialMaterial

the

to

is

to bits of
referring

Playreader

program
to

ideas from

well

is the

two
original,

the

on

for

more

play.

screen

may

on

appear

another
only "polished"

both

in

are

is

titles

given

writer's

the outside

with

view

to

the

writers

the

at

person

selection

and

developspecial

to

who

films,generally

other unusual

or

to

for
responsible

assignment of

and

TV

songs,

title for the

person

NBC

reads

scriptsand

or
rejecting
recommending

ScriptDepartment.

""

Certain

who
the

as

picture
Writers'

credit

screen

which

comedy, custom-tailored

agency

of scripts
as
editing

has

line used

writingcontributions.
ScriptEditor or Story Editor
network, studio, or

line

motion

the Screen

for the final

credit

It is not

plot.

credit

for the

four

is another

Dialogue

receive

be credited

film. It indicates this writer

same

the

will

or

of

versions

requiredfrom

ones

three

as

be

may

may

many

various

on

just which

determine

final version.

ideas.

Show

of the

Phases

Various

Discuss

later

Films

the

and

43

PERSPECTIVE

PRE-PRODUCTION

SCRIPTS, STEP-BY-STEP
terms

are

used

script.
Script,shortened

to

from

designatephases in
manuscript,is

the
production,describing

and
settings

and

production.This

dialogue(Audio) for

the

development of

the written

action

form

(Video)and
term

is also

of the

the

TV

the characters
used

in

radio,

PERSPECTIVE

PRE-PRODUCTION

44

film

stage, and

but each
production,
varying techniquesof

the

by

script,when

for television

term

Television

has

Live
each

network
particular

have

terms

no

refers to

Outline

material

to

as

form

the

story

or

or

idea. A

program

and

TV

standard

form, so

as

Synopsis is
outline

from

Outline

Treatment

is used

describes

treatment

in

the basic

and

with
specifically

more

brief but

bit of action

viewpoint (for the

is

Sequence

generallyin

incident"

one

have

may

Each

street.

of these

sequences

It refers
from

to

start

to

Title,in

by
a

which

program,

is

now

apartment,
used

seldom

story developed

at

in

addition

program

idea,

Scriptsmay

after

It differs

production

of

contain

that
of

by

lapse.The
a

of film
from

came

in

story
the

on

sequence

number

scenes

developing

scenes

time

rather

of the word.

sense

followed

word

pictures,
succeeding camera

each

series

terms

or

meaning

to

is known.

story used
may

progress

or

the

refers
lettering,

Working

may

not

be

TV,

is

scenes.

silent movies.
sequence

proper

scriptis

to

the

name

tentative

purposes

in

itself
for

name

the

early

changed.

through several stages

Script,the latter indicatingit has

concerned. The finalscriptis also called an
the final

Title

for identification

Final

In Live

form.

finish.

It
stages of production.

story or

running). Television

the film

describe

may

etc.

acter.
char-

In motion

act.

an

locale" without

sequence

"Tolerance",

or

narrative

of

is

favors

one

in the

Scenario

or

camera

to

term

underlying

reviewers.

recorded

that

duration

film

fluid narrative

of the

normallywritten

division

as

meanings, but

both

uses
loosely

it is

the stage,refers to

each

to

in that

quick digestfor critics

Scene, on
it refers

told in condensed

story,as

story

of the story,possibly

action

identification for

musical

the

of how

specialbackground

indicates

props,

treatment

or

providea

to

the

check

to

patterns and

script,certain

settings,etc.

also refers to

theme

course,

are' wise

writers

the

TV,

picture script.

motion

dialogue.
includingsignificant
Theme
is a sentence
or
single-wordsummation
thought of a plot,such as "Crime Does Not Pay"
Of

Film

meanings:
(oftenonly one-page)summary

characters

locale,and

Live

certain

short

costumes,

Story Treatment
than

the

developed.Research

will be

idea

idea
have

to

come

another

Teleplay is

producer for preferred

style.

or

developingan

In

for

completelystandardized

TV

medium.

tated
styleof scriptdic-

playform.

formats

stylewith

identical in

latter often

different

each

it is in

different

uses

uses

now

from

reached

First

Draft, to

approval of

all

Approved Script.

called
generally

Production

Script.

PERSPECTIVE

PRE-PRODUCTION

numbered

scene

identification

for

in

final revisions.

pending

Client-ApprovedScriptis
indicate

commercial

Broadcast"

any

changes actuallymade

filed for

Script,a

Continuity is
to

word

the

mean

from

is

with

marked

final version

This
filming.

departmentmaintained
copy.

of program.

type

commercial

is

version

It

is

and

transitions

word

itself.

stations

to

function

review

the

this
Occasionally

Continuity Clearance

or

networks

by

describes

which

radio

scriptor

ContinuityAcceptance
commercial

radio,

broadcastingor

in

the segments of any

is misused

by advertising
agencies to
"OK"
the
by
sponsor.

initialled

record.

permanent

between

been

from

term

used

term

script has

"As

and

each

Shooting Script,with

photography and, later,editing.

numbers,
scriptsgenerallydo not carry scene

of film

drafts

Earlier

called
scriptis generally

final

films,the

In

45

are

for the

names

all

pass upon
that

makes

scripts
all

sure

material

and
conforms
to
complieswith federal regulations,
industry
standards
of good practiceand
good taste.
Music
is another
Rightsor Music Clearance
department of stations
and networks
for seeing that permission has been
obtained
responsible
the music.
of music, writer, publisher,
Source
to broadcast
and musicians

employed

in

the

of

case

recording,all

be

must

checked

and

cleared.

Grand

Rightsare generallyrequired if a musical selection is broadcast

in a productionnumber
that runs
Grand
longer than three minutes.
rightsare cleared directlywith the copyrightowner.

*"

PLOT

Before

describe
the

plotthickens,it
types

include

apt

characters

is, of

add

to

and

course,

the

familiar

with

the writer's terms

devices

construction

dramatic

Suspense, which
be

is to

Climax

for

to

developing

refers to

the climax

of

story

the

the

indicates

becomes

often
too

their actions.

is the

at

audience

with

which

the

It

will
certainly
forces

or

and

wondering how

conflict reaches

conflict is resolved.
clarifies the

Denouement

involved

or
"fights"
competes

Motivation

action.

characters

two

keeps the

the moment

closingmoments,
plot and

of

plan

it

the

resolved.

the

it

to be

Conflict,the strugglebetween

conflict

At

is well

LANGUAGE

story form.
Plot

is

of

DEVELOPMENT

the
it may

its

peak.

Followingthis,in
climactic

the

solution

of

future of the characters. If the denouement

be called

the true

climax

impellingforce

an

and

which

Anti-Climax, meaning
so

that

distracts the audience.

drives

the

characters

in

PERSPECTIVE

PRE-PRODUCTION
is

Preview

showing
that

so

slippedinto

programs

interest

reaction

tested

so

Trailer.

Promotion

or

run
generally

less than

the

Attraction

"Coming

It is

Sneak

Preview

program

without

advance

be

can

obtained.

refer

used

to

This

is telecast

and

minute

live program.

indicates

which
trailers,

Such

audiences.

all of

or

Some

film

notice,
film

TV

theaters.

in

also is sometimes

Preview

Trailer

to

been

have

part

theater

movie

audience

actual

an

at

movies, where

the

from

borrowed

term

look

advance

an

47

Previews"

the

in

TV

used

scenes

advance

in

be

may

are

the

to

live,film,or kinescope

equivalentin

content

which

also

houses,

movie

in

show

of the

to
are

Name

called trailers

of

previews.The

or

indicate such

short

the feature

Builders"

"Audience

Two

trailer

word

build

Builders

is

the

another

Shows

TV

Coming

films,attached

movie

picture,to

Hence, Audience

Promote

to

trailed

or

coined

was
originally

for

audience

for
description

TV

the

to

on

the

to

last reel

attraction.

next

program

preview

announcements.

"Minute

Movie"

or

that

announcements

double
Audition

possiblyby

is

in
an

official

recordingfor

or

Pilot

what

the

is

in theaters

run

radio

the

series

for the

terms

are

commercial

paid advertising.
Many

as

preview

Live

role. Too,
possible
TV

TV

mercials
com-

of the

TV

is to

later films would

be

it

be

can

entire

refers

to

used

to

program-

preview

refer to

or

test

track.

sound

equivalentof
which

in

sponsor. Also, audition

intended

an

Ad-Film

this role.

testingof talent for

film in

Theater

audition

in

previewed

offer.

Film
as

TV.

It

means

the

first

guide (hence: pilot)to

PERSPECTIVE

PRE-PRODUCTION

48

short for Demonstration

Demo,
of audition

is

in the

misused
occasionally

sense

Reel or Sample Reel are

However, Demo
pilot.
accepted
which
audition or example
terms
to indicate the film footage
serves
as
an
of productionresults for a TV
commercial
producer,a writer, or others
in the industry.
or

advertising
pays

Since

understand
and

the cost

of the

some

of free

essential

TERMS

it
television,

while

terms

for that

The

Commercial

or

to define

still in the

portionof
of time

amount

three

in

minutes

the program

which

be

in the

read

for other

hours

There

half

and

programming

six minutes

for

terms

many

code.

in

The
the

Code,

time,
to

which

permitted

time

business.

this

in

is limited

Time

indicates

commercial

the

to

term

Class

For

hour.

an

correct

sponsor's
message.

Commercial

Appendix of this book,

telecasting.

of

are

hour,

the

carries

NARTB

is

is the

Announcement

specified
by the
the Allocated
peak-audiencetelecasting,
may

is well

planning stages.
Commercial

use

COMMERCIAL

TV

One

subscriber"
refers to it as a "messagefrom
tion
variaa
as
a
artfully
on
Spot or Commercial
Spot is accepted
"messagefrom our sponsor."
such slang synonyms
are
as
Blurb, Spiel,Plug,
jargonbut less acceptable

program

or

Pitch. If you
of

are

of the

member

commercial

sponsor,

spot

or

within
industry,occasionally
advisable.

are

shot
ear-

Incidentally,
spot

significant
meanings, to be discussed a few paragraphslater.
or
Spot Television is used by the industryto designateprograms
similar
from
commercials
purchased from stations, as distinguished
purchasesfrom the network. Also called Spot Broadcasting,this category
has other

than

represents more

1) spot

are

third

of

all investment
between

announcements

Spot

programs.

And,

The
in

since

the

at

so

is such

sense

the

spot
of "a

obviouslyhas

and

cluded
In-

cation
identifi-

2) station

(and

4) complete

their broadcast

Identification
time

the

longer)each

than

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number

advertisingplan
strategic

Spot

station

refers

of

meanings. It

has

within
30

or

specific

commercial

also is used

it?
announcement

identifies its call letters. Between

half -hour

local station

to

in

network.

nighttimespot."Confusing,isn't

(and approximately
every
or

stations

calls

advertising
agency

an

word

Station
run

individual

Spot Campaign
rather
bought individually

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markets

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are

programs

time.

selected.

areas) so

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programs,

within

spots, 3) participation
spots

television

in

programs
sometimes

programs

that total 60 minutes

40

seconds

in

which

to

such

run

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spots,which

the overall

20-second

I.D.

is

one-fourth

three-fourths.

the other

message

:07. The

the advertiser

gives the

the

advertiser

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the

actual

framework
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charged
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those
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requirethat

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goes

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time, before

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and

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run

viewership.

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cow-catchers

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remaining audio.

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products sold by

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station

against the sponsor'stotal

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earlier in this

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without

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are
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spot.
10- and

The

in

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approximately

run

20-second

and

also called

are

49

PERSPECTIVE

PRE-PRODUCTION

are

featured

on

catchers

cow

show.

introduced

in

smooth

50

PRE-PRODUCTION

PERSPECTIVE

the

from

transition

called

performer,

is

integrated

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and

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OF

ADVANTAGES

CREW

FLOOR

STUDIO

THE

PERSONNEL

BEHIND-THE-SCENES
EQUIPMENT

TERMS

AND

STEPS

PRODUCTION
WORDS

TV

PERSONNEL

ROOM

CONTROL

LIVE

JARGON

COMMAND,

OF

SIGNALS

VISUAL

4
TV

Live

Production

OF

ADVANTAGES

Television

LIVE

TV

its first exciting

success

undoubtedlyowes

produced live,rather

than

film. It

the fact that it

to

cle,
mirasee-it-as-it-happens
and the viewer
could see rightin his own
event:
now
room
a
living
baseball,football,
news.
wrestling,
political
campaigns,on-the-spot
the mainstaysof programming
Quiz, panel,and contest shows were

was

for in
as

these,too,

the viewer

happened.The

it

Film

hours

or

adaptableto film
the networks

Many

bitter

merits

of Live

to

used

were

film for

and

the

yet to

controversies

TV

was

cover

days, and

even

could

viewer

unable

was

Film

on

was

in
participate

an

unpredictableevent

eye-witness.

an

this

type

entertainment

It

come.

was

of program

without

programs
to be

almost

that
a

were

decade

delay of
more

before

of prime programming time.

equalamount
the relative
raged those first ten years over
and not all the rabid partisanTV production
ship

an

for either

techniquehas since ended.

In Chapter2, the distinct advantages
of the two
productionmethods
outlined. This chapterwill deal with Live TV
were
production procedures,
the next
with
Film
TV.
chapter
the program
Live TV, which
is being enacted
at the instant
signifies
it is telecast to the viewer, has these advantages:
It is faster in minimum
before
time
telecast. It is more
flexible to word
required
change and
51

52

LIVE

minor

TV

PRODUCTION

the last minute.

change at
There
production.

structure

one-time
event

or

it is difficult for
Actually,

within
both

the
have

industry"

produced

respects, the

In many

differences appear

is

seeingit

public"and

between
distinguish

to

been

the

the

it

as

sports

happens.
for

even

of

case

people

many

film

are
productiontechniques

two

alike,but

minor

personnel,
equipment, and jargon.The prime

in

ence
differ-

present the program

must

any

to fit production needs, and

scenes

if

sequences,

quality.
top potential

to

working procedures.Live television

scripted
sequence, while film may start on
other

the

live and

is in
in its

generallyless costlyfor

plus factor,in

in that the viewer

event,

news

is also that

It is

desired

graphing
photo-

scene,

editinglater to form

scripted
sequence.
To

many

gives added
behind
and

this

of the

its unpredictability
production,
the work. Trigger-quick
excitement
decisions
and
to
provisation
imare
a
challenging
requirement for the production job.But,
there must
be careful pre-planning
excitement, they know

coordinated
The

live TV

people in

experience.

producer,as

defined

producer

carry

in the

last

man
showis a combination
chapter,
and businessman, coordinating
the key staff members
in production
exercisingbudget control. On largerproductionshe may have an

and

assistant

The
authority.

Manager,
unit

as

to

assistant's

it is

is the

manager

work

all CBS

on

his

out

and

may

be

NBC

major

administrator

and

instructions

called

the

on

by

another

live shows.

set,

secondary

assume

title: Unit

the
Specifically,

responsiblefor

the

vision
super-

of the show

budget.He acts as liaison between the producer and

the production services, keeping track of the crew,
integrating time
of the physical
schedules, planningthe hour-to-hour
logistics
operation.

""

In

CONTROL

Live

TV,

the Control
and

crew

the
Room.

final creative
Here

and

is the base

performersand

for

who

actors
is

in their

picksup

the

influence

the

producer'skey
determines

is the

it to

be

telecast

stagingthe

the creative

action, molding

obviouslywill

engineeringdirection is
for directing
the actions

actual
in

He
interpretations.

the air. He

on

His

is the

PERSONNEL

centered
of the

the qualityof pictureand

controlling

Here, for final rehearsals and

man

ROOM

in

man

form

fluid

greater in

comes

show

in

floor

sound.

the Director, the

and

the
directing

charge while
of the show

the program
as

the

camera

presentation for

the

the

play,where

telecast

of

viewers.

highlycreative, than in a sports broadcast or a quiz show,

where
he is simplya good reporter of the unpredictableaction.
he may
have an Associate
Assistant
Director
On largeproductions,
or
he

can

be

LIVE

Director,

A.D.,

or

also may

stand

also

A.D.

The
Clerk

or

A.D.

or,

of the
on

Script Girl

checking the
the

the

of the director's

separatedfactors

program

director's

Director, covered

for Art

participatesin

step ahead

whose

right-handman

anticipate the

and

instructions

actual

the

its individual

Full TV

carry

in

later

minor

out

requirements. (Note

need, relayingorders

shows,

takes

TV

is to

53

that

A.D.

At CBS,
chapter).
shots

camera

for film inserts

and

the
one

other

production.

some

Live

job it

telecast, liningup

the

Control

Stage

and

segments.

Room

in

Program

(NBC)

Assistant

or

Script

of holding the script and

responsibility

actor's lines in rehearsal

and

PRODUCTION

TV

Action

on

the

Production

Monitors

Show

air,

as

well

Assistant

Camera

Views

as

or

timing
P. A.

is

LIVE

"

STUDIO

THE

the

Heading
Floor

and

actors

is the

He

Director.

the live television

on

crew

others

who

man

the set,

on

the director
The

Camera

staff. He

is

work

Camera

Sound

stage by

and

(to
a

for

be

heads

arms

wires

when

or

of

for all necessary

later the

effects

which

by

floor manager,

with

in many

the

control

he

room.

fullyin Chapter8.

more

cases

is handled

maneuvered

are

not

handle

in most

much

as

on

the

over

dollyor

this

Pusher

clear and free

possible,
includes
work
pushing the

wheeled

function)he

base

the

(when

be called

may

simplyPusher.
graduatesto the work

cases

the control

to

cameras

as

If his

movements.
on

the

connect

The

or

Camera

cable

is

man

boom

the audio

on

eraman
cam-

camera.

is the

title for the

from
stage (differing
operator).Pistol shots, door slams, and

When

abilityin

creative

fullyin Chapter 12)

the

the actors

cal
techniin-production

the

be discussed

to

are

everybody'sway

Effects Man

on

the

Like

scenes.

cables,which

camera

does

engineerwho
Sound

heads

communication

Dollyman, Dollyman,Dolly
and

communication

constant

engineer with

more

it is mounted

himself

an

about
the stage.The
dling
they move
physicaljob of hanof the Microphone Boom
the responsibility
Operator, or,
while
for
the
Cable
Man
is
Man,
responsible keepingthe

circuits,out

camera

scenery
wears

as

simply,Boom
largeelectrical
room

booms

or

of actors
this is

receiver)for

to

working under the audio engineer, in the control room.

mounted
or
pickup the spoken words may be stationary

crew

extension

or

room.

constant

discussed

Manager,

by gesture,checks
operationflowingsmoothly.He

electronics

equipment

Floor

cues

Cameraman

or

the

the director's instructions

transmits

photographingthe

Microphonesto
on

trained

headset

control

Engineer

and

composing
wears

in the

55

CREW

stage is

givessilent

keepsthe
changes,and generally
telephoneheadset (or short-wave
from

FLOOR

PRODUCTION

TV

or

who
specialist

recorded
other

effects
effects

practical
propertieson stage) may

production requiressuch

he

man,

is

from

(when

be

sound

creates

record

the

supplied

not

within

responsibleto

his domain.

audio

the

engineer.

LightingEngineer
for

or

Lighting Director

supervisingthe

illumination

on

is the

the

title of the

actors

and

sets

man

sponsible
re-

(scenic

works
with
the video
He
in close collaboration
settings).
engineer in
obtaininga well-balanced picture,achievingthe effects desired by the
director of the production.
Chapter7 discusses his work in greaterdetail.
Electricians
unoler the supervision
of the lighting
handle the lights
director.

Gaffer,for

used

in Live

the head
TV

man,

for .these

and

Juicer,are

electricians.

film nicknames

times
some-

LIVE

56

PRODUCTION

TV

Technicians

the

of the sets.
and

stage

Carpenters

electrician

Any

above

handle

They

either

the

stage hand

or

the stage and

Facilities is

working

called

individual

will be

duties

Facilities Director

house."

of the

work
frame-

Man.

well

as

elsewhere)

as

specialeffects.

Shows

smaller

some

and

Manager
front

the

as

He

who

comparableto
for the
responsible

is

with

type studios
looks

live

after the "front

of

maintenance.

the

production units,

double

may

House

be

may

is somewhat

theater

presented in

another, for

operations he

some

legitimatetheater.

ushers

house," i.e.,the

of the

Some

StagingCoordinator

his work

and

S.M.

or

also have

may

manager

floor manager

stagingcoordinator
during the actual

or

stage

rehearsal

telecast.

and

is the title for the person

Art Director

the overall

physicaldesign of

Chapter 9 will
read:

the

his work

discuss

"Production

Graphic

Artist indicates
other

the

or

work

detail. His
Direction

who

works

less than

costuming.

credit

title may

from

titles,still photographs,

40"

."

By

on

30"

differentiated

as

the

settings,and

"Art

coordinates

and

conceives

the person
art

who

greater
."

largelytwo-dimensional,

is

show,
in

Designed By

drawings and
art

title used,

one

the

in

stage manager

In

Stage

sets,

detailed.

is

Stage Manager

audiences
the

nickname

gridironor

Grid

(atNBC,

up

In
supervisorof productionfacilities.

"back

the

striking

PERSONNEL

and
wardrobe, make-up, properties,titling

called

and

Not

cluded
physicaland material requirementsfor a TV program. Inscenic
and execution, painting,
art work,
design,construction

are

the

the steel

on

be

department set

sound.

or

sets.

also may

set

union

the

create

the

camera

erecting,moving,

BEHIND-THE-SCENES

Production

all the

popularlycalled "Grips,"a

are

the

maintain

""

to

with

includes

Hollywood. Shop Carpenters build

and

erect

work

who

Stage Hands

are

down)
(taking
from

general designationwhich

production who

personnel on
included

is

in size.

Graphic

three-dimensional

settings.
direction

Art
Set

Designer who

executed

by

includes

plansand

Scenic

supervisionof

delineates

the sketches

the Costume

Painters)and

the

Scenic
for the

Designer

settings(later

Designer,who

specialwardrobe.
costumes
not
are
especially
designedfor

or

develops

sketches

and

Where
be

also

Fashion

for the
obtains

stars

Director
or

fashions

or

Stylist

Finder
principals.
in the shops.

or

is

StyleConsultant
a

slang term

for

the show, there

to
one

may

select wardrobe
who

seeks

and

LIVE

only for

not

The
production.
familiar old
for the
stars

preparationbut

costume

who

woman

stage term

Wardrobe

performerswith

operationmay

Mistress.

deliveryand handling of

or

also for costume

this

heads

costume

The

person

and

costumes

who

57

responsible
changes during

Department, simplycalled Wardrobe,

Wardrobe

The

PRODUCTION

TV

is

be
who

called
is

by

the

responsible
aids

sometimes

changesduring productionis

the

called

Dresser.

The

Drapery Department

with

its

and decorative
draperies
servicingand pressing.
fireproofing,
for all

Make-Up

and

Wigs

Draper Worker
curtains, includingthe

Draper

are

Vital

or

to

Historical

is

sponsible
re-

sary
neces-

Plays

The

for
Make-Up Supervisorand Make-Up Artists are responsible
the
of cosmetics
to the cast, not
onlyto improve their
proper application
but also to delineate facial features
(or create character types)
appearance
and
achieve
skin tones
be lightedand
that can
photographedto best
technical advantage.
Hair Stylists
ers.
designcoiffures which are then executed by Hairdress-

These
to

report to

Make-Up Department

which

in Live

TV

reports

the art director.

PropertyMen
and

the

or

decorations

called Hand

by

the

Prop
for

Props,which

actors:

horn-rimmed

Men
the

may

handle
sets.

the

ture
or
Properties
Props,the furnialso obtain
specialitems
Prop men

anythingthat is handled or carried

beer glassesfor a
or
glassesfor a professor
include

commercial.
When
Economist

food is
or

food

requiredas a prop, it is customary to

It is well to remember
on
specialist.

call in
a

TV

Home

stage that

LIVE

58

PRODUCTION

TV

the food

to photograph
probablyinedible since it is prepared primarily
In fact,because
other
appetizingly.
prop food, prop jewelry and many
the term
tation
props onlysimulate the real thing,
prop has a secondary conno-

is

"joke!"

as

Some
for

the

set

inside the studio. The

not

sources

and

the set,

handlingon
the network

as

props

Greenman

or

Greens

well
has

Man

works

takes

ment
chargeof placesuch
for obtaining
responsibility

in its

own

department.

prop

specialized
prop

who

required from

props

Man

Prop

as

is

Prop Man,

necessary

Inside

as

station

or

in supplyingand
entirely

works

who

man

handlingplants,shrubbery,trees

other

and

for the set.

greenery

Set Decorator
the

or

actual

The

Set Dresser

placement of

illusions

titles used

are

all props

SpecialEffects Man,

mechanical

Live

in

when

Room

the center

of control
does

stage (as it

in

vises
super-

charge of stagingsuch

is in

etc.

also

He

the

operates

rear

TERMS

AND

earlier,the facilities

which

room

is

for the

operation.It may not have direct view of the

radio)because a complete working knowledge is

obtained

from

tubes

Monitors, which

or

who

used.

indicated

as

means,

for the person

position.

TV,

EQUIPMENT

""

Control

in

rain, fog,snow,

as

projectionfacilities

screen

Outside

regulations
require an
and
designer
bringsin all

union

rehearsals

and

from

watchingthe

present

the

television

from

scenes

the

picturecontrol

different

cameras.

The

productionpersonnelcan see a preview of what the cameras

called Preview
are
Monitors) and instruct
shooting(hence,sometimes
the cameraman
desired. By observingthe
on
changes and movement
select the next
various
monitors, they can
scene
required to Switch or
"Punch
Up" or cut into the Line Monitor, which shows the sequence of
for
scenes
exactlyas they are being telecast on the air. Other terms
line monitor

are

Monitor,

as

Facilities

Air Monitor

and

verb, means

to

or

Fax

Master

check

Monitor.
review

or

coined
(abbreviation

by CBS)

equipment, engineeringcontrol unit, cameras,

on

fax it

that the

means

transmitted

to

Chain

includes

Fax

which

the
in

needed

and the monitor

Film

control

indicates

This

camera.

the

cameras

to

are

in

etc.

refers

When

or

scene

to

program.
live studio

the program

operationand picturesare

is

being

room.

total
Camera

facilities
requiredto
Chain

bringthe

(CBS) indicates
needed

are

TV

to

the

camera

camera's

the studio

equipment,the

pictureto

facilities of film

originatemotion

operate just
the control

one

cable
room.

projectionequipment

picture sequences

(and

LIVE

for the telecast. Another

stillpictures)

sometimes

television

(from

which

the room,
Studio

(thisone

When

located

also be termed

Control

Mascon
The

is

talk
Pentagon-like
Control

Master

generallythe

film

central

Film

or

projectionis

engineeringpoint

studios

checked

are

and
tored
moni-

picture qualityare

telecast

it appears

as

on

tuned

set

air.

Control.

for Master

called

Panel, sometimes

Patchboard,

handles

of electrical circuits.

pluggingin
control

The

the

from

and

Room

is

as

NBC,

individual

the actual

program

is the

Sound

transmission.

compared with
the

This

room.

the various

from

before

pick up

Film

Room,

and

CBS

At

interconnect.

the programs

and

refer to the facilities and

to

Telecine

59

for this is Telecine

word

or
confusing!)
ProjectionRoom.
separatedfrom the control room,

is

this is

re-evaluated

the

may

in the Master

where

to

cinema)

telephonelines

case,

it is used

and

and

PRODUCTION

TV

with the

communicates

room

the

floormanager,

men,
camera-

nicating
key personnelon the stage by Intercom, an intercommuThe
individuals
various
circuit).
speak
telephone(or shortwave
also
called
Headsets
and hear through Headphones,
Cans,
or, slangily,
the ears.
"tin cans" as worn
because they resembled
over

and

other

short for Private

PL,

address

To

Public

Address

called

the Talk

the

entire

P.A.

or

Back

dark

and
This

values

aids him

stage

System

Live

in the

rehearsal,

in

This

is used.
as

is the

TV,

for the outlets

term

tells the video

which

room

is

(alwaysused

in
Oscilliscope,

control

Line,

loudspeakersystem or
sometimes
more
chattily

is

noun).
below

indicator

engineer the
it

pictureas

intercom.

on

of

range

camera

light
stage.

on

tuating
fluccontrolling
has been nicknamed
fly
ButterGreen
waving line of the oscilliscope
or
FlyingButterfly.
ness
Gain is a popularword
to the up-down control of the blackreferring
of the

in

contrast

the volume

pictureor

video

to fade
gain"would mean
quality;
"bringdown the gain on

of the

to

color

Color

The
picturequality.

level of the audio. Hence,

in the

sound"

picturefrom
would

"turn

blackness
to

mean

lower

to

up

the

normal

the volume

audio.

Compatible

on

for better

each

in the

monitor

relative

from

comes

each

is

industryterm

an

which

the
reproduce the signal(i.e.,
sets

and

at

time

same

also

are

telecasts

in

receivingsets

black-and-white

the

refers

the

of telecasts
ability
in color
program) satisfactorily
to

in black-and-white

compatiblein
black-and-white

the
as

on

they can

sense

well

non-color

as

the color

sets.

receive

shows

in color.

Federal
after

of
regulations

experimentingwith

an

the

FCC

now

earlier color

requirecompatible telecasting
which
method
was
telecasting

60

LIVE

PRODUCTION

TV

and
non-compatible

could

so

be received

not

black-and-white

on

sets.

color

trol,
telecasting
requires considerable engineeringconwell as skill in designand lighting,
that color values will be
as
so
attained without jeopardizing
black-and-white
values. On color telecasts,
the control room
cal
normallyhas a separate line monitor showing the identi-

Compatible

black-and-white

picturein
Test
refers
to

to

that constant

so

Pattern, also called

Teepee,

the

geometric designsused

specialchart

test the focus and

color

of

This

cable

radio
"Not

or

is

TV.

Remote

the
from

word

The

from

is

In such

popular
the

point of origin as

cases,

meanings

(NBC

before

Color)

receiving sets

have

may

Field

pick-upis

in the

such
a

word

broadcast

outside-studio

telephonecompany
for

such

Pick-Up
the

Pick-Up, on

in

meaning

term

it

means

broadcast

is used

or

as

Outside

playingfield

of

originating
noun

to

cate
indi-

Pick-Up, away
a

cast,
sports broad-

pictureprojection(within the studio).

motion

also used

business:

an

expressionPick-Up
in Remote

Pick-Up,from

transmitter.

Office."

Main

the studio. Also

Film

the station

from

comes

more

the studio, or
or

that home

engineeringjargon for

Emanating

outside

Unit

cameras.

for the

relayto

microwave

or

Nemo

engineers

focus and

is the

Unit

automotive

by

the

the station

by

T.P.,

to

more

by

made.

framing.
in
name
equipment mounted
telecasting
the
that originateoutside
trucks for televising
live events
and transmits
its signal
control room
unit provides its own

Mobile

studio.

the air

on

still

be

can

of live television

Mobile

hours, so
telecasting

opportunity to check

an

telecast

Control

Master

after normal

shortened

or

reproductionvalues

A similar test pattern is sometimes

or

comparison

as

verb. Pick up

has many

in

"pick up

speed

up

as

other
the

loose

tempo";

LIVE

attack

accelerated

an

or
speech";

dialogue,"make

on

refer to the device

to

equipment, similar

on

next

your

playback
sound"

the

"picksup

recordings.

from

Telecruiser
which

truck

The
of

simplyCruiser

or

the

carries

Oversize

placed on

or

audio

the trade

is

TelePrompTer

Typewriter

near

script,in largetype

and

Auto-Cue

Telepro is

the

Telemat

is

behind
In

actor

of

lieu of such

other

hand-lettered

cards

Cue
correctly

Cards,

held

actor's

of

for the actors

mechanical

but

can

just outside
sometimes

ability

keep

to

Above

easilyread

it.

Camera

The

Lens

plete
com-

large

read.

range.

terms

are

rely on

sometimes

actors

camera

memorize:

method

control

puttingthe scripton

to

other

devices.

productionfactors.

contrivances

to

TelePrompTer

prompting
indicatinga remote

TelePrompTer'ssystem
cameras

justfor him,

mechanical

name,

cause
be-

now

the TelePrompTer
on
line-by-line
used
by the performer.
^delivery

projectionand

screen

the

the
evaluating

trade

mention

unreeled

is

pace

similar

are

another

handlingrear

screen

the

unit

electrically
operated device

an

TelePrompTer

where

cameras

accordingto
Tele-Q

for

for

needs

obtains

the studio

mobile

pick-ups.

but
chapter,

name

for the

used

names

for remote

later

special
equipment
jogged.

some

are

equipment

worth

is well

actor

his memory

of

61

of audio

arm

photographs,which

home

to

quickpick up

the extension

on

PRODUCTION

TV

These

used,

are

brutally

more

Goof

Sheets, Idiot

each

camera

called

Sheets, or

Idiot Cards.
Actors

Lights or
or

Preview

also

are

aided

by

Tally Lights.Each
Light"when

the

lightson

camera

lit" indicates

has

two

that

called

The
lights.

Warning
Light

Green

camera
particular

is

now

LIVE

work

The

of

each

since

is

of cost

in terms

words:

two

of time, talent

the

the

scriptin

in the

and
business,including
financial,
physical

Nose"

slangindicatingthat

is

schedule.

Another

verb

required.The

say, there

to

the

other

are

timing

of

way

ing,
Block-

Breakdown, although

or

analysisof

materials

or

And, needless

exactlyon

is

indicate

to

63

is called

down.

the

rehearsal

advance,

in

out

shots

camera

break

breakdowns
"On

often used

more

of

sequences

is blocked

move

this word
or

planningthe

PRODUCTION

TV

terms

form

is

types

of

nervous
.

show

of the

or

saying this

is "On

the

be

Over.

But

Button."
When

show

this doesn't

is too

mean

longin

broadcast

(finished )

over

it

time, it is said

means

Somethingmay
length.

in

over

have

be

to

Cut,

that it has

note

deleted. Cut

or

other

Under
and

added
"Pad

this is called

noun

the pace

Spread

of the

refers to

over"
only"slightly

and

faster

pacing may

running short. Something may

Padding, or material to take up the
is

the show
Occasionally
performers.
a
periodof time allowed

of the actual broadcast.

For

instance, in

Stretch

can

in rehearsal

have

to be

extra

time.

by slowing
for later

comedy show,
laughterand applause

of

reverse

from

the end

know

the exact

time

on

of the
he must

arrive

at

the

scriptto

in

will

that the director

so

pointin

any

time

out

come

schedule.
For

certain

emergencies,in
sections

Cuts

Stake-Outs, and

or

"justin

long,the director
deletion,and
possible

show

is

scriptmarked for
OptionalCuts, Emergency Cuts,

to

as

the

case

in the

referred

familiar

way

have

these

are

Cuts, Provisional

Planned

them

mark

to

may

is

J.I.C.,meaning

case!"

"Freeze

It!" is

scriptchanges.The

jargon to
scriptis

to

WORDS

"

The

show, backwards,

pansion
ex-

half-hour

spread may be allowed for audience

when
the air.
it is actually
on
Back-Timing is the precautionarypracticeof computing

three minutes

but

in this usage

verb

or

out," verb-wise.

it

down

is

the show

means

in this business.

usages

Tightindicates a show
bringit out on schedule.

can

be

to

control

indicate
be

OF

used

there
as

will

be

no

further

cuts

or

it is at that moment.

COMMAND,

JARGON

has

staccato
developedits own
jargon in Live TV to
work
Words
of command
have to be brisk,
keep the rapid-fire
pulsating.
action
descriptiveand unmistakablyclear as they call for split-second
over

the

room

intercom.

"Stand

By" commands

the

crew

and

cast

to be

ready to

go

on

the air

LIVE

64

PRODUCTION

TV

Familiar electric signsin studios often are

momentarily.
followed
signal,
by "On the Air!" A stand-by(noun) is
held

"Take

event

used

sometimes

of the program,

describes

television

"Take
.

each

or

program

nouncer
an-

regularlyscheduled

"You're

to say

Studio"

"Release

same

sense

people.) Film

two

as

the

on

is another

air." And,
of

way

saying

instance, if

For

for the next

liningup

Three!"
.

This

the

he
split-second

is

to

is

the word

to

are

be

serted.
in-

"Hit It!"

or

title card.

another

change

to

cameraman

Three

the number.

hears

change to

to

ture.
pic-

camera

on

roll-uptitles

or

TV

"Ready Three,"

will prepare

"Hit Film!"

by

command

intercom

an

film

the command

is
"Change!"or "Flip!"

Flip!also

will alert with

switcher

when

be commanded

may

now

"Roll It!" is the command

in Live

different

The

change the picture in

and

to

take,but

being telecast,and

shot, the director

"Take

command:

is

shot

switch

to

Two

camera

pickedup by the live

snapshot.(Hence, a "two-shot"
view

calls each

TV

." is the director's command

"Take"

singlecontinuous

in the

camera,

shot with

then

in

use

flash this

off the air!"

Shot

Away!" is

It

the end

"You're

is

for

reserve

the

to

fails.

program

at

in

the

used

from

one

lens to another.
to Black!" tellsthe

"Go

This, like

the

fade out the

engineerto

drawing of

the end

curtain, indicates

ness.
total black-

to

scene

of

segment

in the program.

"Pictures,Please!"

is

familiar

request

the

to

after

cameramen

brief rest

the

period.
'TightenUp!" is a command
"Loosen
Conversely,
subject.
for

largerview,

to

Up!"

or

obtain

of

closer view

Shot!"

the

"Widen

mands
com-

are

by backingup (or changing

obtained

be

to

to

cameramen

lenses).
directs the

"Frame!"

commands

other

Various

in," "pullback,"

"boom

to

cameraman

the

to

the

center

the

subjectin
would

cameramen

include

"truck left,"and
up," "pan right,"

the

sound

that

scene.

"dolly
many

obvious variations.
Woof!

has

no

literal

meaning

as

word

but

is

audio

three

"One
two
engineerslike to use in checkingoperations.
woofl" is a familiar speechgiven to see if a mike is open and working.
And
"Three
timepieces,
one
two
woof."is used to synchronize
engineersto replace"okay and
woof meaning zero. It is used by some
.

good-by."
VISUAL

""

"Pick

It

Up!" is

the

command

to

SIGNALS

speed up

pace

when

the timing of the

LIVE

PRODUCTION

TV

65

tight.There is a visual gesture for this, used by the floor

the command
He points
to the performers:
to indicate
silently
manager
the person to be speeded up, then whirls it rapidlyin
toward
a forefinger
is

program

circular motion

mentioned

"Stretch!"
the

conveying

the

on
forefinger

the

over

serves

nose

"Cut!"

meaning

ask

as

the silent

to

stop, end

knife

the

across

"Okay!"is
technician

Throw

The
signal.
a

new

action.

in

visuallyby
quit,is signalled
like an imaginary
and slashing

is the

During

scene.

there

circled
or

forefinger-to-thumb
gesture.

visual,which

A Hand

Cue

prompts

an

actor

or

given by gesture,a Light

is

electric bulb.

floor manager,

hence

cues,

verbal
signal,

an

Cue

it, cease,

the familiar

course

by turningon

Cue

in

of

performan

to

in

jugularvein.

refers to any

Cue

as
together,

question.

the throat

toward
pointingthe forefinger

hands

gesture

pullingtaffy.
earlier,is signalled
visually
by placing
the nose?", a hooked
"are we
on
finger

widely apart,as
To

nose.

visual

The

down!"

"slow

by puttingthe

is made

command

the Nose!" also mentioned

"On

faster."
"rolling

wheel

means
earlier,

pullingthem

then

prayer,

describe

to

are

popularway

to

describe

for instance, will throw

the

act

cue

to

the show, the floor manager

start the actors

relyon

must

silent

signalsaccepted throughout

hand

many

givingthe

of

the

industry:
effect

in
"Ready!",

with

indicated

the

that
alerting
and

arm

the

is about

cue

to

come,

"Go!"

forefinger
pointingupward. For

down, pointingat the

comes
forefinger

"Go!"

is

the

performer.

to the actors
is indicated
by bringinghands
Together!"
this action, the hands
together,
palms in. "Move Farther Apart!"reverses
beingpushed apart,palms out. "Come Closer to the Camera!" is signalled
Farther
Away
by moving the hands toward the face, palms in. "Move
from
this action, the hands
from Camera!"
reverses
being moved
away
face, palms toward
performers.
be indicated
Louder!"
by raisingthe open palm of the
"Speak
may

"Move

Closer

"Speak Softer!" would be a slow loweringof the open

Conversely,
palm.
by hand motions. For minutes-toTiming cues can also be signalled
crooked
number
of fingers
is held up" one
finger(or
go, the appropriate
Such time sigcrossed in a plussign)indicating
a half-minute.
two
nals
fingers
hand.

are

essential to any
can

"Wind
is indicated

circular

wind

up

motion.

without

which
an

works

without

cue

clenched

that the performers

scriptso

abrupt closing.

stations
given in some
fingerpointingstraight
up

Up!"" a

by

show

fist can

mean

the

at

and

15 seconds
moved

same,

in

to

closing-

winding,

for
especially

sicians.
mu-

silent

Other

and

is

or

signalled

with

in

which

by

movement

one

finger

signal
down,

of

the

of

dolly
all

first

is

hand

the

to

be

alerts

the

the

"Fast!"

is

with

the

describing
for

indicated

this

line

dolly

"Slow!"

for

the
"Go!"

pusher.

dolly

extended;

hand

camera

signal,

"Ready!"

forward,

palm

made.
of

fingers

the

of

movement

only

extended.

the

is

camera

palm

maneuverable

sweeping

the

on

desired

its

direction

dolly
is

or

pedestal,

given

to

indicate

as

simple
up,

right, left.
"Stop!"

might

having

is

Where

the

floor.

studio

upward,

wave

one

the

control

to

the

on

pointed

forefinger

curve

given

are

cues

production

during

dolly
arm

PRODUCTION

TV

LIVE

66

do

it.

is

indicated

That's

with

enough"

the

stop!

hand

held

up

stationary,

traffic

cop

ADVANTAGES

OF

FILM

TV

ON-THE-SET
BEHIND-THE-SCENES
TYPES

FILM

OF

SCENES

STUDIO
OF

WORDS

TV

Film

OF

of

took

time
were

TV

developmentbefore
took nearlyforty
years

of
It

stories.

(1927)

FILM

century ago, the firstmotion

fifteen years

dramatic

COMMAND

Production

ADVANTAGES

Two-thirds

JARGON

the

first experiments in

it

picture was

began

to

to

learn to

another

put

film. It

tell its first crude

speak.And
medium,

new

on

by

that

television,

beingdemonstrated.
By 1950, when
to

come

ot

the old

age,

man

they were

sixtyand

was

to

be rivals in

the

ning
youngster justbegin-

wooing

the

public.At first,

Hollywood laughedat the upstart,and almost too late the brightyoungster

taken
was
seriously.
The
pathetically
earlyprogram films produced for TV were
poor,
until
dramatic
Fireside Theater, a
not
anthology
creatively
inept.It was
that the
series, and I Love
Lucy, a situation comedy, achieved success
feature film industry
began to take notice. Better writers, producers,stars
the major
craftsmen
and
and eventually
turned
the new
medium
to
studios,specifically
impressedwith the critical and financial victory of
Walt Disney'sTV
debut, joinedthe trend.
By 1955, networks were
programming, in prime, nighttimeperiods,
Film
Live
much
TV
as
as
TV, and the two techniquesbegan to be
weighed on their individual merits.
Film
these separate advantages.
Previous
chaptershave enumerated
67

68

FILM

TV

it has

TV,

and
This

PRODUCTION

been

pointed out,

improve

so

is able

the

portion or

any

permits better performanceby

and

productionstrain
It has
It is

broader

choice

flexible to

more

at

entire

of locales. It is less

programming

craftsmen, with

program.
less deadline

their schedules.

to

costlyfor repeat telecasting.

various

on

of the

convenient

more

tion
duringproduc-

scene

structure

talent and

time

each

review

to

stations

different

at

cast
broad-

hours.
It has
Live

TV

also been

but film's time

can,

recommended

TV

photographanything

can

for

tates
laboratory
processing and editingnecessiFilm
is rarelyto be
productionand telecasting.
speed or the cost of a singletelecast are dominant

delay between

that Film

pointedout

when

factors.
Film TV
production,
photograph in program

differs

In
and

one

at

scene

Production

personnelis

4).The

functions

repeat, the

it. In

most

director

Film

accepts

or

work.

well

to

(Chapter

TV

Chapter 3.

in

story, decides

administers
the

on

writer,

productionand

of the

elements

be

the
for interpreting
responsible

man

his hands.

he

be

may

even

completelysatisfied

with

the

directs

in

actors

in film than

opportunityto

an

the

writer's

control of

the

true

more

has
theoretically

film director

the

casting and

This

make
re-

interpretation.

ON-THE-SET

director's

staff and

distant

control

deadlines.
split-second
more

an

The

hour,

Assistant

and

cast.

on

crew

in live TV.

team
equivalent

crowded,

and

is also

are

they

often

are

shout

largerthan

much

not

hampered by working

do

not

have

to

be

may

face

the

in

same

running $3,000

plan with precision.

the

director's

orders

to

the

camera,

louder

the assistant.

Second

Assistant

major productions.

Dialogue Director

timekeeperand payrollclerk. One of his more

"Quiet!"and Hollywood generally
recognizes

quieter the director,the

The

and

conveys

that the

requiredon

They

they must

duties

is to

film set

the

Nonetheless, the expense

Director

He

room,

obvious

is

sequence.

might

pacing, the shadingsof meaning,

The

until he is

scene

the

the human

is the

Director

in live because

crew,

same,

program
it

graphs
photo-

budget.

in
primarily

are

selects

normally has approvalon

their creative

or

and

and

organizesthe production and

Producer

he

the

Film

story.He

the

in
necessarily

the
basically

stars, coordinates

over

The

The

it rehearses

in Live
job responsibilities
covered
producerand writer were

of the

cases,

and

watches

mood

these not

rehearse

not

the definitions of these

compare

To

that it does

Instead,

sequence.

time, and

in
especially

assists

the director

in

quite another

way.

He

FILM

makes

the

certain

know

actors

their

lines, advises

and timing.
pronunciation,
Production
Manager or Unit Manager
the producer).He
of the set (representing

pacing, diction,

on

is the title of the

administrator

schedules,

coordinates

hour-to-hour

of day-to-day
and
planslogistics

and

crew,

69

PRODUCTION

TV

bles
assem-

physical

needs.
Film

In

TV,

key" even

by the union
Photography as a screen

of

important than

more

called

the Cameraman,
Director

vital

credit).He

artist

creative

lightand
The

is

second

Log
that

is also

is needed

film

loads

where

more

each

additional
Since

film

than

in Live

focus

reference.
laboratory

also

keeps

and

Sometimes

in film

operate

only one

live. In the

camera
rare

production,the

stances
in-

first

and

assistant

for

story sequence,

it is the

task

additional

an

in

more

to

men

However,

TV.

is used

camera

one

certain

it is correct

as

actor
a

not

are

scenes

or

will still have

pacing.
tor
Opera-

operator

camera.

ScriptClerk

an

sense

He

camera.

film,checks

normally requiresthree

crew

of the

instance, if

the

and

Camera

the

on

in every

mood

in

camera

required.

supervisesall,with

cameraman

work

actual

interpretwith

must

Camerman,

againsttwo, three, or

film,as

in

for

scenes

opposed to only one

as

camera,

of

Second

mechanical

who

record

or

assistant

Note

the

handle

he

director's desires

the

Cameraman

Assistant

the Camera

craftsman, because

has
generally

Operator,to

an

as

movement

camera

cameraman
first
or

has

well

as

is

prefers
for the
responsible

of the set, the composition of the picture and the

lighting
detail. He is
work. Chapter7 will discuss his work
in more
a

TV"

(but who

First Cameraman

Live

in

is

shot in normal

ScriptGirl

to

props, and

costume,

to

smoking as

cigarettewhen

track

keep

he walks
walks

he

other

toward
the

out

of each

details

the door
door

and

scene

be

(so that, for

in Sc.

in Sc. 94

93, he

when

it

photographednext week!) She (or he) also holds the scriptto prompt
and to time the scene
lengths,
actors, to note
any changesin the dialogue
be achieved.
a
on
commercials, where
requiredlength must
especially
An efficient scriptclerk is essential in any smoothlyoperatingfilm production.
is

The

Chief

desires.

cameraman

the film set as

for lighting
responsible
probableneeds and "roughsin"
anticipates

Electrician
He

is

lighting,
awaitingfinal instructions.
(from the old Anglo-Saxonword
called

Best

Other
and
light)
used

to

for

electrician

is also called

His
grandfather).

the

Gaffer

first assistant

is

Boy.
include

electricians
the

An

the

Spot Man,

the
distinguish

man

the

Lamp

the electrician
who

handles

on

the

Operators (one
the

for

each

Dimmer
spotlight.

special
equipment

Man

for

big
is

gradu-

FILM

record the sound

system"cameras,
These

in

the

negative with the picture.

same

corded
qualityof sound remethod.
"double-system"

the

industry,as

inferior to the

is considered

is

used

widely

not

are

the

on

separate or

between
pictureand sound
Synchronization
the motor
achieved
drivingthe
by interlocking

drivingthe

that

TV, film work

Live

such
production,
and

Art

for the

one

the

the

on

the

screen

term

wardrobe

man

under

Designer work

Costume

for
Supervisorresponsible

Wardrobe

maintenance.

costume

woman

or

aration
prep-

also

be

may

set.

Artists,in Film

Make-Up

TV,

are

than
greater specialists

even

Hollywood requiresseparate classifications for

body make-up. Hence,

different

tor,
Direc-

Director, Dance

of
clause in the contract
specific
of the word
the use
except
prohibits
overall production.
Only one director
to

Designer (orSet Designer)and

requiredon
TV.

for

please.

set,

and

and

which

directs the

who

direction,with

Live

with

equipment

to prepare
specialists

titles

credit

in

used, due
officially

person

Scenic
art

However,

Directors' Guild

Screen

staff of

requires a

CastingDirector, Musical

the

as

Director.

"director" is not

on

sound

this

and

mandatory

BEHIND-THE-SCENES

in

the

is

equipment.

camera

+"

As

71

PRODUCTION

TV

one

persons,

bathingbeauty

the neck

from

must

up, the other

be

facial

make-up
up by two

made

from

in

down!

neck

the

for
needed
and Home
Economists
are
occasionally
Stylists
film productions,
commercials.
especially
specialclassifications for film
Hollywood, of course, has numerous
sions
tricks and illuin unusual
SpecialEffects Man is a specialist
production.
His work
is outlined
such as artificial rain, fog,snow.
more
fully
in Chapter 13.
Fashion

Wrangler

bus
your

be driven

who

simpleunion designationfor the man

location,Hollywood requiresthat each

by

in the

man

union.
transportation

be

has

its obvious

generallyknown

hours

California
of each

that
which

day

on

meaning,
teacher

a
uses

the

set

must

baby. A

examination
physician's

in

even

be

must

children

Nurse, likewise,is requiredin

a

tant
impor-

an

car,

drives

truck, and

Sorry,you can't drive

own!

in

four

On

car.

Teacher
not

other livestock"

horses and

is the

Driver
or

handles

who

one

in Westerns.

man

truck

is

be

within

given to

California

also is

Hollywood, but it
employed on any

on

school
school
any

age. At

duction
proleast

work.

movie

requiredbefore

may

and

set

using

after the

72

FILM

TV

PRODUCTION

baby'scamera

and

work,

the number

of minutes

under

lightsand

on

is limited.

camera

""

There

TYPES

are

types

many

the

jargon on
Silent

Silent
"mit

sound!"),
Mute,

out

such

scenes

Wild
been

without

Sound

Sync

British

the

Direct

Sound,

which

sound

(itis

video

priate
appro-

only).

(from a foreigndirector's
Wild
ing
or
designation,
Footage, indicat-

the

usual

synchronizedsound.

indicates

and

picture

track

which

made

ously,
simultane-

audio

sound

has

both

the

camera

playbackmechanisms)

at

synchronization.
Recording

Direct

indicate

are

drive

motors

(orpre-recordedsound

achieve

to

the

M.O.S.

token,

same

indicates

speed

constant

know

to

accompanying picture.

mechanisms

sound

terms

it is well

synchronization.
Specialinterlock

in

and

Sound, by the

recorded

SCENES

without

be called

keyed to

not

are

and

scenes

being shot

sometimes

may

FILM

set.

the film is

means

scenes

of film

OF

the

sound

is

and

Dialogue Sequence

recorded

as

the

action

other

are

graphed,
photo-

is

in sync.

Live

Action

which

scenes

Inserts

hands

actor's

an

the

commercial

TV

generalstudio

or

are

field to

indicate
guished
distin-

photography,as

scenes

which

show

close

detail

action

or

actor's

to the story. An
face)especially
significant

be shown

closeupof

appointed hour,

in

cartoons.

Cut-Ins

his feet
may

or

might be:
the

actors

animated
or

used

term

feature

from

(other than

is

in this

hand

spoon

type

pickingup
dippinginto

shot. For

revolver,

bowl

insert

-instance,an

of

clock

cereal

nearing

in

mercial.
com-

is not needed
actor
(a substitute hand may be
original
used
with
identical
clothingin the background) and since a smaller
such scenes
union
is requiredfor insert photography,
crew
generallyare
shot at a later time.
Many productioncompanies have insert studios
where
these scenes
are
staged and photographedto match
separately
the previousaction. Consequently,
it is economically
important to mark

Since

carefullyall

the

insert

in

scenes

script.

simply called Stock, indicate

other source.
have been photographedby some
previously
of Paris, a sunset
the ocean,
a liner dockingall
a scene
on
Stock

which

Stock
but
from

are

Shots, sometimes

the type that

scenes

are

it is often

the

sold

can

on

be

obtained

footagebasis

difficult to obtain

correct

angle

and

from
and

the exact

matching

the

scene

For
are

which
instance,

stock shots

stock

the various
are

scenes

libraries.

relatively
inexpensive,
desired,

qualityof

photographed

the

rest

of

the

footage.Thus
is

it is

readilyavailable
Library

studio
from

in
an

Shot

important
before

outside
film

immediatelyavailable
Shot

Process

This
a

may

Process

be

to

with

combined

are

with

refers

done

Screen,

the

use

their

in

shot

desired

script.

shot

but

refer

to

term

in

scene

which

in any

to

the

photographicrather
of several

which

shots

on

than

an

behind

the

actual

often

flat material

frame

in

actors

More

ways.

largetranslucent

picture screen) stretched

motion

in

stock

73

are

files.

own

any
a

the

PRODUCTION

generallyby a
in its own
as
library,
opposed to material
cellaneous
stations
TV
keep such a libraryof mis-

Some

footageand

certain

for stock

used

material

source.

TV

indicatingit

so

is sometimes

referringto

make

to

FILM

ground
fore-

ground.
back-

it is done

(similarto

the

actors.

The

requiredpicture background (previously

photographed)is projected
from
When
the live actors
the rear.
are
placed at a distance to this
records
the illusion of a real background.For
rear
image, the camera
automobile
the set, plus a rear
instance, a driver in an
on
projection
which
shot
scene
was
previously
moving along a city street, gives the
illusion of actually
ridingon that street.
The
called
R.P.

correct

term

for this is Rear

but
Projection,

Screen

it is also

Back
Process
Background Projection,
Projection,
Projectionand
York
abbreviation
for Rear Projection).
(the last is a New

With

stillphotographsor

Transparency Process,

so

named

transparentphotographsused
The

material

used

drawings this
for the

in the

rear

may

also be

called

Stereo

glassslides
transparencies,

or

or

projector.

for such

ground
backgroundsis called a Plate or BackPlate or Process
Plate,the word platehaving derived from the
When
days when only a still photographicplatecould be so projected.
the background is to move,
motion
picturefilm is necessary. The motor
of the projectorbehind
the process screen
is synchronizedwith
the
of the film in the precise
motor
to projecteach frame
drivingthe camera
that the camera
l/24th of a second
is photographingit.
Pre-Record
sound
Pre-Score
track before photogto record
means
or
raphy.
This
musical
is done
utmost
on
especially
productionswhere
qualityin sound is required.Singers record in an acoustically-perfect
studio until a satisfactory
ing
performanceis achieved. This specialrecordlater when
is used
photographyis done.
Mouthing or Miming are terms for the action of the playerbefore
the camera
he moves
his lipsin apparent synchronization
as
to the prerecording.
In

films,he may

can
angles,so the camera
editing.
Playback (in addition

do

this

number

of times, from

photograph a variety of
to

being defined

as

any

shots

sound

for

number

choice

of
in

reproduction

74

FILM

PRODUCTION

TV

Rear

is the

machine)

far

Projection

on

method

the set, for

of

with
the camera.
synchronization
heard
by everyone on the set; the

The

sound

it is the

later the sound

sync;

track used

on

and

the

at

The

the

cameras

pictureare

will be used

of

course

Sees

If

it is locked

time

same

playback machine
photograph the
edited

playbackis called

prime recordingwhich

it is
By pre-recording,
singingvoice. (This,by the

Cameraman

reproducing the pre-scoredor

miming,

in

apparent

the

As

TV

for the

term

pre-recordedsound

Live

possibleto

final
use

in

perfectly.

Track, meaning

Master

in the

action

match

to

be

can

production.

another

be done in
can
technique,
point out that a playback machine

person's
Live

same

TV.)

also
might be well to
may
be worked
broadcast. As, for instance, when
it is necessary
by short wave
to photograph a
dialoguesequence at a nightclubtable where a big
musical
review
is being staged in the background.The
music, prerecorded,
is played by short wave,
pickedup in the hidden ear-receivers
and musical
talent. So, with the stage
(short wave) of the chorus girls
completelyquiet,the dialogue is picked up clearlyfor later editing
It

with

the other
In

and

scenes

sound

instances, words

some

track
or

sound

for the musical

are

recorded

sequence.
after

the

actual

silent

photographyis completed (or, in rare instances, if the dialogue

recorded
and
be so corrected).This
is not
is called
can
satisfactory
Post Synchronization,
Post Dubbing or Lip Sync.
The
continuous

film

scene

or

which
strip,

recordingstudio

can

the
is

match

previousdialogue is

played again
it

and

formed

again

for pace
satisfactorily

into

until the
and

Loop,

voice

or

in the

inflection. Such

used in making foreign-language

post-dubbingoperationis ingeniously
of feature pictures,both in Hollywood and abroad.
versions
a

the

As

Viewer

Sees

Film

JARGON

It is

sequence.
that

scenes

Studio

that

usuallytakes
finish all

expensive,hence

is

new

one

have

may

to

identical

use

to be

struck

so
shooting,
camera
moving lights,

it is

and

in

the

group

settings.
or

taken

of
Further, the lighting

erected.

requiredbefore

scenes

that

scenes

the actual

than

time

more

set

be

can

the

and

expensivetalent

necessarilyshot

not

are

for instance,
efficient,

and

economical

more

use

space
so

previouslymentioned,

as

scenes,

down

It

STUD/0

75

PRODUCTION

TV

FILM

set

speedierto
equipment

elsewhere.

these

All
Schedule

the

this

the

the sets

calls,and

other
he

Hollywood

this

turn

studios

allocates

or

Production

lists the sequence

this

the

the

on

crew

set.

and

in

producermay
to
over
responsibility
the size of the studio
of the

heads

space, and

schedules

operation

of the

budget is

It also lists their

their individual

his unit

out

this call

manager

and

equipment

future set construction.

of productionand
efficiency
at

stake.

or

operation.In major
of different departments

involved, plans manpower

logistics

studio

out

Calls,that is,

make

The

daily conference

or

mapped

is

their individual

and

required,the

particularplanningphase, the

successful

Breakdown

Shot

make-up

the props

depending on

decides

needs,

and

for

pertinentdata.

may

else

someone

or

lists the actors

arrive

to

wardrobe,

sheet, or

Breakdown

preparing the Shooting

in

photographed.
productionbreakdown, each day'swork

they are

time

computed

will be

Sheet, which

Call

be

analyzesthe shootingscriptand

which
scenes

From
on

Shooting

or

Breakdown,
which

factors must

In

the

76

FILM

PRODUCTION

TV

call

The
whether

sheet

also

will

photography is

indicate

be

to

which

is

stage

Location, meaning

on

be

to

used

or

from

away

the

studio.
Exterior
which

is not

be

to

appears

be

to

confused

outdoors

with

Interior

that the

means

Each
building.

in

scene

Int. for interior

exterior

or

achieve

in

the
lighting

manufacturingplant where
If

proposed

the

call sheet

scheduled
schedule

the

day

has

studio

production may

Cover

Set, as

it

television,refers

to

live

in

runs

to

would

both

the

verb

to

drawn

that

the

action

each

be

done.

the

ments,
ele-

an

alternate

as

up

in the

tute.
substiso

emergency

be

other

sense

these

picked
snapshot.Note
view

as

Takes,

single scenes

"Let's take the

noun.

now!"

scene

told

for his

one,

take 2,
the

the

"printonly

to

did

actors

camera

or

good, not

no

the desired

follow

not

footage
3." This

takes 1 and
or

camera

film

of

log

N.G.,

was

technicians

sound

were

satisfied with
Retake

retakes

quality.
rephotography of a scene
the
of some
is requiredbecause
error
after the
made
at a later date, possibly
indicates

that

sound

are

or

re-recordingof

first time.
film has

picturehad to go back for retakes."

have
mistake, studios rarelyadmit that scenes

edited.

even

indicates

"The

the

they simply announce

cast

is

back

being called

Generally,
viewed

been

Since
to

for

retake

reshot,

be

Additional

Scenes.
Slate is the
at

is

scene.

separate length of footagethe

cameraman

because

or

same

photographthe

or

assistant

laboratory
may

because
processing,possibly

dialogueor

be

large

shootingis

cases

singlecontinuous

the

in

and

of Shoot

The

indicate

worth

as

sense

scene.

the

such

most

gives "cover"

generally calls

take refers

noun,
a

before

penalty.In

camera,

production more
in

on

going

is to

shot

wasted.

is used

As

day

indoor

is not

the verb

the

p.m.

for

Permitting. The

Weather

or

for

film

which

call without

the live television

by

that

until

W.P.

be

may

studio

effect to

buildingis to
dependent on

open,

Shot,
up

indicate

may

the

cancel

is called

the

is

ficial
arti-

Ext.

what

interior

an

from

under

indicate

knows

also to note

in

scene

setting inside

must

cameraman

to

This

so

scripttherefore

is out

to

studio

indoor

an

photographyinside

schedule

production company

or

simulates

It is well

set.

inside

scene

that the

so

It refers

building),
althoughit

location,if,for instance, the tripaway

on

not

of

scene

movie

within

(not

possibleto photograph this type

lights.

location.

the

name

beginningof

number,

take

of the small

black

take

reveal

each

number,

to

director,

board

held

in front of the

data
identifying

cameraman,

day,

film

about

camera

the

scene

emulsion, and

FILM

indicated
originally
but

actual

an

appliesto

it

now

and
laboratory

vital to

information

other

slate
wood

various

Slate

accomplish the originalpurpose.

board,

the

or

actual

film;also

resultant

it,'take 2.'

have

been

slate is used

as

verb

indicate

the

photographedon

the

to

noun

the

indicate

to

which

devices

"Slate

action

"

also

Slatingis

recorded

by the sound technicians

beingphotographedby the

used

term

the slate is

While
recordings.
will be

as

name

chalked,

was

mechanical

or

is used

of it which

frames

the information

boards

77

handling.The

editorial

which

on

PRODUCTION

TV

saying, for instance,

their
identify

to

voice

camera,

3, take 2." Following this,

"Scene

sight-sound
signalwill cue both picture and sound in synchronization
will be slappeddown
For instance, a hinged board
to begin the scene.
This also will be seen
on
at the top of the slate,making a sharp noise.
the optical
film sound
or
track,and the action of the Clap-Sticks
Clapthe slate,
Board
or
Clapper-Boards or Slap Sticks,or just Sticks hitting
the picturefilm will be matched
with the mark
of the clap
as
seen
on
the track by the editor to sync
on
piecesof film,so that all
up the two
subsequentsound and picturewill match.
the camera
and
recorder
and
Because
sound
start
ently,
stop independeven
though they run at synchronousspeeds, it is necessary to
a

have

sticks

the

at

of each

start

sound

take. The

takes

N.G.

will

not

be

in

lieu

printed.
End
of

Slate

roll of film. This

chart

Television

film
art

as

end

of

scene

1/5 of the

scale

gray

will

is the

that the

so

see

his home

on

colors of
have

call
affectionately

of the

probablepicture
from
the full
distinguished

area

set,

all the

laboratorymay

sometimes

for the

term

reveals

and

each

as

and
Consequently,the cameraman
throughthe camera.
make
for the fact that approximately
specialallowance

seen

directors

edge

area

of the

reception.Actually,8%

normally allowed

at

picturein
the

level of the

studio

top

for this "lost"

is held within
lettering
Riser is the quick term

and

will be

bottom
Essential

area.

the

TV

television

for

movable

Apple-Box (Hollywood)

don't

confuse

latter with

is

popular

term

name

for

any

and

each

on

information

such

or

and
side

is

titles

as

(See illustration.)
to

props. For

or

Pancake

for actors'
film

12/2%

platformused

floor for actors, musicians,

slangedan
the

lost in transmission

cutoffarea.

often

Lot

the

on

processing.Cameramen
Lily.

Cutoff

viewer

area

and

put

Chart

Color

detailed

control

guide to

this color

is called

and

spectrum

that the

slate

An end slate is always held upside down.

beginning.
photographyalso requiresa type of slate at the end of

Color

the

for

term

the

at

one

is the

(New

raise

short

the

actors

York)"but

makeup.

studio

which

includes

both

FILM

cording.If

it is

mechanism

will be

he

silent scene,

started.

"Speed!" from

recording (and consequentlythe

the

leveled

momentum,
frames

second.

word

same

be

In

It!"

called

for, so

recorded, althoughthe
take his

from

cue

"Action!"
This

is the

the

is the

"Up

who

director's

silent

days:"Lights!

since

the

"Cut!"
the

from
end

if

is the

to

cue

end

recorder.

that

Note

of

assistant

number"

that

so

the

and

another

question
the

the

qualityof

"N.G."
if the

meaning

take

In

some

his

1, 4, and

the

Hence,
one

creatures

who

to

the
"Take

scene.

As

any

take

It"

Print

and

does

sound

sound

to

this

take
film

recorder

is

and
may

satisfied

is not

that
and

wish

not

the

used

commonly

are

to

make

then

print and

assistant

the

see

another

cameraman

that, for instance, takes

sees

the

desired

speedy

result
or

the
and

talent

is

accomplished the
is considered

cameraman

first time
he
if

budget

or
rollingequipment, lights,

is his

this

term

prime

lative,
super-

may

to

round
sur-

worry.

be

"Kill the

action.

first

Obviously such

round.

consequently strives

stop it, immediately, and

means

the

It!" if either

"Don't

actor, director

such

take

printing.

job done
producer'sheart

with

the

the work.

scene

the

gets

warm

"Kill It!"

"Kill

one-take

himself

regard

indicates

ing
mean-

scene

around

the sound

or

results,so

of the

end

that

magnetic tape

order

may

the

circled for

are

"One-Take!"
time.

he

improve

log at

and

like the

not

cases,

trying to

checks

good,

film.

positiveprint from

means

of "Print

phase of

own

circle

the
or

edit

good

come

before

cameraman

to

of

cameraman

decision

no

does

director

results.

his

It may

action.

means

process

from

transferred

director's

performance.
Hollywood
typified

has

the

with

also

is

the end

log it"

negative.It

The
laboratory.

the

processedby
with

be

sense

at

editor

Action!"

laboratorywill

of the

section
particular
okay, and should

the

automatically

qualitydispleasesthe

is to

cameraman

the

use

their

start

phrase which

"Print It!" is the director's command

the

for

satisfactory
performance,or

in

cut

to

Camera!
.

24

England) might

in

the

camera

if the

or
unsatisfactory,

sound

the

stop

director at the

used
especially

famous

word

gained

standard

might

operator

the actors

to

third

in

at

clapsticks
may
"Speed!"

cue

that

Speed."

holds

man's

sound

has

the

sound-picture mark

the

camera

indicates

man

equipment

camera

to

(the latter is

man

sound

camera)

the

scene

that

the

79

the

and

smoothly going

now

indicate

"Mark

or

is

silent

otherwise

or

"Sticks!"
next

off and

"Camera!"

say,

may

PRODUCTION

TV

used

in

sound,"

rehearsal."
Five!"
it does

also
to

has

musicians

meaning
and

other

others

than
in

show

the

fifth

attempt

business, on

the

at

set

FILM

80

"take

can

PRODUCTION

TV

five"

five

the

take

that

means

"Wrap

It

others

to

the

in

"It's

its

light-tight

In

Up!"

is

as

an

it

their

put
Can!"

can,

five-minute

minutes

Specifically,
and

the

to

way

to

the

has

laboratory.

shot
The

up
idea

same

been

or

wrap

day

is

work

you

away!
is

pleted.
com-

cables

their

the

and

day's

far

too

go

scene

to

The

away.
scene

don't

the

indicate

and

allowed,

electricians

equipment
the

be

to

but
.

the

advises

is

please

you

expression

meaning
on

breather

expressed
film

is

is

in

done.
.

UNIONS

CLASSIFICATIONS

AND

DESIGNATIONS

SPECIALTY

CLASSIFICATIONS

CASTING

ON

ACTOR

THE

SET

THE
JARGON

GREASEPAINT

6
The

Actor

UNIONS

AND

Television

CLASSIFICATIONS

does

offer

not

said that Live

once

Rehearsals

TV

simplelife to

"summer

was

the actor.

stock

Bankhead

Tallulah

lung."
never
long enough to satisfy
mum
a
Broadway playhas a miniin

iron

an

long and arduous, but

the actor in the perfection
of a role. Where
of three weeks' rehearsal,plus an
out-of-town
opening run, TV
often condenses
week.
audition,rehearsals and performanceinto a single
In Film TV, a scant three days is a normal
schedule
for a thirty-minute
film" and

are

the

learns

sometimes

actor

his

lines

for

each

scene

the

as

are
lights

being set.
True, TelePrompTersand idiot sheets help solve some
problems,but TV bringsmuch else to remember:
memory
a

rules:
set of union
jargonand a new
the popular abbreviation
for American

new

AFTRA,
Television
minimum

and

pay

Radio
scales

Artists, guides the

of most

outgrowthof AFRA,
combined
Authority,
industry.
is

an

SAG

or

over
authority

Screen
the

Actors
stars

and

working

performersin

the

former

into

radio

AFTRA,

Guild

is

the

in
principals
81

of the actor's
a

nique,
tech-

new

conditions

and

live television. This

union, and
in

the

motion

Film

TV

of

Federation

TVA,

earlier

the

days

picture union
programs

and

the

union

vision
Teleof

the

with
com-

82

ACTOR

THE

mercials.

Everywhere except in Hollywood, SAG also has jurisdiction

minor
over
performersin film work, but this function in Hollywood is
controlled
Guild.
Screen
include
those
Extras
Extras
or
by the SEG
performerswho do not speak,except in incidental or crowd scenes, and
who

do

also

union,

specifies
day

roles, such

camel

from

from

attention

the

for many

wages

The

camera.

odd

SEG,

as

classifications of movie

midgets ($19.40),
sulkydrivers ($52.50),man

as:

elephant or
diver

featured

receive

not

five-foot

from

diver
($36.75),

leadingan
platform($26.25),

three-foot

platform($34.00),and

diver

from

seven-foot

etc.
platform($42.00),

Actors
the

on

looks

stage

after

AGVA

the union

Equity is

vaudeville

the
over
authority
theater,and
legitimate

so-called

or

the dancers

chorus

and

Guild

American

or

with

of

the

girlsin

pals
princi-

Chorus

musical

has

Variety Artists

and

stars

Equity

shows,

while
the

over
jurisdiction

and

nightclubperformers.
Each
of these unions
offers membership to the allied
automatically
union
members
ever,
simplyby the payment of a partialinitiation fee. Howdues
the
then be paid to each additional
must
in which
union
performerholds a Card, the official symbol of membership.Otherwise,
of the actors' unions
in one
to get a card
generallyrequiresa specific
from
who
offers
definite
role.
a
a
producer
request
Credits are
the most
importantthing,next to money, that an actor
of the actor's name
receive. It is the officiallisting
can
at the beginning
end of a show. Often the exact
be stipuated
dimensions
of this may
in
or
a

talent

employment

or

discussed

in

Option
Option Time

These

contract.

be

can

fearsome

the studio

raise

the

continue

so

or

word

in

Escalator

Clause.

Minimum

It

actor

is

broadcast

minimum

than the minimum.

paid more
to

Talent

be better than

Agent

he

deals

Peddler.

Agent

or

is the

He
negotiations.

in all these

for his services

average

and

in human

so

is sometimes

flesh,he

is

and

Over

an

called

ten
a

for the

per cent
Ten

Per

an

establishes for

times
some-

scale actor
extra

actor's

varies

than

indicates

worthy of

therefore

receives

called

performed,and
over

cise
exer-

salaryincrease.

union

Scale

politeterm

is

classification.Scale

services

Hence

and

with

the

wage

involved.

area

up

you

to

Up the Option
Each
a
raise!).

what

under

comes

job
accordingto the specific
the
show, the
accordingto the lengthof
the

Pick

to

At

contract.

whether

payroll(oftenwith

actor

an

decides

the contract

contract

is the

under

actor

network

moves
automatically

Scale

or

the

on

the

to

or

sponsor

actor

option time

at

been

Billinghave

Chapter 2.

the rightstipulated
in
officially
and

of

matters

an

is

sidered
con-

pay.

tive
representa-

of the actor's fee

Center.

And

since

Flesh
a
called, less politely,
occasionally

Press

called

and

Flack,

with

Winchellism

Talent

Scout,

is Praise

be

to

not

paid by
representative

P.A.

or

more

for press

agent

is

Agent.
with

confused

film studio

mediums.
publicity
Public Relations
loftily,

other

and

or,

represents the

who

one

slang,the popular name

For

P.R.

agent,

the newspapers

Agent
Publicity

Representativeor

of

different kind

relations

performerin
Also

is

Agent

83

ACTOR

THE

talent

network

or

agent,
find

to

refers

likely

and

new

the

to

talent.

Angel
but

is

to refer to

it is also used

Audition

Test

or

Reading indicates

or

performerhas the
appearance)for the part. It is
largegroup of performersare
has been
same
day,the industry

to

if the

see

Show.

And

Contest.

and

rare

on

often

advance

an

for

talent.

interview

visual

production,

forced

to

compete

known

to

call this

is sometimes

say: Voice

the

medium,
when

auditions

in

trial

or

competitivetryout, and

announcers

of

of individual

(and, if

voice

should

perhaps you

But

Films

for

audition

an

backer

similar

backer

financial

for the

popular term

the

on

Live-Stock
a
jocosely
called a Hog-Calling

Test.

indulgein

expensive occasions

Screen

Test

for a tryout for

actuallyputs the performerbefore the camera
the projected
role. Screen
also are
used to study new
tests
personalities
and for special
of
before signingfilm contracts
testing costumes, unusual
film stock
and
make-up, color factors,etc. Technical tests of cameras
in Chapter 13.
to be discussed
are
which

""

SPECIAL

On

Camera

he

is

heard, but
in

Off

are

appearing

in

Session

the

Fee,

is

than

of

which

one)

Use

means

portant
imespecially

scales.
and

offcamera

means

commercial

voice

it is also

is heard

but

"voice

over"

scriptswrite

ferred
re-

the
to

voice.

types of

fees

minimum

called

sometimes

or"

if

receive

that

has

when

been

performermay
Fee

set

by

for

SAG

Daily Fee,

performers

covers

in the

Unit

Fee

recieve

an

commercial

mum
the mini-

performanceon
recordingstudio.

to

produced at

the

which

for the actual

offcamera"

supplementedby

the

classificationsare

screen.

commercials:
advertising

film studio

Then
form

three

Camera

two

commercial

Most

seen.

OS

on

Over, again meaning that the

performermust

This
more

not

SAG

the

seen

These

film term

is

actor

seen.

offcamera

an

There

is

Voice

as

performeris
indicate

not

computing

Screen

to

in the

that the

means

DESIGNATIONS

TV

each

cover

that

camera

commercial

(if

session.

additional

compensation in

is telecast

more

than

the

once,

84

THE

ACTOR

depending on
and

number

$10,000

or

day" as

of usage,

type
of

used.

times

$20,000

even

program,

result of these

It is

for

possiblefor

number

subsequent

use

of stations

performerto

of commercials"

series

spot, and

or

filmed

fees under

the

in

SAG

receive

single

minimum

scale.

*"

Talent
for

CASTING

refers

but
only to ability,

not

performers."Talent
Free

CLASSIFICATIONS

Lance,

contracts"

in other

as

continuing contract.

He

The

is used

and

as

an

"talent

budget"
that

means
professions,

gets each

job as

term
all-encompassing

familiar

pressions.
ex-

is without

actor

an

individual

an

are

assignment.

Stars

Cast

As mentioned
performerin any production.
stardom
that the star's name
in billing,
generally
specifies
by contract
several stars in
be billed above the title. Occasionally,
there are
where
the same
while the others
above
the title,
show, one star may get billing
Star

are

listed below
Featured

than

generallywith

as

may

have

the

female

Male
a

title with

stars.

Lead

Featured

This

introductoryword:

the

of

type

but

leadingrole

star may
or

have

Leading

lesser Feminine

Lead

"Featuring ." or "With

not
necessarilystardom.
.

and
or

."
.

is the

unknown
comparatively

Man

"Co-starring

designationfor top
always follows the title,
billing

Performer

introductoryword:

indicates

Lead

her

the

Playeror

talent,other

the top

indicates

by

the

same

Leading Lady.

featured
token

."
.

For

stance,
in-

player

male

star

THE

Second

Lead

the star, in the

Name

is

sufficient to

same

the

term

meaning
be

"but

how

of

secondary

Character

be

alone

name

to

is considered

star." Box-Office

name

tickets

the

to

hit." Sometimes

reallyhas

saying

is

big

theater

paying public;

shortened

to

B.O.

B.O./"
If he

comedian.

only

tells

jokes

Comic.
for the

unfunny
Any secondarycharacter

also may

role

public.For instance, "She's

sell

who

man

lines which

straight

way

say "He

way

or

comic.

will

is the term

Straightman
the

or

Standup

"box-office

you

is another

is called

of the

need

attraction

an

careful

Comic

"We

or

whose

star

patronage

"box-office star"

hence

for

term

stage,"

on

the

85

sex.

the

win

for
popular designation

trade

name

he

is

ACTOR

invite

the

serves

who

Actors

called

funny

from

answers

primary

speaking

comic,

character

the

in such

Extras

Foil" because

foils for

he

is

fencingpartner, as

it

were.

Heavy
Without

is

him

Character
an

slangfor villain,
or, as the
few plotswould
thicken.
Actor

(or actress)refers

important characterization
Juvenile

indicates

featured
or

prominence to
Ingenue Lead is the
Soubrette

is

term

feminine

comic

the

in television.

term

who

acts

Type-Casting means

the

part

or

role

feminine
from

the

to

the

in the

masculine

young

such

movies

say: Menace.

sometimes

older

performer who

has

play.
actor.

Many

plays give

creating a Juvenile Lead.

Ingenue

counterpart.
stage" and

foil for the

to a
burlesque"
referring
leadinglady.You rarelyhear

as

to

assignroles according to

an

actor's normal

ACTOR

THE

and

set

is

double

the

this he

scenes

be

receives

Man,

The

action.

eating,take

after

for

job requires
riskywork. For

such

take,

star

latter

check"

stunt

pay"

are
lights

substitutes

experiencedin

extra

for

or

who

actor

actors

often

working

with

Check, premium pay. Humorously,

such

get

directors

certain

Stunt

the hot

stage while

on

in hazardous

or

Stunt

should

they

say

location

in remote

of

standingin
positioned.
Hollywood term for an

cameras

Double

that

work

the tedious

place in

87

for

breakfast

cereals

in

commercials!
Central

the

As

studio.

is both

course,

show.

In

picturesit

rightor left as he
rightand Stage Left
is the

As

noun.

refer

may

Studio

actor's

Left, which

SET

THE

verb, it means

to

produce

to

the

floor of the

complete buildinghousing

sets.

and

Directions

ON

it specifically
means
television,

of individual

Stage

ACTOR

verb and

in

noun,

motion

number

his

as

THE

Stage,of

Hollywood office,supportedby
house
for castingbit and extra
clearing

roles.

""

of the

name

studios,that acts

major

film

the

Casting is

faces

Directions
the

audience

is his left. This

actor's

and
right,

given

are

is

or

in

of the

terms

Stage Right is

camera.

Camera

exactlyoppositeto

Right,which

Camera

is the

actor's

left.
If this is
Center

Center
confusing,

Camera

or

Down

from

the
"stealing
when
to

indicates

indicates
Hence

camera.

actors

presented only their

play,as

it does

on

it does

but favors

turn

backs
in

Side

the word

which
is

meant

stage
page

and

been
term

Chapter 3,

on

sense

themselves
follow.

up

set

It

away
means

originated

stage

in

order

Consequently, the
the

while

may

mean

it may

of the

staging
up-

others,up staged,

mean

division

each

rather

that

indicates
is

sheet

of

of

act

an

separate

looselyuses
word, althoughan

scene"" in this case

particular
stagedin one setting.

which

of the

view.

in films. Television

the film

has

to

camera.

or

expressionwhich

the audience

the stage, or

said to be "terrificin that

sequence

Stage

as

audience

the back

about

to face

mentioned

viewpoint,as

same

slang
airs,"or "showing off."

is

carefullyworked
to

the

toward

Upstaging

continued

actor

the

means

positionnearer

movement

conniving actors

Scene,

scenes," "puttingon

force other

still

Center.

Stage

Up Stage

Stage

both
actor

meaning

in

camera

ings,
mean-

may
a

be

whole

(originally
paper
the
the
lines
is
to speak,
actor
typed
a

88

THE

with
The

ACTOR

sides,the greater the importance

Line

is another
over

go

Book

staging.The
"wind

The
script.

line

your

again,"

for the

term

which

actor

the

book."

physicalactions

and

panto-

individual

designed

are

script girl"holds
his

aid

to

characterization

and

business
for

waits

do

to

key

happen.

to

Routine

is

presentingan
team

for

hear

me

sides."

"50

or

role.

director,for instance, may give him certain

while
he
watch, nervouslypuff a cigarette"

his

event

speech. "Let

term

is the

the

of the

for

sides"

"10

lines."

is another

of

mine

term

our

Business

latter

for

term

It

act.

have

may

Material
a

have

part may

more

"Let's

The

Thus,

precedingcues.

also

can

refers

usage

distinctive
the

mean

written

for

of

business

or

dance

falls flat.

routine

itself,also

of

way

itself. Thus

act

comedian's

sketch

the

to

more

Material, general terms

or

pattern

routine, while

smart

called

Special

especiallyfor

anything written

performer.
Bit has

rather loose

"The
(sketch):

of

assortment

comedians

did

meanings.

It

can

mean

routine

old

burlesquebit." It can mean

any
piece of business: "The actor did a funny bit tryingto kill an imaginary
this word
has been
kicked
flywith an imaginary newspaper."Finally,
around
much
the industrynow
almost
it to cover
so
uses
any human
cold in this wise:
"He's
home
to
a
action, even
referring
doing the
an

aspirinbit."
X

that

Cross-Over,

or

Chalk

is used

move

(which

in film and

the

stage hand

desired

It!" and

equipment.

But

the
identify

does

"Give

to

so

are

situation

script

mark

for
positions

the desired

"Chalk

your

means
position"

that all will know

the

actors

to

mark

positionfor

exact

in

film

Mark!"

the

and

need

to

"Chalk
chalk

It!"

positionsfor

It!" also

production,"Mark

words

are

mand
com-

and

actors

slate

or

speech

or

to

means

of

scene.

many

in

stage.

JARGON

GREASEPAINT

Take,

react

Him

""

There

TV

camera.

the set to indicate

on

the

indicates

angle and staging.

camera

"Mark

simply Cross,

written

across

the floor in front of the

on

it

is to

actor

an

also

the

in

actor's

lingo,means

portrayedin

as

for types of business:

terms
descriptive

facial

with great exaggeration.

To

react

or

reaction

(to

expression.Hence, "take
"do

take"

means

to

make

it

big"means
an

obvious

facial reaction.
Double

Take

is

more
slightly

it
tricky:

refers to the two

facial

reac-

THE

which

tions

indicate

for instance, first a

in trade

for most

Slow

smile,then

Take

sudden

elegantverb
brought this word

the silent star

side-street
Emote

hotel!
is

smart

the

but
facially,
into some
(There'sthe
disrepute.
only surprise,happinessand at
register

more

silent movies

capture

anger.

Registeris

take is stock

double

then

The

irritation.

happened"

delayedfacial reaction. Slow Burn is a type of

delayedfacial reaction buildingup annoyance and

means

take in that it is

story of

sudden

has

89

comedians.

slow

the

what
stages in understanding

two

ACTOR

who

could

which

react

to

means

from emotion, which also means

slang,
who
actor
shrewdlydevelopshis own

audience

is known

attention

as

react.

bits and

Stealer. The

Scene

Otherwise, call him a

generallyused in admiration.
the same
derogatoryvein Mugging indicates excessive
facial reactions

in front of the

Quick Study refers

to

Camera
and

to

is

term

In

Hog.
unnecessary

camera.

who

actor

an

business

little effort. Television

learns

placessuch

his lines
a

rapidlywith

performer

rare

in

parently
ap-

high

demand.
Wood-Shed

is

derives
to

teach
Ad

him
Lib

It is used

of

out

as

how

slangverb
from
the day
to

means

verb

mistake.

act

well

as

advance

"spurof

as

when

father

took

to

son

doubtedly
un-

the wood-shed

apparently
improvisedon

action

An

noun.

to
Also,it is interesting

very

their writers

by

rehearsinga part. It
privately

better.

speechor

for their ad lib remarks

in

for

actor
note

may
that

have

to ad

spot.

lib his way

comedians

some

the

famous

have these contrived and typed out

carefully
so
they are ready for any situation on the

the moment!"

Fake

is another

"Fake

music"

for ad

word
it"

or

"Ad

lib. Both

are

used

regardingimprovised

lib it."

Throwaway is a line or piece of business designedto be very casual

as
though "thrown away" or lost on most of the audience. (The viewer
thinks onlyhe gets it!) A throwatvayline is purposelyunderplayed.
of instruction
is a word
to an
actor
Project(accenton last syllable!)
the director wants
him to speak more
and "throw out"
indicating
clearly
his voice
Give
that

is

in
a

which

manner

command

can

be

meaning give it

speech,giveV

Punch

means

to

understood

at

greater distance.

all

to
you'vegot. "When
you come
give added
emphasis,as in "Punch

that last word."

slangfor "speakingin a muffled voice."

line to another actor.
to give the rightquestion or cue
him his cue," or a straight
director might say, "Feed
man

Talkingin
Feed

means

In rehearsal

Your

Beard

is

90

ACTOR

THE

might say of his comic, "I fed him

to act
means
Play It Straight
be" with

it may

indicates

seriousness,

laughrightafter

one

the

part

or

the line"

say

mock

sometimes

another."

funny though
Dead

seriousness.

Pan

completelack of facial emotion. "It was a very funny bit,but

he played it straight^
dead pan, and killed the audience."
strictly
Kill has two oppositeslangmeanings.In the dead
pan quote it means
from
the entertainer
But
was
a
success.
"theydied
laughter,"
indicating
also heard is "the management
killed the last performance"or "kill that
a

line" in the
From

of omit.

sense

a program,
a
derogatoryphraseindicating
person
similar
is
"undernourished""
is
Dixie
or
a
From
hence, not good.
thing
indicating
Example: "That play
somethingis not new, not sophisticated.
is from hunger and those actors
are
from Dixie."
strictly
Dog is used as a term of derogationfor a program or a job assignment.
It means
d
ull,
hackneyed,dog-eared,
unrewarding.
of
show
of poor
is
the
actor's
a
hence,
Turkey
description
quality"

"due

Hunger

for the

is

ax," termination

generalmix-up in
for instance.
organized,
to overall quality.
that

Off

or

gives the

Snapper
final

the audience

Gag
When

and

is

to

is

saying of

another

interest

outdoes

which

another

in

good

are

audience.

shows

comedian

the snapper
is said

refers to bits of business

got

sketch.

joke or

to

come

may

who

comic

which

used
generally

with him
identify
popularslangfor a jokeand also

Hokum
human

laugh

gag follows

one

Tag-Line

or

"trademark"

Catch-Phrase, a

This

"corn

for

word
from

its connotation

America's

show

An

Lay

can

column.
Clambake
is the actor's term
profit
handling"a program or rehearsal that is badly
that clambake
refers to handling,
Note
turkey

Pay

the

in the

a zero
Egg, indicating

for

Or

extermination.

or

or

to

and

repeat.

joke,both

top

noun

verb.

and

him.

hokum
show

of

elementary

heart-tug"with

modern

more

successful

means

pay off is called the Topper,

laugh" or
a

also

line

which
performer,

stock situations

or

has

belt." TV

to

the

mean

Tag-Line
or

and

to

as

an

sophisticated
un-

slangform, Corn,
used
by the tent

business

use

corn

in

but affectionate sense

to refer to any material
basically
mildlyderogatory
"pure corn," "real corn" It may also be used
popularwith the masses"
and adjective)
or
in a more
(bothnoun
openlyderogatoryform, Cembali
Corny, meaning not sophisticated.
Break-Up is an actor's descriptionof the amusing plightwhen one
performeris so convulsed with laughterat another's antics that he can
often try to break up the
It is true that comedians
scarcelycontinue.
performersaround them, and the performersoften are shrewd enough to
so

obligeand

pay

honor

to

the funniness

of the comedian.

THE

Break,

to be

not

confused

Goof

and

Boo-Boo,

the mistake

or

Freeze

is the

actor

an

doesn't say
he

respite

or

five-

To

it says:

take
mis-

made

boo-boo."

complete,icy stage frightthat

camera.

when

them.

to make

means
slangsters,

The

forgetshis

actor

an

British

he

say

Dries

lines and
Muff

Up.

quently
conse-

Fluff

or

said the lines wrong.

refers

Flop Sweat
brow
performer's
stop.

on

used

term

to all

goofed"he

exactlywhat

suddenlyhit

means

it does

as

itself."He

means

Blow

to

91

break.

minute

may

with

refers to a recess
break-up,
in the last chapter,
means
five,"mentioned

rehearsals. "Take

from

ACTOR

the

to

when

"beads

of

that appear
desperation"
but he can't
act is failing"

he realizes his

on

afford

Step

Lines

on

has

is

heinous

offense among

cates
it indi-

since

actors,

quicklyon top of another's

speech,ruiningthe effect. Wait for the Laugh! is the comedian's cry to
prevent his lines,and the expectedaudience reaction, beingsteppedon.
of
and extent
the quality
Many terms are used by comics to identify
ence
which indicates the audilaughstheyachieve. For instance, Belly-Laugh,
is doubled
is famous
in a ribald way.
A few
up with deep laughter,
someone

of the
many
a

steppedon

others

include:

even

Pad

to

means

longer.This
However,

who

Padding the
It

become

the

means

Cheat
to

move

is
or

assume

to the camera

"Cheat

your

"Cheat

to camera

hand

lower
left so

dead

Side

shorten

so
we

we

can

Pan-Cake,

see

in

the

type

of

of

accused

are

by

rapid

more

Up Cues, meaning to
piece of business happens.
actor's lexicon. It

an

normal,

The

read

can

segment.

to Pick

is not

audience.

or

libs

ad

the time

certain

required time

it

actors!

to other

given or

make

to

program

with

generous

instructed

are

to

or

to fill out

positionthat
lens

is short for

with

part

opposite,to

also

tittering
response; Yuk,

Boffola,a completesmash, possibly

word
perfectly
legitimate

normal

Pan

to

nice"

is
signal

certain

mild

belly.

too

Part. That's not

Up

or

necessary

of lines. Actors
delivery
start when

Boff

material

is sometimes

actors

Pick

add

in too

come

Titta-Ma-Titta,a

heartyreaction; and
than
more
deep-seated

more

or

the

but

director
name

which
tell

may
on

the

means

will
an

look

actor

coffee can"

to
or

percolator."

make-up, and

is not

to

be

fused
con-

pan.

slangwhich has nothingto do with side or speech.It

refers to the most
or
camera
photogenicprofile
angleof a star. Examples:
in love scenes;
John Barrymore alwaysturned his best side to the camera
Marilyn Monroe, commenting on the famous nude calendar is reported
to have said: "It's definitely
not
my best side
Best

is

"

FUNDAMENTAL

OBJECTIVES
TYPES

OF

LIGHTING

LIGHTING
EQUIPMENT

MISCELLANEOUS

The

Language

of

eyes and

dailylife

and"

for

without
Since

brain
us.

be

scene,

important
the

change the
film

has

the

color

thingswe

certain

see.

eye, and

only one

black-and-white,

scenes

and

motion

meanings of

picture camera

often

most

than

soul

of the

of drama.

the viewer's
time

of
or

cameraman

the

qualityand

layman

tions
compensa-

realizes. The

is

scene

It

of perspective,
interpretation
trulyan art and a science. Light

create

can

the

mind, paint a settingwith

succeed

can

for the

mood

dimension

illusions all its

day,and conjureup
director

the
illuminating
of making
business
of

methods

in his

aid the viewer

key factors

the very
orient

motion

or

refers to the

compensationsto

color,and

the

effort" evaluate

normal

made.

which
Lighting,

can

They judge perspective,translate

picturesare

be

more

the
amazing job of interpreting

an

the television

must

these

do

conscious

the resultant

set, is

Lighting

OBJECTIVES

FUNDAMENTAL

Two

of

TERMS

without

own.

and
No

actor's

depth,
Live

or

thorough working

potentials.
knowledge of photographiclighting
reflect
colors in between
reflects it. The
White
Black
absorbs light.
their own
in varying degrees,dependingupon
absorb light
particular
or
translation

into

white
cameras.

and

gray. The
black that
Pure

white

Gray
can

and

Scale
be

refers to

the

range

of shades

satisfactorily
reproducedby

pure
92

black" delicate

tween
be-

vision
the tele-

tones
highlight

and

THE

shadow

massive

limited

substituted

pure

black.

than

motion

translated

extremelydifficult

are

of the television

range

be

must

detail"

system

so

picturetheater films,but
film

once

the problem
correctly,

any
of

93

reproducewithin the
nearby tone of gray often

television reception requiresa

Live

to

and

LIGHTING

OF

to

the illusion of the

create

to

LANGUAGE

desired
more

pure

limited

live action

has

reproductionon

white

or

scale

gray

first been
television

is minimized.

the illumination
ject
Lightmeans
exactlyas it falls on the subIt is measured
to be photographed.
by an Exposure Meter or Light
the meter
the camera
incident light
Meter. To measure
is pointed toward
and lights
from
the positionof the subject.
Reflected
To measure
Light,
the meter
lens and pointedtoward
the subject.
is held at the camera
Transmitted
that comes
from
Light is the illumination
beyond,
into the
a transparency) and
or
throughthe subject(as througha screen
Incident

Exposure

camera.

meters

established
empirically
candle
the

one

camera

sees

read

meters

foot away.

in

Foot

Candles,

unit

from
represent the fullest intensityof light

One

type of

another

meter

type

the

measures

reflected
lightas

the incident

measures

one

Certain
light.

both.

Kelvin, named
of

to

it,while

illumination

measure

for Lord

Kelvin, famous

British

is a system
physicist,

the

teristics
degreesof Color temperature, or the spectrum characof a lightsource.
has a color
For
instance, noonday sunlight
5400 degreesKelvin (on the "blue" side of
temperature of approximately
the spectrum), while an
2400"
K.
ordinaryhouse lightis approximately

computing

(and

tends

toward

the "red"

Light is the term

Artificial Light includes
Natural

side).
for

sunlight.

all man-made

illumination,from

candles

to

signs.Excepting those that use gases for illumination,Incandescent

from
or
Light is the term for all that get their incandescence
luminosity
neon

Fluorescent
preparedmaterial (afilament,a pieceof carbon, etc.).
Light
achieves
from
its brightness
other
electricity
burningin a gas-vapor tube. Anis the Merc
Light,a mercury
gas type used in the industry
vapor
lamp which has such excessive heat it must be water-cooled.
Arc Light,a high intensitylamp famous
in the industry,
burns electricity
carbon
sticks at about
between
5000"
K. High intensity
two
Sun
Arcs may go up to 5500" to approximatethe sunlight
in color temperature.
for any artificialillumination used
Booster
term
Light is a descriptive
to brighten
to eliminate
daylight(naturallight)
photography,especially
heavy shadows under trees, etc.
the age of the lamp and
In color reproduction,
the voltage
even
affects the results. Normally, lights
"balanced" to the requirements of
are
the color film stock,but mixing of different color temperatures of light
a

LIGHTING

OF

LANGUAGE

THE

95

from
that chrome
highlight
that is too brightto handle
is called
ornament." Any annoying highlight
but almost
less bright"
as
a Hot
Spot or Kick or Burn. Somewhat
ing"is
annoyfrom
white
which
the
reflected
is
or
costumes
Bloom,
light
props.
sometimes
To avoid bloom, white shirts and costumes
a
are
dyed light
the
illusion
of
down
which
cuts
reflection,
blue,
beingwhite.
yet gives
her

littlehighlight
on

side-front

"Kill the

Modeling Light
from

hair"

refers

to

It
position.

type

of illumination
side

accentuates

illusion of

added

face, it
depth.On a person's
Cross
Lighting is directed
Similarly,

structure.

dimensions
accents
on

the

is directed

which
to

reveal

an

interestingbone

subjectfrom

the

illusion.
rightside or left side to give shadows and a third-dimensional
in the
Eye-Lightis a small lamp used to placea sparklehighlight
know
how
such a small lamp,
to use
cameramen
performer's
eyes. Smart
the pupilsof light-colored
with colored
to darken
filters,
eyes and to
of blood-shot
is also called a
the appearance
remove
eyes!An eye-light
Catch
Light,because the eye "catches" a highlight.
illumination
Kicker
Light refers to any small lightused to intensify
that "kick" alone
"kick it up" within an alreadyhighkey area.
But note
or
refers to

an

reflection.

unwanted

from
Light refers to illumination sometimes
requiredseparately
normal
for the background or set.
lighting
from overhead
and Front Lighting,
the term
as
Top Lightingcomes
from the front,near
the camera.
Too much
comes
front
obviously
implies,
without
of
and
back
the
dimensional
effect
cross
lighting,
lighting
lighting,
results in Flat Lightingwhich
reveals the front plane of the subject,
formly
uniilluminated
without
shadows.
Flat lighting
dull and
is somewhat
since
it has no
no
highlights,
depth.It is not as bad in
uninteresting,
the colors themselves
color,however, because
help create an illusion of
Flat lighting
used
is generally
in live
depth and separationof objects.
television because the subjects
beingphotographedmust be lightedfrom
of where
picturewill result regardless
every angleso that a satisfactory
the cameras
are
positioned.
On
the other hand, in film productionthe lights
are
placedin each
effect and composition,as seen
from
each
set-up for the best lighting
between
camera
a
specific
angle.Lightingmay be changed even
long
shot and closeupin films.
A Flat Picture
is the result of flatlighting.
It is without
apparent
and
and
has virtually
no
depth,
distinguishing
highlights shadows. (Note
Set

that

flatalso

picturethat
between

is

refers

flatis

lightand

to

one

dark.

unit

that is
A

of television

scenery.)The

Contrasty,havinga

picture

can

be

"too

wide

opposite of

range of

shading

contrasty"
meaning

the

range is too great,the white values too white, the blacks too black. Or you

96

THE

might
show

LANGUAGE

say
the

the

best

to

scale

for

much

advantage yet

best

the

meaning
within

are

lightsand

the

Light refers

It casts
spotlight.
Soft

are

rays

telecasting.

the

and

source

glassor
for

name

the scrim

or

Diffused
Discs

whole

idea

mesh

is to

is

designed

is

or

from

as

designed to

do

Scoop. (Photo Flood, however,

or

with

light

frosted

Silk, a popular

glass;a Butterfly,

spun

Jelly,colored

or

the

the

of

rays

tin
gela-

light.

EQUIPMENT

two

as

Gel

up

the

illuminate

to

cloth

break

lightingare

spot

photography.Equipment
Flood

too

Generally

between

obtained

Diffusers, such

or

LIGHTING

lightingand

held

be

Light may

a Gauze
sunlight;

+-

Flood

such
subject,

soft-edgedshadow.

by something

type; a Scrim,

The

casts

diffused

Diffusion

to soften

celluloid.

or

up

fine cloth

used

intensityand

Such
subject.

various

subjectwith

the

strong lightdirectlyon

to

less

broken

of

sharp-edgedshadow.

Light has

shadows

required range

is

Hard

the

contrast"

with
interchangeable
brightto describe
lighton it. "The boy'sface is too hot."

Hot

LIGHTING

picture has "good

scene

gray

OF

broad
refers

basic

job

one

the

or

type

of

other.

also be

it may

expanse;
to

types of lightingfor
The

called

high intensitylight

bulb.)
The
flat
a

Broad

is

type of

floodlight
generallyused

It is rectangularin
lighting.

glass front, and

One

of

uses

Type

"Broads"

either

appearance,

incandescent

or

in

series

sometimes

fluorescent

side
for broad-

covered
bulbs.

with
When

it has

lamps

twin

it is called

Spotlight, the
from
of

Baby

for such

small

small

diminutive

incandescent

Keg-Lite
resembles
Rifle
one

is the

Broad

lighting equipment"

be

Inky

distinguished

as

project a singlehighly concentrated

to

used

or

Inkie

in

the

Dink

or

being

type,

for

Another

Inkie, dinkie

Dinkie

short

beam

One

scene.

lightjust a person'sface.

to

spotlightis Inky
and

97

Broadside.

or

particularsubject or spot

one

Baby Spotlight may

or

slang for
a

feature

of

type

flood light"is designed

lightto

term

other

Double

LIGHTING

OF

LANGUAGE

THE

being
thus,

incandescent"

light.
name

of

another

small

spotlightin

housing

that

keg.

is still another

small

type

that

shoots

smaller

beam

of

light to pinpoint

detail.

Overhead

Lights

on

Grid

98

THE

LANGUAGE

Lamps

OF

of the

the term

is used

borrows

from

lightpower.
flood

the

the

Greek

refer to electric

kilo for 1000

word

that Kilowatt

be 5 kw

may

measured

are

in terms

for James Watt, the

being the Watt, named
paradoxicallyenough,
steam-engine (although,

primarilyto

now

and

course,

unit

modern

(Note

lamp

sizes,of

in various

come

of electric
power,
inventor

LIGHTING

and

also

or

represent 1000

units

to

KW

of

broadcasting
power. ) The

measures

broadside

power.)Kilowatt

2 kw.

1 km

is

usuallycalled

an

Ace.
The

kw

for lamp more

often called a
consequentlya name
Senior. Also at 5 kw is the Sky Pan
refers to a simple,
(pan,in lighting,
The Sky Light or Tener
is at 10 kw.
reflector).
pan-like
Junior is not quite as brightas senior.,generallya 2 kw, but sometimes
a

1 kw.

is

is another

Deuce

it follows,is
Seven-Fifty,

Brute

is the

Sun-Arc
as

is the

mentioned,

trade

Kleig is
the

trade

of

an

lamp

arc

from

name

2 kw

powerful and heavy

for

lamp.

lamp.A baby,for

largerotary

lamp.

arc

mirror

temperature

instance.

arc

of 5500".

lamp which,
Du-Arc

is

flood.
famous

made

its

to
appliedgenerically

750-watt

sun's color

twin-arc

for

name

equalsthe

for

name

It takes

nickname

nickname

"Kleiglights."
publicity"

in movie

makers, KleiglBrothers,and

all carbon

the word

is often

lamps.
Can
is a
a largearc
lamp hung overhead.
Banks
of lights
units of several lamps connected
in a group. These
are
often remotely controlled
in live TV
are
by a Light Bridge or control
This is sometimes
nicknamed,
board, which switches all the stage lights.
because of its console-like appearance,
an
Organ. If a lightcan be gradually
faded
controlled
Dimmer.
Hence
it
is
down,
by a
brightenedup or
the light
Board.
sometimes
bridgeis called a Dimmer
Ash

nickname

arc

for

""

MISCELLANEOUS

refers

Generator

electric power.

Rigging

designed to
portable)
equipment (especially,

to

Nickname:
is the

'Em

the desired

In, or
mood

for
responsible
Gobo

is

sets
or

final
black

create

"Jinny."
for

term

settingup

the

electrician

the
anticipates

cables. In film work, the head

Roughs

TERMS

the

lightsand

the

connecting

and

cameraman

in approximate positionsto accomplish

lights

effect. The

then

cameraman

views

the

scene

and

is

adjustments.
cloth,sheet

on
lightreflections,especially

words

"go between."

(Gobo

sound

reverberations

in

or

the

may

camera

also

used

screen

mean

studio.)Teaser

to

lens. It is
a

small

is the

name

block
a

corruptionof
used

screen

of

off unwanted

to

the

restrict

largeflat gobo

used

block

to

Flag
A

thin

is

one

small, a

small

may
A

Dot.

be called

flagwith

Cuckoolorous
which

cutout

surface

to

or

can

create

Blade

while

small

hole

Kuke

or

Cookie

round

in it is called
are

all

pet

design.It has

shadow

area

and

the

lens.

camera

smaller

even

an

is

one

similarly
placedbetween

be

of the

blankness

the
from hitting
backlight
gobo and Clip is
rectangular

overhead

Target or,

an

99

LIGHTING

OF

LANGUAGE

THE

one.

if very

Ear.
for

names

patterned
a
background
breakingup the
a

lightand

effect of

making the generalcompositionof

the

scene

interesting.

more

Lekolite

is

be shuttered
which can
to providean
spotlight
special
of
light.
pattern
hooks
used to keep cables off floors.
special
like a spider's
the boxes where cables converge (looking

desired
especially
Elbows

are

Spiders

are

web!)

and

plug-into

the main

electrical current

source.

Reflector

Barn

Doors

hingedpanelsor

(which open
shutters

and

close like actual

front of

doors) are

Outside

black

down
largelamps to narrow
control the spread of the beam
of light.
hoods
Snoots
Snouts
or
or
are
front
of
the
confined
in
channel
area.
placed
lightto a
lamp housingto
Stand
stand
with
is
used
is
It
an
Century
uprightpole-like
clamps.
to hold the gobo,for instance, as well as small lights.
of lighting
Cameo
refers to the method
set where
a
only the actors
and the props are
revealed
the
in
No background is needed
since
light.
it does

not

show.

placedin

barn

Used

100

THE

LANGUAGE

Spill

Spill
has

the

is

light

from

be

Cleaned

to

Work

6'

to

sunlight

reflect

the

surface

and

Yes,

great

sun

and

in

shouldn't.

it

Then

set.

gaffer

who

light

the

in

strong
sun

most

into

it

light

the

their

light

and

reflections

Soft

wonder

have
destinies!

been

known

source

For

boards

back

bounce

to

mirror

surfaces

are

surface

and

required.
smooth

Reflectors

in

light

rectangular

bright,

nary
prelimi-

direction.

one

used

are

shadows

No

in

and

Tin

setting.

have

the

portable

to

and

use.

behind

foil

beam.

important.

Hollywood

of

applies

the

in

are

rays

Reflectors

Hard

single

is

(and

of

rehearsals

during

mirror-like

stronger

reflect

lighting

respect

where

adjoining

an

placed

the

side

or

used

mirrors

with

when

Reflectors

Hot

falls

from

lights

set

reflector

term

shadowy

used

when

concentrate

surfaced

the

sometimes

which

over

light

concave

to

the

6')

on

spread

off

the

lamps)

light

excess

ordinary

turned

is

locations

exterior

the

may

the

is

are

the

LIGHTING

Up.

Reflectors

(up

flood

It

for

term

Light

work.

(within

OF

have

soft,
smart

to

dull,

diffused

light.

actors

bribe)

pebbled

treat

the

man
camera-

with

HERE'S
LIVE,
TERMS

FILM

THE

PICTURE

COMBINATION

AND

FOR

THE

FILM

CAMERAS

CAMERA

MECHANISM
THE
MOVEMENT

CAMERA
TYPES
FILM

OF

SHOTS

CAMERA

SPEEDS

CAMERA

LENS

TRICKS

AND

MISCELLANEOUS

CAMERA

TERMS

8
Camera

The

HERE'S

In

PICTURE

THE

Television,
and

camera

the electronic

latter in Live
The

cameras

The

former

similar

end

camera.

the

used:

are

is used

photographic

in Film

TV, the

TV.

two

different

basic types of

two

achieve

cameras

ways.

To

the

result,but

viewer, however, this makes

they do

it in

little difference.

techniqueis only incidental. Although the viewer may at times

be consciously
of especially
bad photography,
aware
good or especially
work
subconscious level.
achieve its goalsbasically
must
camera
on
a
of translating
the scene
A Cameraman,
in his work
to pictures,
can
Camera

exhibit
who

which

as

well

as

technical skill.He

is,in

sense,

the artist

and selects the segment of

lightand shadow
the story" and most
pleasingto
graphicin telling
in

scene

is most

eye.
This

in
creativity

available

by
Live

the

models

action

the

great creative

camera

work

productiontime, the
his director.

varies

with

budget and

the individual

the

it varies
Particularly,

actual

with

the

cameraman,

responsibility
mitted
perFilm
or
technique"

TV.
In Live

restricted to

TV, the

cameraman

is

an

He
composing the picture.
101

engineer whose
works

under

creativityis

constant

often

instructions

the Ike

on
tirely

Iconoscope

or

development,the
the

ike for

Orthicon

requirements.Where

requiredlightis
ike continues

projectionpickups,the
I.O. is the Eye-Mo, but
with

confuses

Walkie-Lookie
TV.

The

is

can

cameraman

Live

the air.
4

carry

TV

for

it and

Another

to be

operate
then

still smaller

Camera

Live

later

supplanted
of the light
on

film

nickname

for

as

since
discouraged,

it

Eyemo.
used

portablecamera

Film

tube

only a fraction
a
problem,such

trade named

Cameras

Creepie-Peepieis

I.O.

or

usage.

unit, which

control

of the master

distance

in

film camera,

popularterm

not

needs
appelation

this

hand-held

it needs

because

Then

pickuptube.

Orthicon

Image

or

live action

most

television

camera

103

CAMERA

THE

it within
transmits

in Live

quarter-mile
the signal
over
a

(Mitchell)

TV

camera,

weighing only

pounds.
Film

cameras

are

types, sound

of various

or

silent,depending on

the picture. Sound

time
as
dialogueis recorded at the same
cameras
are
or
depending on whether the
double-system"
single-system
records its sound on the same
camera
stripof film as its picture (single)
also vary in width
in synchronization
or
(double). Cameras
separately,
whether

of film used:
35mm

or

production,as
16mm

or

production.It
inconvenience
in

newsreel
and

width
professional
production.
is the

35 Millimeter
it is for movie

16

Millimeter,a

film,also

can

qualityin picture and sound,

sacrifices some
in

width

narrow

for most

but
editing,

it is less

expensiveand

more

industrial

and

is also

films,as

be used
and

has

TV

in TV
some

readilyprocessed
for
especially

It is used
laboratory.
color educational, training
popularfor 16mm

station's self-contained

coverage,

Film

well

as

amateur

home

movies.

104

THE

CAMERA

8mm

Millimeter,

or

only,

movies

for

required
It

the

to

in

Bell

for

Famous

Live

"

Television

does

width,
have

not

for

is

the

Howell

Crane

the
trade

is

internal

(Fearless)

another
mechanism

stations

many

(in

Chapter

is

well-known

its

that

out

as

Camera

is

it

production

printing,

Mitchell

It

point

to

original

16mm

since

smaller

even

and

amateur

professional

sonal
per-

standards

TV.

well

is

an

cases)

most

will

12

name

in

popular
used

has

been

in

only.

ever,
How-

reduced

35mm,

explain.

popular

most

16mm

project

both

studio

film

35mm

and

trade

in

name

many

in

of

camera

wood.
Holly-

16mm

equipment.

movie

equipment.

high-speed

cameras

and

CAMERA

THE

photographicwork,
optical
special
hand

favorite

long a

camera,

also makes

this company
of newsreel

camera

105

the

men.

of both Live
principles
utilizing
had their start with Multicam, a multiple
Film production
camera
35mm
16mm
3 or more
or
developedby JerryFairbanks utilizing

the

at

scene

attached

circuits

This

time.

same

television. Multicam

experimentedat
to

the

film

again utilized
The

is the

as

system. The

show,
the

and

does

video

have

cameras

on

the show.

he

the

pickup
monitored

picturesare
made

recorded

various

The

above)

Film

other

Camera

of the master

the
various

is the

and

same

to

scenes

name

Camera

equipment

on

on

the

film,in
tube

of the
lens

same
a

Live

TV

Meanwhile,

program.
the

kine

serves

give a complete film negative

Shoots

Vision

Live TV

are

trade

and

Film

names

Simultaneously

for two

of

cameras.

(not to

as

as

film and

be

confused

different
given the radically

picture as well

orthicon

directed
video

scenes

Camera

similar live-film

Electronic

the

room

live-film

image throughthe

and

Electronicam

Video

photographingon

is

operator.The

camera

camera

the
guidefor editing

as

monitoring

combination

of DuMont's

what

live TV

kinescopeis

same

later methods

until three

dropped

was

name

views

the film

and

camera

television

thereby permittingcontrol

cameras,

trade

cameraman

manner

same

the

it:

Electronicam
camera.

with

system
Mitchell

techniqueof

multiplecamera

time

one

angles of

different

the

simulated

This technique,however,
editing.

TV

shoot

operatingsimultaneouslyto

and

TV

film cameras,

Combination

cameras

Eyemo

the sound

for this Video

with
new

the

Electronicam,

equipment

for

cording
re-

cessful
magnetic tape. The first sucwas
developed
Tape Recording or VTR
on

CAMERA

THE

106

and

by Ampex

placed in practicaluse
had

demonstrations
and

been

made

althoughearlier experimental
prises
by Bing Crosby Enter-

1956,

in

1951

in

by RCA.
both live
The
advantages over
tape recordingof pictureshas many
and film techniques.
be playedback immediately without
the delay
It can
of laboratory
be immediately okayed, and
can
processing.Thus scenes
sets

dismantled

without

waiting until

""

TERMS

FOR

mentioned

As

of

film is stored

raw

the

engage

regularly
spacedalong the
The
to the

Intermittent

in

camera

the

film is

an

gears. The

Perfs

or

per

Magazine,

upper

pulledby

Perforations

or

which

are

film stock.
mechanism

is the

opening,where

lens

Aperture or

camera

film

side of the

Movement

pictures consist

photographedat intervals,24

which

Sprocket Holes

development.

MECHANISM

CAMERA

are

in the

from

light-tight
compartment

gears

for film

day

next

definingpersistenceof vision, motion

in

The

the

FILM

THE

of still pictures which

series

second.
a

1953

which
each

bringsthe

individual

frame

film
of

pictureis exposed.
the

Between

sprocketand

of film called

throughthe

intermittent

Thread
the

film

the

over

the

positionat
are

inserted

behind

the

in

the upper
instant

the Lower
at the

the

to
perforations

film,keeps it flat and

be remembered
in

magazine

level

same

frame

the film to travel

to

the work

indicate

is

which

the

pullsthe

it is in

hold

it

placing

aft of the

and

thread

you

up

firm for the instant

steady continuous
and

then

into

Plate,

Pressure

the film frame

the film is

motion,
it is taken

be

film down

place,RegistrationPins

steady,and

that while

being made,

as

Hence

of

projector.

aperture. When

is

being taken

being
out

of

stoppedfor

the

up after exposure

in

it is

in the

housingand

same

Upper Magazine.

motion
stop-and-go

this mechanism

there

slack portion

tearing.

Magazine. Though "lower,"it may

The

why

for
possible

the mechanism.

of the mechanism

camera

exposure

used

terms

are

it

without

operation in

up

part

exposed.It must

makes

is

movement

guidingsprockets,
allowingloopsfore

thread

is the

Claw

Up

for correct
or

camera,

which

movement

Thread

or

intermittent
a

Loop,

the intermittent

is called

of the film at the

the intermittent

to

aperture serves
movement.

explain

At the aperture

anism
hingedplatethat permits the threadingof the film in the mechwhich
each
is called the Gate. Here, as film is beingphotographed,

is

pauses

the

gate

momentarily to
serves

receive

similar purpose,

photographicimage.
allowingthe image to

its

In

be

tor,
projecmomen-

the

tarily
projected
upon
is used

term

the
althoughnot correctly,
Occasionally,

screen.

refer to the entire

to

aperture.

The
to

catch and

image.

the
for

viewing

the

closer

perspectivecan

be altered

farther

togetheror
Wide

apart

and
than

type

that

to

fast
apparently

show

person

reveals

the

angle"from where
objectsnear
depth between

instance, is useful

small,sharp

glasselements

same

scene.

give what

can

pears
ap-

Also, the
subject.

same

to

appear

to

be closer

they actuallyare.

wide
a
literally,

feelingof

lenses

be made

can
objects

the

the

in

of the

view

into

scene

area

change of

distant

is the

Lens

Angle

of

in

same

the way

accordingto

camera,

more

or

the

lightfrom

different dimensions

moving

to be

lenses"

principle.
glasssurfaces designed

curved

its inner

tape, the

electronic

or

the
essentially

is

scene

the rays of

types of

designed"view
Without

the

of the camera,

converge

Different

film,live

used, whether

camera

is the eye

Lens

are

LENS

THE

Regardlessof
system
optical

107

CAMERA

THE

broad

stands.

camera

objectcoming

or

the

It increases

wide-angle lens, for

far. The

and

field of view-

the

into

at

camera

of

speed.
from
the wide-angleis the Telephotolens,a narrowThe
extreme
it and
anglelens that reveals onlya small segment of the view, enlarging
appearing to bringit closer. It gives a magnifiedcloseup of one section
view.
of the total scene,
it were.
as
So, "narrow
angle"equalsnarrow
an

these

between

In

rate

accordingto

two

Focal

of the lens to the

extremes

are

Length, the

point where

intermediate

many

from

measurement

image

an

is formed.

puted
lenses,com-

the

center
optical
wide-anglelens

length(such as the 25 millimeter or "one-inch" lens),

while the telephoto
lens has a longfocal length(such as the 100 millimeter
"four-inch" lens ) These
lenses on a 35mm
movie
camera.
or
are
typical
(35mm here, of course, refers to somethingelse: the film width used in
has

short

focal

the

camera.)
The

lens most

millimeter

(or

commonly

"two-inch"

lens

used

on

) which

the 35mm

movie

is the

camera

well approximates
fairly

50

the human

lens is generally
angleof viewpointand perspective.This 50mm
considered
line between
to be the dividing
wide-angleand narrow-angle
lenses. Such narrow-angleor telephoto
lenses as the 75mm
and 100mm
are
useful for closeups.
especially

eye

in its

It is well

to

note

(a wide
the

camera

nor

does

moves;
it

give an

that each

angle lens

lens has

its

distorts when

advantages and
used

on

lens does not keep the

telephoto
illusion of depth) This is why cameras
a

advantages
also its dis-

closeupsor
entire

scene

when

sharp

normallyhave

THE

108

CAMERA

oo

lens is

device

used

to converge
a
graphic
photorays of lighton
nation
combia
picture lens usually contains
elements
which
or
are
more
glass
specially
ground, properly spaced and aligned,to correct aberrations
a

film. A

motion

have

Lenses

major characteristics: FOCAL

two

LENGTH

and

SPEED.

of three

which
are

exist

in all individual

chromatic

lens

elements.

(color),spherical, and

These

linear.

FOCAL

aberrations

The

use

of

LENGTH

center
a

specificlens is governed by the desired

perspective, depth
of field, feeling of depth (apparent space
between
ground
foreand
and
to the subject.
background)
accessibility

is focused
describe
moves

where

on

any
in a
the

OF

of the

lens

A
to

LENS"
the

the

infinity
(OO)extreme

INFINITY

distance,

plane known
projected image

distance

from

projected image

as

usually
the

falls. The

is
over

FOCAL
shorter

Lens

extremely wide
used
Rarely if ever

An

angle

lens

for panning.

with
Note

Lens

A
use

wide
on

angle lens with great depth

moving camera.

cal
opti-

feet. The

lens
to
film

which

the

focal length

great depth of field.

feeling of great depth.

of field. Also

used

PLANE

HORIZONTAL

25mm

the

term

50

HORIZONTAL

18.5mm

the

when

difficult to

is

of at least 4 lenses to

complement

109

CAMERA

THE

of lenses for

complement
performvaried tasks. A typical
25mm,
50mm,
camera:
40mm,
professional

35mm

75mm.
The

16mm

similar

20mm,
to

exists

typicalcomplement
Note

in lenses
as

that the 20mm

adjustthe

lens

various

camera,

for the two

refers

noun

to

lengthto accomplish
might be: 15mm,
lens here is roughlyequivalent
and this generall-to-2 relationship
focal

lenses

cameras.

the

meeting point where

sharp image. As a verb,

lens make

to

achieve

this

coming through
at

lenses

lens for the 35mm

Focus

focus

shorter
of 16mm

30mm.

25mm,

the 40mm

requirea

camera

results. A

sharp image.

Lenses

the rays
to

can

focus
be

of

light

means

to

adjustedto

distances.
HORIZONTAL

50mm

Lens

Usually considered the "normal"

Note
good feeling of depth and

lens

for

35mm

camera.

sharpness throughout picture

area.

HORIZONTAL

150mm

Lens

An

extremely long lens with

background.

out-of-focus

very

short

depth

of field. Note

CAMERA

THE

in the

lightadmitted

of

amount

called

if sometimes
United

Calibrations

Speed

of

the

are

Uniform

means

tem
sys-

to

mean

or

mum
maxi-

System.

markings (/-or T-stop) on

lens refers to

stop. This

marked
similarly

any

mistaken
and, though frequently

US

States, it merely

at

111

effective

its widest

lens.

iris

opening"

diaphragm of a
less lightis available and, in doing this, some
lens must
open up when
lens may
efficient than
others. One
lenses are
more
open up only to
be optically
Another
ground to be
//4.5 before losingefficiency.
may
efficient at an
excellent speed of //1.6.
It is customary to say "How
fastis the lens?" or "What
speed lens?"
abilitywith

to

determine

six" in the
lens
"faster"

The

this information.
two

than the //4.5 (The

"What
photography,

as

it is set

for

of
equivalent
up

this

(not

scene

"What's

stop" (or

"a

to

//4.5to //3.2 to //2.3to //1.6.Each

the

lightexposure.

is half way

be

can

the

to

of

speed
your

of these

between

to

setting
the

iris

setting

be

//6.3

for instance,

full stop

next

from

//5.6

this

taking

root.)

square

"Stoppingdown"
change the lens
The

fullstops, doubling

the
//6.3.(Mathematically,

//4.5 and

lens.

setting?"

exposure

and
computed by squaringthe number, doubling,

effect is

the iris

as

lens).It's

the

the difference,as,
halfstop splits

to

lens this would

are

"one-

or

fasterthe

to change the

/-number

an

the

refers
shooting?"

fullstop") means

On
light.

"four-five"

be

number

"What's

admit

as

the

maximum

to

twice

much

you

stop?"or

your

would

or

Also, the //1.6 is referred

lower

speed are

iris

aperture,

answer

just mentioned.

cases

In

"Open

The
light.

minimum

to

admit

lens

is also

exposure

less

stop

to

smaller

around

It

cameras.

means

stop (highernumber).

The

light.
iris

or

heard
familiarly

is, of
setting,

course,

only

one

of the

factors

the speed of the film negative

filming,
(quicknessof its chemical reaction to light)and the lengthof exposure
the film travels through the camera)
the
and
(rapiditywith which
be changed on
camera
to control
some
cameras
aperture (which can
further the amount
of light),
all must
be computed by the cameraman
before "setting
the stop."
Fixed
Universal
Focus
indicates a lens has virtually
Focus
or
plete
comof
field
from
the
such
overall
While
to
camera
depth
infinity.
ness
sharpof a lens is desirable
the
of
to
amateur
an
foolproof
operation
it is not
work. Instead,
always creativelydesirable in professional
camera,
be wiser
it may
to focus
sharplyattention on one point in the
softer focus and hence
in slightly
pictureand to have the rest of the scene
in

determiningexposure.

less

In

prominent.

Hogue

Lens

is

trade

name

for

universal

focus

type

of

lens.

112

CAMERA

THE

Hartley Lens
the

is

but

center

Coated

surface

diffused

coatingwhich

color

refers

reflections and

down

to

Zoom

names)
of

Lens

the

refer to

of its

one

lens to

and

certain

the

Zoomar

that

is free

lens

will not

rays

Electrozoom

or

lens of variable

toward

moving

touch

or

lens

zoom

from

undersirable
work

for color

must

focus

into

come

with

fluid

where

programs

latter

combination

the

in

quickcloseupsare

are

trade

give

the

effect

itself is

camera

the

is used

progression.It

two

of many

shift from

it to

can

the

subject;yet

causes

(the

lengthwhich

actuallyis

push-pulllever
another

focal

from

away

lenses,a
of

characteristics
football

on

without

needed

games

moving

camera.

""

CAMERA

When

the

mounted

itself

camera

wheeled

on

which

mount,

without

Tracks

raise

and

lower

and

the

Live

this

TV

the

be

may

is

Pedestal

the center

column

pedestalhas steerable
pushes the pedestalcamera
A

camera.

cameraman

platformwith

are

alternate

Panoram

Dolly is

is another

that

one

its wheels

from
desired, differing

straightline, forward
"Chinese

carriage.A

"Chinese"

and

or

is

Film

even
straight,
dolly,both as

Trolley,a

Live

and

it.

Dolly

push

to

cameraman

where
for

the

move

can

is

movement
a

and

noun

bastardized

up,

down,

mounted
especially
dollies

other

most

used

the
shot

main

to

indicate

dolly" means

used
especially
TV

both

word,

are

in
to

which

and

out.

tion
direc-

go in any
can

go

Crab

only

in

back.

is sometimes

movement.

Truck

in

nouns.

that has

Chinese

word

the

and
(British)

Dolly is

one

rails used

used

castors,

or

besides

requiressomeone
grooved metal

Perambulator

and

as

wheels

It

required.Truck

used

during photography,it

out

assistance.

TV.

verb,

and

in

moves

platforms.In

wheels

Dolly is
Film

MOVEMENT

lift in
providesa hydraulically-operated

to
pedestal,

rubber-tired

TV

edges.

treated
with
a
optically
lightreflections. Coating
to handle
improves ability

successful

color

in

coated.

are

of lens

Any
fringing.

or

stationary.The

is

lenses

is clear

plane.

same

or

been

of the lens and

type

has

picture that

the

at

troublesome

modern

otherwise

achromatic;

lens

speed

photography.Most

produces

of focus

out
a

cuts

the

increases

Achromatic

be

and

indicates

Lens

also often
color

"effect" lens that

an

would

be

to
an

of the

angular (or "slant-eyed")

swivel

sidewise

angular moving

in animated
use

an

cartoon
term

is in

the

camera

shot.

photography.In

Live

Trucking Shot, which

CAMERA

113

moving

subject.

automotive

mercials.
com-

THE

the

indicates
Travel

Shot

dollyingalong parallelto
used
is especially
similar; this term

is

Shot

Running

the

or

Follow

of the

movement

to

have

rides

the

nautical

term

for

the

sound

the

follows

camera

has

the
to

for

action

stage

fluid

shot,

crane

operator)

(or
from

comes

the

since
in

cameraman

Boom

(such

extendingarm

an

The

shots,

static

time

arm.

extends

of

centers

rehearsal

extension

or

pole that

and

productionvalue.

Boom,

man

old

the

that
Note
jib-fcoom).
microphone,also called

the

as

his

boom.

Boom,

"truck

direct

back."

"Gertude"
The

the

Zoom

as

the

the

up

product)

Mooz,

of course,

Tilt refers to the up

"tilt the

Pan,
the

up"

camera

from

horizontal

the human

eye

slow

of

pan

to

newcomers

of the

camera

It is well

or

the word

indicated

in

ever,
howscript,

known
to be available.
definitely
for a big dinosaur-like
camera

is

term

dinosaur

the

or

rushes

camera

of the

star

would

in animation

leaves its
is

positionin
in

zoom

down

little."Also

is likewise

panorama,

as

the

business

lens" this is

point out

use

pan

for

the up

subject(such
to

rush

to

noun.

or

noun

to

describe

lens. It is similar

and

of the

scene.

typicaluses.
down

to

"Make
few

movements

tilt.
correctly:
that the

camera

takes directions

exactlyas

everydaylife. Our left,as we look at the scene, is Camera

rightis Camera
Right.This is the opposite to stage directions
the actor's

up

lens. Hence,

camera

verb

set

pullback!

of the

movement

"tilt down

the

the

reverse"

particular

some

mean

in

look at it from

try's
indus-

truckingaction.

toward

in

change in direction of the camera

an
following
objectacross the width
the set,""pan left,""pan right"are

to

nouns.

as

up,""dollyin,"

dottyback.
fast dollyingor
exceptionally

Zoom

scene.

camera.

"boom

for

an

mean

commercial

term

would

objectin

be

not

well

as

cartoon.

indicates

in

pet

verbs

as

down,"

from
appropriated

was

first animated

Zoom

should

old-timer's

an

name

is

boom

serve

"crane

to

particular
equipment

is

Pull Back

all

truck

camera

and

Crane

unless this

crane.

dolly and

crane,

Scriptsmay

our

the

means

series

follows

camera

enhances
greatly

always

do

with

moving

not

may

over

considerable

takes

continuity.It
it

advantage

of the

movement

but

subject(but

considerable

easy

Shot

Action

in

all times

is at

camera

move
itself).
necessarily
movable
holds the camera
sion
extenis a dollywhich
Crane
on
a
long
the maneuverability,
This increases
since it permits the camera
arm.
shots
lower
while dollying
in and
raise and
out. Crane
significantly

the

means

Shot

Follow

action.

is

camera

point of

view.

Hence

camera

we

Left;
which

leftis stage right;

CAMERA

THE

114

rightis stage left.

camera

indicates

Pan

Zip

ending in
transition

Swish,

to

Blur

Pan,

OTHER

Scriptsuse

the

Cut

editor

the

immediatelyto
Fade

In

Out

to black. Both

director

from

desired

is

the

(liveTV).

stop the previous scene

means

as

switch

and

one.

to

the

variouslyknown

SHOTS

what

describe

for

used

Pan.

CAMERA

technical

(film)or

new

means

bringingup
Fade

OF

side,

one

is sometimes

Whiz

or

to

camera

It is also

Pan

TYPES

stop. Cut

means

device

scene.

speciallanguage to

and

camera

and

related

SlipPan, Whip

of the

This

movement.

and

new

fast movement

very

blur of fast

the

reveal

full

pictureto

visibility.

is the

reverse,

meaning

terms

also

used

are

black

gradually,startingfrom

scene

as

diminish

to

the

Fades

nouns.

picturegradually
open

may

close

and

complete sequence within a program. Fades may be of

made
the Live
or
by the film editor (in the laboratory)
varying lengths,
be made
also may
technical director (electronically).
Fades
in some
TV
film cameras,
this unwise, except
but lack of accuracy
makes
generally
for amateur
hobbyists.
"Go to Black"
is another
Live TV
way of commanding "fade out."
shortened
in usage
to
Lap Dissolve or Cross Dissolve (generally
to
scene
on
overlap the end of one
simply Dissolve)means
top of
the beginningof another. The
while
first scene
the second
fades out
between
is fading in. Generallythe dissolve is used
to
scenes
scene
denote a change of locale or a lapseof time. Dissolve in and dissolve out
a

story or

any

used

sometimes

are

to

We'd
confusing.
get fairly

can

Shot
Establishing

which,

scene

the viewer's
film in

closer

so

If the

entire

the director
and

other

and

describe

the

beginning of

the
and

Scene

Master

to

the

anglesin

in

photographed

is

or

full sequence

editor. This

Shot, a

Master
then

will have
into

settingintercut

same

circumstances

this set

using

sequence

camera

this

at

set

locale,time

but
respectively,

wouldn't.

entire

the

out^

story discussion

in

long take, it is called

by

views

the

fade

you

used

term

helps establish

mind.
one

used

term

is

in and

rather

generally reveals

and

sequence

on

fade

mean

its framework.

that

Note
used

for

where
the

types

each

shot
establishing
of

individual

production crew.
camera

These

scenes.

viewpoint

more

include:

shot

master
not

may
must

scene

The

and

be
common

be

are

descriptiveterms

in script,
actuallyspecified

indicated

which

terms

Long Shot,

for the

information
are

full view,

used

to

from

of
scribe
dedis-

THE

tance;

Medium

closer

view; and

camera

Shot,

with

detailed

be close up

(althoughit

be

may

telephotolens!)Normally,a closeupof

shot from

still

the

subject where

the

of

view

115

Shot,

Close

view;

nearer

Closeup, a

to

appears

moderately

CAMERA

distance,
"head

means

person

shoulders."

and

requiresfurther

of the terms

Each

definition in the scriptto

avoid

tive
distance
each is only relaand
to size or
as
specific
A closeupmay
to each
other,depending upon the precedingscene.
be of a barn, a horse's head
or
a
dog.
puppy
shot is
Consequentlyit is important in a script,where a camera
the area
to indicate
covered, such as "Close shot revealing
specified,
all of fireplace
and mantel
Santa Glaus
as
disappears."
confusion.

None

is

initial abbreviations

Various

unless

studio, so
leave it up
LS"

medium

MCS"

medium

close

close shot.

MCU"

medium

CU"

closeup.
ECU"

Despite the
obscure

to

network

specifyaccurately,it

can

intermediate

and
is often

studio

to

wiser

to

shot.

closeup.
closeup;also
big closeup.

extreme

ECU"
infrequent

an

network

and

long shot.

CS"

or

for the above

shot.

Long

XCU

writer

used

the director.

to

MLS"

and

from

Interpretations
vary

terms.

are

confusion

abbreviations

of these

such

TCU"

written

some
initials,

writers

tightcloseup,
use

still more

as:

LHS"

long high shot.

HS-high shot.
MHS"
medium
high shot.
AS" angle shot.
LAS"
low angle shot.
AV"
It

air view.

get very confusing.

Specifics
may

can

if desired.

terms

Waist
of

person,

is

which

Shot would

Bust
would
the

Shot

For
a

shown, down
Full

Shot

but it also

can

by using other

to indicate a closeup
description
and
to the beltline.
body down
anatomically
higher,and Shoulder Shot

accurate

more

includes

the

be similar,but

the

added

instance:

indicate that the shoulders

face. On

be

other

hand,

head

would
Knee

be revealed
Shot

would

with
mean

the

closeupof
the figureis

to the knees.

may

be

refer to

used
a

to

indicate

full view

of

view
of the
full-figure
person,
"Full
shot of the barn"
anything.
a

CAMERA

THE

116

could

identical

the

get

One-Shot

Shot

people are seen

three people.

means

Great
Novice

tend

writers

impress no

It is better
Shot

is

If it is
Shot

Cover

different

another

of

the

angle of
Shot

Reaction
or

person

in

same

to

to

persons

Shot.

additional

shot

another

on

the

For

situation.

cashier

Reverse
For

instance,

closeup of
featured

dominant

emotional

instance,

Camera

level. The
one

actor

and

scene

the

since

the

Angle is
sideways.

Insert, mentioned
show

without

an

him.

actor's

full

This

subject.
then

shot:

angle
has

who

one

is

back

defined

of the

eyes

reverse

the

by

camera

to

be

which

view

favored from

the

justbeen

it may

unusual
is

camera

mind

at

be

an

does

as

the

which

angle,it
upward shot
and

the

human

to

refer

to a
specifically

refers
previously,
face

and

crew

would
Typical insert scenes
with a page being turned, a

to

any

consequently can
and

without

include
bomb

fuse

is not

at

floor level.

from

to
a

shot

normal

oddly favor

may

eye

established
scripthas previously
used

angle.

camera

such

as

quicklyorient

not

actor

one

viewpoint,but

an

viewpoint,

acting

has

camera

view

camera

any

tilted down

or

any

the viewer's

Dutch

not

be

may

viewpoint,unless
cocked

here, simply means

appliedto

appliesto

it

comes

seen

the

closeupof

dialogue sequence,

appliedto

is said

used

another,

over

care,

as

term

camera

Roughly
with

as

term

others. He

is

from

seen

establish

person

is the

Angle,

Angle Shot

as

response

screen.

Shot

over

view

may

the other

the

Favoring

follows; then

person

to

on

is

two-shot

one

cuts

camera

Shot

Angle

cutting

camera.

he

as

indicate

to

suddenly realizes a gun is pointed at

camera
jargon equivalentto an actor's "take" as it was
in Chapter 6.
the

formers.
per-

from

it for

used

are

shows

which

given

Crowd

might need

standingby

scene

of all the

likewise

terms

scene

refers

an

which

picture.

view

termed

scene.

tions.
descripspecific
is to

to

to

and

camera

the editor

case

television,both

live

In

purposes.

be
refers

Shot

angle made

the

refer

to

it may

Protection

or

camera

used

term

largegroup,

for lack of detailed

exactlywhat

out

loose

in

confuse

write

to

obviously,Three-

And,

time.

same

Two-Shot

scene.

scriptsto define properlythe

"Hollywood terms" and abbreviations

use

often

and

one

Group

to

the

at

taken

be

must

care

of

Single means

or

two

means

"closeupof barn."
only one person in the

results

be

must

recording a

in

the

unfamiliar

reason

for it.

with

the

camera

closeupwhich

film

shot

be

used

at

later

does
time

delaying primary production.

hand

with

burning.

wallet,

calendar

THE

This

Sound

Speed

picturesound
and

later

at

Silent

faster travel

of 24

standard
As
less and

lawn

forced

frames

second.

record

in

cranking (from
than

per

second.

the

the

Slow
at

Motion

cameras

this may

be

less,the effect may

or

frames

24

it appears

down

mowing

man

trick is Under-

20

or

rather

hand

by

18

become

Fast

24

frames

frames

per

photographywith

comical.

The
camera
oppositeextreme.
second, then is projectedat standard
the action. This

to show

trick is used

bump in the road. When

photographygets abnormallyhigh in relation to projection

demonstrations,
analytical
slow

per

to slow

at

of

or

the

Over-Crankingis

or

show

the action. In

interest to

frames

16

speed under

shot

present

illusion

camera

at any

are

the

to

at

cranked

were

scenes

add

and

to

as

for this

done

film

gives the

24, which

when

commercial

higherthan

speed,thus

jected
pro-

is still

speed

industryto change

earlier term

days

16 frames

at

actors

This

second.

per

comedy effects;such
An

time.

Many

the

standard

for

condense

to

speed

photographed and

was

possibleto photograph silent

is

motor-driven)and

second

runs

per

is used

This

frames

16

late 1920's

projectat

Motion.

this

at

films,but sound qualityrequires

non-professional
This is why the coming of sound
through the projector.

trick,it

recorded

are

screen.

the movies, film

of

for all motion

This is standard

track

pictureand

Speed

TRICKS

AND

only:

camera

per second.

the

117

silent

the

picturesin

both

film,so

for
satisfactory
a

is 24 frames

projectedon
earlydays of

so

the

In

the film

appliesto

section

SPEEDS

CAMERA

FILM

CAMERA

motion

when

as

tire hits

times
normal, it is often
speeds,say, at 72 frames a second, or many
called High Speed Photography.Specialcameras,
useful
in scientific
research and motion
now
are
analysis,
capableof photographingat over
a

thousand

frames

Lapse Photography

Time

cranking.It
and
For
may

allows
so

can

be

rose

The
called

the
in

trick of time

Stop

Motion

photographed

one

show

show

photographedat
opening

mechanical

is

the

regularlapseof

instance, to show

projectedon
the

per second.

normally slow
bud

rose

each

thirtieth

the normal
of its normal

Photography, which
at

to

time.

Stop

posure
ex-

of time.
frame

flower, one
resultant

age,
foot-

per second, shows

time.
in

the

refers
motion

parts being assembled,

of

frame

fraction

full

frames

24

lapse photographyis

frame

in

process

it opens

each

interval;the
thirty-second
at

screen

as

between

time

under-

in

extreme

an

reverse,

various

to

is

method
any

used,

of

motion

shooting,
picture

for instance, to

commercial

products

THE

which

on

is recorded

sound

Ground

Glass

is

Rack

This
Mitchell).

of the
the

moves

film

aside

(on
and

reveals

cameraman

direct

Finder

Parallax
as

refers

through the

seen

viewfinder.
parallel

Even

the

the

as

the

two

the lens and

the

as

of

eyes

as

human

built into

mounted

field of

view

through the

certain

Lens
Live

is

TV

device,

Since

camera.

it,there is

equivalentto

or

corrections

farther

back

it is

the viewfinder, which

seeing

the

sees

Shade
in

sides. Matte

and

front of the
Box

in front of the lens

is
on

no

Lens

is

picture as

exact

of

problem
parallax.
the
Turret
Lens
is
Turret
or
on
revolvingmount
It holds the complement of lenses and turns
camera.
in place the desired
lens for photography.
Sun

back,

see
individually

closer to

moves

scene

lens.

actual

seen

the finder" and

camera

the

Photography

actual

and
ground glass,

this

in

approximately,

scene,

the

between

of the

is racked

camera

the

as

subject.

Viewing
lens

on

be made

for parallaxmust

the

lens

do
so
differently,

scene

from

the difference

to

by using

view

check

to

the
parallels

Finder, which

View

or

on

shoot

cannot

the

view

can

camera

this

at

Stop Motion

through a

material

types, such

certain

through the actual lens. The film camera

but rackingover
permits the cameraman
position,
the
for composition and focus. When
critically
the
shootingposition,

film

looks

cameraman

camera

the

scene

in

it is the

sense,

opticalglasswithin

image. The

the

119

magnetically.)

mechanism

Over

(In another

set.

frosted

the lens focuses

which
the

the

quick jobsaround

various

CAMERA

Hood

lens

device
the film

to

small

are

block

off

camera

to

or

hold

of the
Mattes

sun

front of the

alignand
round

stray lightfrom

(generally
part
to

square

the

lock

devices

overhead

or

shade) placed

(pronouncedmats),

120

THE

small

metal

in the

picture.Also

CAMERA

The

Neutral

also

which

control

to

called

box

matte

forms
gelatin
or

fiber cut-outs

or

act

the

which

Masks,
holds

of

visual

Density
(but have

Diffusion
artistic

on

refers

the

to

obtain

To

reasons.

itself. Consequentlythis difference

in

settingthe
Polaroid

Lens
not

an

is

Cap
The

in use.

took

Filter is

glarefrom

unwanted

trade

name

scene.

removable

story is

he

discovered
.

of

he

yes,

is

fog filters are

light

be

may

lens

used.

which

be
that

Note

be

must

for

may

filter absorbs

lighta

for

available.

desirable

effect,the

factor

for

filter which

placedover
wealthy oil

camera

when

and

gauze

of

of

amount

or

within

computed

filter is used.

cover

told

expensive new

feet of color film and

blank

when

exposure

the

scene,

Also,
characteristics).

this

amount

portions.

lens. N.D.

softeningof focus, sometimes

refers to the

Factor

down

color

of focus or filters or
set out
deliberately
also may
be diffused.
lighting
Filter

off

areas

transparent glassor

are

through the

cut

the

or

characteristics of the

haze
types of diffusion,

dramatic

or

color

instance,

effect

no

various
effects,

the

effect mask

which

lightreceived

Filters,for

received

Filters

shapes

certain

out

they in

since

to correct

amount

block

on

his

is used

the end

African

finally
got it back
you ought to take

of the lens,when

from

man

who

Oklahoma

safari. He
from

eliminate

to

shot

the lab

off those

12,000

completely
when

lens caps

shoot

you

when

Sometimes

film travels

cameras

when

this

have

cubicle where
a

buckle

switch

to

off the

cut

re-threaded.

and

out

automatically

power

as

the

darkroom

it does

camera's
is not

all

to

refers
photographers,

film is loaded

and

convenient, this work

to

unloaded.
be

may

the

light-proof

On

location

done

in

portablesack-like cloth that is light-proof.

of the soundproofhousing which
Blimp is the name

Bag,

This

happens.

Darkroom,
where

it will Buckle.

camera,

the film is cleared

pile-upstops productionuntil
Some

through a

or

Change

film

sound

to

camera

prevent the

noise

of the

fits

from

mechanism

camera

the

over

being audible to the sound equipment. No blimp is necessary for silent

film production,
obviously.Barney is a heavy cloth blimp, sometimes
used

where
BNC

attached

camera

Mitchell

is not

too

great.

is the

trade

name

of

blimp"a "Blimped

Camera
cameraman

each

noise

Report
for

the

is the

Noiseless

correct

printedhave

laboratoryrecords.

their number

sound

It

other

circled;T/E

with

camera

self-

Camera."
for the

name

take, the footage exposed and

on

log keptby

gives

the

correct

pertinentdata.
the

the

assistant

of

number
Scenes

report indicates:

to

be

test, end

THE

at

this

the

of

lab

roll for the

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of negative

hold

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may

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at

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processing

stand, used

camera
three-legged

primarily

stationaryshots (on moving shots,a dolly or

for

camera

on

left

developingthe rest of
portabledevelopingkit for hand

for

name

used).Baby

or

edge.

of film

section

then

location.

is

smaller-size

inches

only approximately8
floor

film's

the

in

short

the film

assistant

before

check

small

on

for

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for this and

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in

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that

out

small

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to

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instruction

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to

and

camera

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to

cameraman's

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opens

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the

point,and

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takes indicates:

between

of roll. T/N

121

CAMERA

tripod.A High

high,can

of

lieu

in

serve

Hat

crane

Hi

or

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the

tripodon

table.

that

placed under a tripod's

legs to hold them steady and prevent slippingor spreading.
the camera
often
Free
For
is mounted
on
a
panning and tilting,
Head, a device that fits on top of the tripodor dollyto hold the camera
There
and
various
are
permit free panning or tilting.
types of these,
African
explorer,
includingthe Akeley Head, invented by the famous
in that it can
Carl Akeley,and the Gyro Head, similar to a gyroscope
Crowfoot

Triangle and

in

move

desired

any

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than
called

Wild

variable
are

sound

driven

speed of

is

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Mosaic

which

the

words,

two

movie

on

such

Hunting" is
he

his

use

singleLive

that it

singlecamera

merry

own

TV

not

to

the

itself,

camera

equipment requiredto
small

studio

from

slide

machine

duce
pro-

operate

may

TV

camera

upon

it is scanned

by

arranged

in

the

multiplesources.
may

be

plexed
multi-

tube.

expressionused

in Live

ingenuity in liningup
he

so

camera

pick up

can

projectorsand
a

for what

hunts

do.
eternally

to

projectionroom

turn

can

always

motors

require tachometers.

refers

room.

Also

beam.

instance,

he

which

necessary

the control

do

speeds

for such

needed

speed

light-sensitive
platewithin the Live
opticalimage is focused by the lens. There

station's film

"Go

Sound

faster

be obtained.

can

speed indicator

:"Tack."

term

or

chains.

camera

Multiplex refers

in

per second

second, hence
TV

slower

is the

the electron

For

which

on

is the

all the

in

pictureimage

Live

and

plus cable, monitor

with

per

one

frames

Nickname

frames

Chain

Camera

24

Tachometer

motors.

24

at

refers to

Motor

Motor.

speed

are

arc.

Speed

normal

devices

are

thinks will be

the

TV
next

to

tell
shot.

man
camera-

In

other

good picture.Cameramen

ART
TITLES

AND

DIRECTION
GRAPHIC

ART

SCENERY
CURTAINS

AND

TERMS

BACKGROUNDS

MISCELLANEOUS

Art, Titles

ART

and

Scenery

DIRECTION

Someone

has

and

well
fairly

TERMS

this

magazine,

described

his art direction

everythingin

the video:

he

TV

itself with

the

the

the
settings,

also include

may

the
Obviously,
but

the

coordinates
title may
The

the
read

even

designof
"Production

Director

director

pictorial
qualityof literally

furniture

within

indicates

the

the

productionas
Designedby

reports directlyto

the

for

it be

telecast. In television,

and

or

performers.

who

the

eye.

and

gram,
pro-

plans

and

credit

His

Direction

producer

to

program

person

"Art

interior

supervision.

from

it meets

."

other

of the

his

positionvaries

art

for

artist"

creative

task, whether

the wardrobe

make-up

of his
authority

title Art

the

to
or

concern

may

"executive

an

advertisement

and
decorations,the titlelettering
In Live

as

defines his relation

stage play,an

director

art

an

By

director

."
.

and

works

with the key staff in the pre-productionplanning stages.

closely
of the
It is his responsibility
to see
to it that the physical
appearance
productionis in keeping with the writer's mood, the director's staging
needs
the camera-lighting
and
problems of reproducingthe picture,
technically.
Not
only must he have creative talent and artistic craftsmanship,

but he must

also be

settingswithin

an

artful businessman.

He

must

know

to
requiredbudget,floor-planned
122

how

allow

to

the

develop
desired

TITLES

ART,
and

entrances

of the

exits

and

actors

the free

SCENERY

AND

of

movement

123

television

cameras.

In
this is
On
the

operations,the

some

these

confusingas

director

art

initials also stand

major productionshis staff may

sketches

for the

Set

the Scenic

Designer,who

called the

for assistant

include

and
settings,

sets. Also, the Costume

be

may

A.D., but

director in TV.

Designer,who

Artist who

developsthe

develops
these

executes

sketches

for

special

wardrobe.
also

Supervisionmay
Graphic Art,
30"

40"

field which

in

signs, and

scriptcalls
possiblefor one

supervisingand
artists

and

for

for three

the

less than

measures

includes

on

titles,still photographs,

work

when

it is

of

shows,

visuals."

work

individual

on

that

graphic art

director to

art

the
coordinating

others

art

such

oversee

number

of various

set

graphic
designers,

projects.
used

Advertisingagencies,long
now
preparation of other advertising,
have the special
art directors who
task
of TV

work

work

forth.

so

telecast. "This
It is

all art

covers

is television's term

Visual

Graphic Artists,who

(union rule!).
Graphic

size

maps,

include

to

art

an

often
of

director

employ

their

in

system

the

television

own

supervisingthe pictorial
quality

commercials.

Graphic art obviouslyis especiallyimportant in the telecast of

commercials
since
the sponsor's
touching
advertising
product may require reTV.
transmission
or
on
specialart handlingfor best pictorial
Titles and
product signaturesalso are of considerable importance in
advertising
messages.
The
all

Agency

graphicart

needed,

oversee

development,in

Art

He

designin
or

execute

sketch

has

Director

commercials.

on

cartoon

or

to

TV

may

animated

the

the

for overseeing
responsibility

also

superviseset design,where

films. It may

Story Board

which

also be
is the

his

sibility
respon-

scene-by-scene

format
photographicform, of the intended
of the commercial
the program).The
(or,in some
cases,
story board
indicates
visuallyhow the scriptwill be produced.This may include
details of staging,
and graphicart. The
cartoon
sets, wardrobe
especially
or

requiresa story board, competently executed, before production.Live

does not necessarily
action
require this adjunctif a scriptis well-written,
because
creative

story board

may

be

efforts of the director

Title is used

TITLES

to

refer to

restrictive

and

AND

or

misleadingto

the

later

cameraman.

GRAPHIC

ART

or
lettering
printedcaptionsfor

the

screen.

In

124

TITLES

ART,

SCENERY

AND

HOMICIDE

SQUAD

Story Board

Commercial

TV

Art

Graphic

of Cast
made
was
Title,listing
Chapter 2 on Programming, mention
matic
of the characters portrayedin draperformersand possiblythe names
roles,Credit Title,listing
personnelrelated to the creation and
the name
Title or Opening Title,listing
Main
stagingof the production,
of the

show

at

Studio

the

Card

by

the titles

bottom

of

titles

Crawl

or

title cards

be

be

These

mounted

dropped

in

Flip Stand
binder
the

in

and

Drum,

of cards

series

bottom

rollers at top and

with

the

from

revolvingcurved

is the

rack

and

Crawling Titles,Creeping Titles,

art

of the

front

or

easel for

the top of the stack is

called

Drops

lifted out

stations

or

handle

remote

size, which

that

they

When

no

can

is let fall. Drop

In

in

these

sequence
in

ring
from

Flip Card

control.

Cards.

Drop

being photographedand

pictureas each card

in

called

be

camera.

or

by
operate automatically
are

14"

holding flipcards.

pulledout
major

some

placed horizontallyso

in

be

cards, II"

Credit

The

Copy Crawl,

The

Crawl,

quite a lot of titles for a title!

individuallypresentedthey may

ring binders

is used, cards may

which

Title

individual

succession

Flip cards also

of the

are

are

stack. Network

Machines

Crawl"

simplyThe

may

by

upward

moves

Title

called

are

Titles,Roll Titles,The

Cards.

on

screen

Roller

Flip

mitted
trans-

film

range.

moving

When

work

art

than

presentedas

stripwhich

continuous

one

be

surface
Guillotine,a straight

camera

Such

refer to

to

studio, rather

long,they may

are

the top of the

to

surface,or
out

be in

they may

the

in

camera

used

terms

are

methods.

projectionroom

or

TV

Title,the concluding caption.

End

Title

Live

or

Live

When

start, and

Drop

the title
indicates

or

Out
art

the

indicates

drops out
bottom

of

TITLES

ART,
stack

the
to

is

Telop

is the trade

titles. The

work

used

even

from

the

of the

name

is

name

referring

in

is

name

each

card

successive

dropped in

is

range.

camera

art

beingphotographedand

125

SCENERY

AND

to

fairly
genericand

now

rival

projectorfor handling

Gray Company

first letters of "Bausch

projector,Balop,

trade

formed

name

The
Optical Projector."

Lomb

and

mistakenly

is often

full

Balopticon.

Balop Crawl, Balop Stripand Balop Roll are all terms for crawling
titles presentedon
a
special
geared mechanism
by this type machine.
Balop and Telop also are terms used to refer to the art work used
Titles or
inanimate
in these
projectors.
picturesare reproduced to a
size

4"

5". These

correctlycalled Opaques

non-transparent and

they are

since

be

may

projectedby

are

or

Opaque Slides,

reflected

light.

Transparent Slide or Transparency, on the other hand, is

that is, the lightgoes through the picprojectedby transmitted light;
ture
The

it does

as

with

Camera

transparencies which

Kodachrome

with

picturefilm.

motion

familiar

hobbyistsare
similar.

are

TV

For

parencies,
trans-

reproducedon positivephotographicfilm or
photo-sensitive
glassplates.
(Transparencyalso can refer to translucent
the windows
of retail
used by advertisers
on
pictures or decalcomanias
work

art

establishments.
Slide is
Slides

It is
each

broadlyused

which

Film

is the

trade

slide film

35mm

frame

projectsone

StripFilm

by
techniquein

at

various

visual

in

the

It is

is the

capableof

techniqueof
name

work

art

or

picturefilm
of art
has

presentation
long been

small

but

time

has

an

(in l/200th
Animatic

projectorwhich

film

may

that it

be

film. It,

16mm

uses

advantagein
of

operates

that its

rapid

second) enables
used

in

the

it to

studio

or

projectionroom.

Cellomatic
studio.

titles

stripof motion
and Film
Strip,this type
Slide Film Projectors.
It

projectors,
except

illusion of animation.

ment.
equip-

requirements of

exact

continuous

of

name

the

of

training.

pull-downof subsequentframes
give the

to

types

many

of still pictures or

series

check

on

orderingslides.

before

handled

Animatic

too,

television

to

used

and

sizes

many

processedon

called

be

standard

like the

refers

been

have

can

in

network

or

(35mm). Also

made

both the transparency and the opaque.

to cover

important in

station

Slide

be

may

be

can

trade
many

specialprojectorused
unique opticaleffects and also a

name

of

in

the

limited

animation.

earlier device, Multiscope,is a trade

a developmentof an
Projectall,
for equipment similar to Balop.Epidiascope is an
picture
opaque

projectorused

in

England.

ART,
work

to

TITLES

AND

SCENERY

127

prevent smudging.

Mock-Up

is

Hollywood

which

term

such
represent the original,

means

reproductionmade

up

interior,with one
mock-up airplane
and camera
side exposedso that lights
will have ample access
to photograph
television,
people inside. In commercial
mock-up also is a verb
product,so that it will photographto
meaning to reproducea sponsor's
best advantage.It may
be normal
size or Magna-Scale or Heroic, larger
to

than

be
It

is

an

enlargementof

like to

would

do" but

*"

material.
pictureor photographic

never,

SCENERY

is short

locale

It

blown-up for dramatic effect or simplyfor greaterlegibility.

tor
might well be pointedout that blow up is also what an art direc-

sometimes

Set

life-size.

Blow-Up
may

as

or

for

scene.

continued

Set,because

reuse,

Setting,the

Set is

Permanent
as

on

it is left

scenery

program

one

Erecting the

Set

Faking the Floor

The

Shop

at

Paint

Work

TERMS

and

playingarea

that is built and

be Dressed

requiredfor

or

intact

remains

it is called

series. Sometimes

It may
standing.

demands.

does

never

decorated

as

one

for

Standing
occasion

128

TITLES

ART,

kitchen

the

to

SCENERY

AND

has

set

sink, gas

meaning it works and

merely being simulated.
also be used
which

in

commercials.

in

uses

many

If

is

water

nected
con-

to the range, it is a Practical

Set,
electricity
do everything
it appears
than
to do, rather

or

can

Practicable

referring
to

(the correct

parts of scenery,

form)

such

Practical

or

windows

as

and

can

doors,

work.
Turntable
sets

mechanisms

Stage is
to

the

in which

one

which

that

Note

camera.

the floor revolves

revolve
similarly

Turntable
show

to

bringthe

to

also

refers
of

succession

to

cessive
suc-

various

productsor

And
don't forgetturntable
also
packages before a stationarycamera.
the revolving
means
are
platformon which records and transcriptions
for
placed
playing.
The elementaryunit in buildingsettingsis called a Flat which is a
lightportablepanel of cloth stretched on a frame, usually5'9" wide by
be fastened
1CX high in size. Flats can
togetherto form a continuous
wall with doors and windows
placedwithin certain segments, as needed.
of a
the fats stand uprighton
the stage is the use
A method
to make
to the floor with
frame extendingback and held down
Jack, a triangular
sandbagsor U-shaped stageweights.
Returns

Flats

Return

or

(2" x

10'

4'

or

10' in

size)are

segments

depth or indicate another wall of the set and

the background.Sometimes
from
so
over-shooting
protect the camera
wanted
called a Protective
Flat, or a Masking Piece, because it masks off uncate
background;Float or Floater are similar terms, but further indithat these flats are quicklymovable.
indicates a flat
but primarily
Wild
Wall
is used in a similar sense,
the
while
from
the completesetting,
be quietly
removed
that can
even

placedon

an

angleto

add

telecast is in progress, to

permit a

to

camera

get

advantageous

more

view.

Backing is
behind

door

a
or

for

term

to
window, parallel

photographic,
opaque
Tormentors

flatsor anythingin

the wall. These

placed
paintedor

of scenery

way

be

may

translucent.

or

the flats

are

the

placed at

the

sides

of the

the

stage, near

front.

Wing

Flat has

two

or

sections,

more

simplycalled Wings, but

original
stage meaning: the sides

Sometimes
the

Two-Fold
sectionalized
False

overhead

wing

instance, can

this term

has

stand

different

alone.

meaning,

of the stage in the theater.

Flats

are

obvious

of
descriptions

flats.

Ceilingis
dimension

Three-Fold

and

Flats

hinged togetherto

the
to

term
a

for scenery

set. A

accomplishsuch

an

chandelier
effect.

which

givesthe

and/or

illusion of

horizontal

an

flats,for

TITLES

ART,
is the

Teaser

the overhead

the set to hide

Ground

is the term

Row

unfinished

and
lights

for the scenery

area.

scene

material

or

129

placed above

muslin"
generally,

for the material"

name

SCENERY

AND

used

in front of

background or painteddrop to conceal the point it touches the

stage.The ground row, by givinganother point of interest at a different
the eye, aids in giving an
distance
from
illusion of depth to the scene.
mural

Tree
Similarly,

is the

Getaway
or

It

set.

serves

slangexpressionfor

as

which

Through,a pieceof
stage hands

the

with

Breakaway,a

mined

pattern

slammed

or

down

the

with

set

or

the

Sets

the

that will

prop

by
hero's

the

head

miniature.

Model,

but

facsimile

often
small-scale,
built.

are

Table

of the set.

throughor

and

be

can

it. Not

to

Break

moved
be

apart

confused

up

reproductionswhich
on

side, for

mountain

for miniature,

give

means

copy

or

small-scale. A model
necessarily
engine may be fulloften
Sets are
(See mock-up.) Model
reproductions,
cardboard, used to pre-planstagingbefore the actual

is not

facsimile.

sized

wreck

train

looselyused

sometimes

term

two

small-scale

are

be

stagedin

in
split

the rest

easilyin a pre-deteraction
or
on
cue.
Example: a chair
duringthe fightscene.

A
reality.

can

shoots

camera

that will break

illusion of full-scale

instance,

to

small

is a
lighting,

and

camera

dollies toward

Miniatures

or

permit them

may

in

term

same

the

that the

camera

manner

on

Miniature

as

or

curtain

of view.

"goes between"

scenery

behind

the passageway

for actors

exit

or

instance, a small window

For

sets

entrance

an

stage completelyout
Gobo, not to be confused

piece of scenery

the

Row.

the

cross

by

Mountain

Row,

(Note

that model

refers

Top

to

also is

person

who

poses.)

type of photographydone

with

small

tures
minia-

(placedon a table top).

sional
three-dimencombines
Diorama
is a special
type of settingwhich
background,
objectsin the foregroundwith a flat one-dimensional
paintedto give the illusion of continuing depth of perspective.Any
has a background paintingto represent distant porminiature
set which
tions
diorama.
is correctly
of the scene
a
or

models

Curtain

indicates

Drape
movable

indicates

in the

Traveler
rail

dropped

or

is
or

sense

hangingcloth
cloth

that

curtain

or

that

which

from

above.

that is movable.

screen

an

covers

curtain

objector

wall.

the

side

It is not

is.

travels

pulley system), as

lowered

BACKGROUNDS

AND

CURTAINS

+-

on

stage from

from
distinguished
Drop,
Backdrop means
Consequently,

head
(by over-

which

is

back-

130

TITLES

ART,

SCENERY

AND

simulate

ground curtain, painted to

a

actual

an

indicates

Sky Drop

scene.

paintedto represent the sky.

means
Cyclorama or Cyc (pronouncedsyke)literally
It
a background that hangs in an
arc.
stage it means

curtain

On

for instance, to simulate

hills and

distant

sky

for

an

circular
be

may

outdoor

view.

painted,

setting.

which
on
are
Photo-EnlargementDrops are background
realistic
called Photo
photographicviews. Sometimes
reproducedlarge,
Murals. These are generally
called Shipmans in HollyMurals, or, loosely,
wood"from
curtains

the trade

earlier in this

mentioned
Backings,
of these

correctlyShipman Backings.

name,

trade

chapter,
may

also be

translucent.

device

originally
designed
color"
production"especially
the device
is used
to show
photo transparencies
lightedfrom behind. It
be used to show
can
signsor realistic photo scenes, as, for instance, an
exterior
view
seen
througha window.
mentioned
earlier in Chapter 5, refers to the
Rear Screen Projection,
ground
used
motion
to supply a still or
picture backlargetranslucent screen
One

to show

ads

Adlux,

is

Shot

Class

is

background for
a

is
invariably

The

"fits" and
on

trick of

type

the upper

hill,or

action.

the

the

actors

matches

upper
work
into

is

very

intricate

art

structure

film

design and
Part

scene.

of

portion of
in the lower

the film,either in the

This

and

actors.

of film

the

It is

name.

In television
lighted.

the set, behind

to

on

of the

as

(such

scene

cathedral)is paintedon

the

scene,

where

there

portionagainstan

The
paintedglass.
camera

photography to supply the

it shoots

actual

portionsare

two
or

is

as

castle

This
glass.

moving

no

set

which

combined

later,in the laboratory.

operationbut obviouslycan

save

extensive

struction
con-

costs.

The

NBC'i

or
Matting Amplifier

Color Spectrum
in

"Gray

Scale"

Electronic

Inset

is

an

engineeringfeat

in

TV

Gray Responses

COtO/t-A/D

NOTATIONS

MUNStLL

GRAY

SCALE

WHITE

TV

Y-T3

N-8.5
YOY-T4

YOY-T3

Y-HUE

YGY-T

YOY-T

YO-T

OYO-T

O'T

N-8.O
ORO-T4

RO-T4

YOY-S

YOY-HUE

R-T4

V-T4

YO-T

GBG-T4

OYO-S

0-T

BGB-T

BG-T

OYO-S

N-7.5
ROR-T

Y-SI

B-T

OYO-T

YOY-S

ORO-T3

Y-S

RVR-T

RO-T

ROR-T

YO-SI

OYO

HUE

VRV-T

0-T

V-T

N-7.O

ORO-S2

N-6.5
BV-T3

Y-S

R-T

B-T

BVB-S3

YO-S

ORO-HUE

BVB-S

BGB-S

BG-T

RO-T

ROR-T

RV-T

GYG-TI

N-6.O

2
in

""

OE
0-S

ROR-HUE

VRV-T

ROR-S

VRv-S

R-HUE

VBV-S

VBV-T2

RVR-S

BV-T

z
O

N-5.5

BGB-T

0-S

RV-S

BGB-S

BVB-T

N-5.O

N-4.5
0-S

VRV-HUE

N-4.O

RO-S

BVB-HUE

B-HUE

B-S

B-S

N-3.5
BOB

-HUE

BG-HUE

BG-S

G-S

G-S

BG-S3

N-3.O
BV-S

8V-S

N-2.5
TV

BLACK

The

Gray

Scale

132

ART,

Live

TITLES

which

TV

AND

SCENERY

accomplish somethingeven

can

spectacularthan

more

the

glassshot. Perfected for color as well as black-and-white use, it takes

action
and placesit in a scene
as
as
photographedby one camera
graphed
photoanother
the
camera.
by
Consequently,
backgroundscene
portion
be paintedor photographedin miniature
can
and
the
combination
in
size,
be
life
the
size.
Or,
background can be life-size with the actors
appear to
representedin

miniature.

"-

MISCELLANEOUS

mentioned,
Props,as previously
decorations

set

busy" and
or

which

scene

describe

which
areas,

the

used

term

also is used

of tone

the lightness
or
describing

in

red, blue
hue

Color

and

and

green

lacks

of

art

an

Aid

is used

term,

from

would

to

illusion of

never

normal

Set

refers

related

color

the classifications

to

(with

Saturation

of hue.

color

the

is

For
the

on

indicate

black-and-white.

the appearance

solid. Texture

in

of surface

is achieved

by

regular
ir-

to

an

term

for
backgroundespecially

title letters and

shading on

clear

cut

meaning that,in

the

are

been

to
subjects

which

shadows

painting or

distorted

to

struction
con-

give

the

scene.

art

specifically
portrays,a
somewhat

describe

perspective has

greater depth to the

Abstract

indicate

Shadows

depth. Drop

set, the

of

plainsurface.

to title letters.
give dimension
is an
Free Perspective
art term

but

sider
con-

values

on
television).
lighter
are
printedscales which

or

the effect of

Shadowing means

darkness

values,reproduce in

fabric,paintedmaterial

variations

illusion of

must

of their tone

to vividness

color) refers

Charts

different

colors,in

Texture, as

of

action.

or

near-black,

to

directors

their intermediates.

saturation"

Color

or

the various

the

material

black, in large

pure

discussingcolor,refers

the third attribute

Charts

"too

eye

scale.

pastelside (and might reproduce even

add

and

set.

(and film)to

TV

off-white

be

gray scale. Hue, in

and

depth in

white

Pure

detail

Live

values,from

Dress

or

it

of non-essential

in black-and-white

best in television.

instance, "the blue

how

describe

to

over-abundance

an

is used
a

of color:

Busy

of furniture,

items

keepsthe
similarly
any

Busy, meaning

transmitted.
Hence, art
successfully
and graphicart in terms
costumes
settings,

Value
of

is said to be

accepted range

cannot

the gray

value

is

transmit

all

terms

has

Scale

Gray

on

and

distracted.

refer to the

propertiesor
miscellanyrequired to prepare

that is over-dressed

set

TERMS

is

that

treatment

locale

Limbo,

or

used

closeupsof

only broadly suggests,

mood.
to

describe

able
non-recogniz-

productsin commercials.

TITLES

ART,
The

is the

Flies

overhead

the

housed

is

verb

Grid
is

taken

Catwalks

electricians

the

are

and

that

platform

position
which

is

A
it for

from

hinged,

foldable

camera

where

Rig

is

it also

area

on

the

raise

Parallel

of

height
be

light may

the

raise

to

with

confused

movable

ment.
equip-

placed

on

is

Erect

the
the

rather

Floor,
Break

Strike

"strike

physical
indicate

rehearsals

or

of

place

where

the

over

flats and

the

the
movement.

be

called

can

means

stop something

and

this is
.

at

angle:

an

with

made

"rig the

as

up,

to

tear

it also

for

ingenuity,

lights."

"Rake

that

the

gobo

it hides

so

prints:

to

negative.

lucky

down
means

typical of

the

and
to

strike

also

the

position

on

Hits

production

Hence,
has

course

of

success

make

to

the

use

actor

an

"break

you

different

print" is

of

Unions
the

And

dmvn.

"strike

into

set

stage.

on

take

to

word

the

said

it is

begin

to

meaning

note

putting

happens,

ready

film

stop-work

So, strike

the

to

contrivance

term

verbs

set." But

with

contact

set

this

are

are

processing

project

opposite

to

set

obvious

the

the

pasted

paper

or

camera."

stage. Slang-wise, when

as

to

meaning

the

in

Holland

with

do

to

brown

or

refers

Dock

meaning

verb

is

or

cloth

indicating any

noun

verb

light from

set"

nothing

joined.

are

Scenery

or

slang

is

Rake

ment
equip-

stored.

are

scenery

flats

Dock

has

strip of

narrow

two

Scene

the

furniture

or

parallel,or

Hide

Rhinoceros

or

simply

it is

crack

but

from

for

all terms

be
to

which

greater height.
Dutchman

zoo"

used

Flying Drop.

about.

actors
to

curtain.

above-scenery

are

Not

fly a

flieson

this

in

walk

under

camera.

is

dling
han-

for

can

called

the

in

Pancake

platform

shoot

may

flies.You

fliesis

paths

or

placed

the

viewed

as

the

workmen

other

be

can

the

framework

metal

Here

above.

in

into

up

roof.

mechanisms

the

and

the

to

stage, up

from

suspend

to

Riser, Step Block, Apple-Box,

block

the

scenery

is the

suspended.

the

which

be

can

Gridiron

or

and

meaning

that

backdrop

above

space

lighting equipment,

travelers

curtains,

Fly

entire

133

SCENERY

AND

ing
mean-

by

one

word

to

ment
entertain-

or

"strike."
it

also

succeed.

language

means

Four

to

make.

It

meanings,

of television
.

means

all

to

fairly

135

ANIMATION

march,

doors

oven

talk and

sing and

and
mysteriously,

open

stringless
puppets

can

about.

move

in frame-by-frame
photography,there is very
similarity
and drawing
the proceduresof stop motion
between

this

Beyond

can

littleresemblance
animation.

Drawing
Technical
a

device

factors

Animation

method.

or

of
interpretation

factual

animation

the

Diagrams, these

called Animated

heart

the human

show

can

blood

pumps

or

of

how

how

vacuum

corporation

information, rather

with

is concerned

action

showing onlykey
simplifyand explain
normal
photographic

can

by

the

and

form

in basic sketch

It
personnel.
far-flung

its

manages

categories:

readilydemonstrable

cleaner works, how

than

gives a

Working

not

Also

treatment.

basic

two

cross-section,technical

or

activities

many

includes

animation

entertainment.

Animation,

Cartoon

the other hand,

on

of
exaggerated,
generally
with
concerned
primarily

It is

of

the actions

entertainment

fictional interpretation,

gives a

people,animals
althoughit can

and

objects.

also cloak

information.

There

of

with

indicates

Animation

achieved

movement,

it is

action

resultant

effect" in the

each

into

the

obtain

to

of smoothness

maximum

slower

certain

animate

second.

only 12 drawingsper

and

necessary

Each
24

is then

photographedtwice in
picturesper second requiredin

Partial Animation
use

character

cartoon

to

can

$15,000 for
cut

of art

limit the amount

savingson
cost

short-cuts. For
without

move,

costs

to

as

Scratch-Off
still less art

Animation

the

head

this is called limited action.

would,
used

Limited

or

substantial

more

even

this short-cut,
at least

advantageof

take

work

in
fluidity

quite successfully

actions

consider

This is called Shootingon

Twos
(2s).Some
projection.
step short of fullanimation, but nearlyall entertainment
cartoons

ment
develop-

by actually
drawing separate progressivesteps of
of the 24 drawingsrequiredper second. Actually

to
quite possible

succession

effort" and

drawing animation:

Full

the

degreesof

various

are

ANIMATION

OF

DEGREES

""

cost.

Where
of

minute

littleas

Animation,
and

cost.

work

at

and

commercial

times.

some

appliedto methods which

instance, if only the lipsof a
and body moving as it normally
is

Many

other such

devices

are

siderable
conrequired,
therebyeffecting

it is not

unusual

for

fullanimation

time, the tricks of limited

screen

this

to

animation

tenth of this amount.

sometimes

One

basic

called

"Grow"

drawing is

Cartoon, requires

made

and

it is then

136

ANIMATION

Story Conference

Cartoon

photographedin
of

exposure

with

reverse

the

subsequentframe.

then
photographedfirst"
until all lines have

in

other

(In

the animation

been

this appears

screen

fractions of lines scratched

removed

words

and

the

the

picture is

opposite direction,going from

blank

which

cartoon

the

on

Stripis
for

equivalentof
Photo

to refer
occasionally

than

nothingmore

is

screen

used

term

several

seconds
comic

newspaper

Animation,

each,

called

sometimes

of stillphotographs,
titlesand
is used

Simple Animation
in the

moves

and

they compute
Compound
in the

time

since

complete
tedious
thumb

work

the
to

labor

moves.

live action
Camera

indicates

several

holds

time.

limited

tion
anima-

Unit

of Animation

of units

required.

as

number

subjectsmoving

the

at

same

tion
expensive than simpleanima-

more

succession

tremendous

amount

the

It is the

animation.

requiresa

increases

of television

of

cost

of

drawings to

of art
The

animation.

and

work
rule

of

costs.

moves,

For

is

It is the

that

indicates

Animation

subjectthat
a

the

little movement

animation.

is: what

that

accordingto

eyes,

relatively
inexpensive.
or
only one figure
subject

this

to

the

It is

that

sense

frame

drawingsshown

Fotan, deals with

refer

Compound

scene.

each
the

costs

in the

your

type

panel at

one

trademarks.

studios

Animation

same

hand

Camera

Some

scene.

without

strip,seen

of cartoon

series

to

is

picture line

by line until the drawing is completed.It "grows"before

comparatively
inexpensive illusion of movement.
Comic

by

blank.) On

the

last frame

frame

continues

camera

before

of

that it is the

instance, the
a

set

This
dolly.)

camera

expression.(An

rather

truckingin

animation

illusion of action

gives
animation, skillfully
staged,saves
an

is

camera

money,

to

truck

than
a

is

within
since

the art

closeupof
equivalent
the

camera

scene.

work

137

ANIMATION

cheaper than

is faster and

director
free

footageby

of the

the

is then
=

96

as

Only
rolling.

He
required.

may

or

shot

from

pan

be

still achieve
initial

tricks

many

the

horse

is

galloping

this action, which

4

24

follows

Disney-esque,which

and

costs

carefullyplanned

in the

STYLES

three

fall into

animation

cartoon

cut

to

use

can

the commercial.

storyor

ART

Techniquesof

primary

styles:

art

Walt

happy, easy-going styleof

the

in his Mickey
Disney as exemplified
of the drawings have
gentlecurves,

and

Mouse
the

other

cartoons.

lines

The

complete, the

backgrounds are

happy exaggeration.

Modern,

called

sometimes

of America
found

be

qualityresult,but they must

stages of

is

house

This

money.
a

get
part

one

4 seconds;
possibly

director

animation

an

""

mood

requiredfor

also

of

window

tion
anima-

are

the

to

for

photographedin repeatedsequence
from 8 drawings!
frames

There

moving

scene

drawings may

the

to

is not

street

Footage

begin.A Cycle also saves

which
For instance,
is repeated:

animation

wheel

from

gives Free

will

of animation

sequence

of

animation

camera

It

work

continuing art

another,

to

scene

where

or

since

work.

art

has

been

leadingexponent,

art fields. It sets

in other

Technique, because

UFA

out

is similar

exploreother

to

tions
Produc-

United
to

the

trend

individual interpretations

contendingthat Disney merely represents

artist's viewpoint on how
a mouse
one
might be picturedin this medium.
deals in avant
Abstract,as in other art fields,
gardeforms and designs
show
that suggest rather than actually
which
and feeling
mood
create
a
and

art

in
styles

cartoon,

Even
to abstract
subject.
Disney went
sequences
sound
of
music
how
the
might look.
visually
commercials
have
experimentedin this field.

the

PERSONNEL

""

Animation

Director

is the title

the

to

Fantasia

Various

to

terpret
in-

television

PROCEDURES

AND

given

in

man

who

supervisesthe

entire

will be developed
how
and sequences
He determines
scenes
production.
and how
theywill be fitted to the action requirements of the sound track.
as
characters,he is in every sense
vital,as
Working with the cartoon
influential to their performanceas the live action director is to his human
actors.

In animation
transferred

frame.

The

to

the sound

film,so

that

film's editor

track is almost
it

can

will then

be

always recorded

analyzed and

Read

the

first and

measured

Track, marking on

then

frame-bythe

film

138

ANIMATION

where

each word,

sound

and
syllable
for each

effect)
appears
This

reveals

what

frames

the

match

F-O-R-D!"

and

the

his cartoon

character
The

shapehis
sheet

the

to

up

additional

the

Meanwhile,

will

and

been

for

at

48 frames

"F," then go

which

busy. The

to

for

signed
desay

exactlywhich

guidefor

directions

be

can

know

master

work,

camera

notes

have

artists

is the

or

which, line by line,

or

must

mouth

of music,

animation

seconds

two

director

animation

exposure

operation of animating

supplementedwith

take

may

Sheet

that the

so

the beat
second.

per

Exposure

an

contains

It
exactly.

it

"R," then "D."

then

track

sound

(or positionof

of the 24 frames

is then copied on
analysis

to

"It's

letter

to

"O,"

the entire

the sheet

time

is

photography.
has

Story-SketchMan

the script
in small drawings,
interpreted
perhaps20 to 30 for each minute
of proposedaction. Next the Layout Artist or Layout Designer actually
have
sketches the backgroundsand designsthe production.
He also must
vast
experience,with a virtual slide-rule in his head to figurehow his
two-dimensional

the

art

may

Artist
Animators
on

be

per second
24. These
the needed

man

setting

three-dimensional

paintsthe

action.

Backgroundsor B.G.s,
will be staged.

the animation

which

somewhat

the

to the sets
equivalent
in largerstudios

separate work

of live action.
of the

ground
Back-

Background Designer.

or

and

extremes

scenes,

work

Animators

Assistant

the individual

pointsand

who
on

backgroundsare
B.G.s

achieve

can

also is the

work, design or

Cartoon
These

work

art

he

Sometimes

the animation
describe

animatingkey drawings
For instance, if 24 drawings are
to

of action.

draw

they may
(forfull animation),
sheets

under

then

are

drawingsin

turned

between:

Animator

at

Work

over

to

the

only frames

Exposure

Sheet

etc.

high
required

1, 6, 10, 18,

In-Betweener, who

2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12

tor
directhe

makes

139

ANIMATION
of these

All

called

drawings, sometimes

Flip Drawings,

are

made

pencilon white paper. Each is approximately11" x 14" in size

technical
animation
uses
a
largersize. Each sheet is
althoughsome
that all may
be kept in exact regisso
tration.
punched uniformlywith peg-holes
desks with peg-barsthat
all work
The
at special
animation
men
When
turned
hold the paper in register
over
a back-lit ground glass.
on,
several
sheets
it possible
behind
the paper makes
to see
this light
through
the subject
of the action
the smoothness
and determine
as
progresses in
with

from

movement

Pencil
This

Tests
the

means

then screened
art

positionto position.

work.

the

the action

evaluate

to

do

must

commercial
without

director

the animation

when

run

Up refers

to

before

penciltests,

to the work

and
of

on

sequence

proceeding further
their haste

in

cartoons,

evaluate

finish their work.

in-betweeners

earlydrawingsare photographedin

Television

often

Clean

be

may

there

so

improve

is

no

to

meet

film and
with

the

lines
dead-

opportunityfor

the work.

rough lines
erasingand defining

in

this is not done

until after penciltests.
earlydrawings. Generally,
of
Clean
up work is the responsibilitythe assistant animator.
The drawingsare now
ment,
departreadyto go to the Inking-and-Painting
the
from
and
take
the
where
trace
over
or
drawings
girls
copy
11" x 14" in
paper to Gels or Cells or Celluloids (alsoapproximately

the

As many
size).

as

three

four

or

of these

be used, one
on
plastic
may
final
into
the
picturefor
component subjects
acetate

or

Inkers

other

transparent eels of cellulose

top of another,to put all the

trace

Painters,sometimes

the outlines
called

in India

ink

on

singleframe.

the top of the eel. Then

Opaquers, paint the opaque

faces,bodies, clothes. Black

is

Pencil

Test

paintedon

Finished

portionssuch

top (to prevent

Cel

the
as

mirror-like

140

ANIMATION

but
reflection)
or

the

all else in

equivalentshades

taken

to

that

see

eels. Otherwise

the

called

smaller

types

for

the

on

for

of

Stand

be mounted

it must

which

permits the

on

work

of

of

this

assume

may

eels and

the

make

shoot

"North,

In

responsibility.
from

other

frame

only one
Stand

calibrated

sheet:

grounds
back-

Checker.

completelydifferent

specialAnimation

to

camera

hundreds

properlycompleted

now

is the

is

the exposure

(calledon

are

designed to

is

all the

certain

animator

animation

the

be

must

care

tone.

sheet

This

great

through on

be

to

camera.

equipment. It

camera

directions

done

of the eel. Colors

used, but

follow

exposure

in

be

"jump" in

assistant

used

camera

time, and

well

be

now

operationsthe

The

will

the underside

on

may

shades

colors

order, ready

in

of gray

identical

Checking must
and

paintinggoes

at

Camera

or

in

movements

all

South, East, West"), as

shoots
truckingor moving in and out. Generally,the camera
the eels,each registered
down
on
to peg-holes
as
straight
they have been
each step of the way. It is not unusual
12 backgroundsand almost
to have
2,000 eels (some working 2 or 3 deep in certain scenes) to achieve a oneas

minute

film. No

cartoon

it's an

wonder

"

expensivebusiness!

MISCELLANEOUS

Sheets

Model

in

refer

to

varietyof

of the head

and

This

TERMS

the sketches which

sheet

poses. This

figurefrom
is to be

as

sketches

of the intended

work

cartoon

the

Thumbnail

which

also used

Sketches

in

the

of

of

the

as

or

others

and

pressions.
ex-

to

production

scene-by-scene
commercial.

In

first step.

quick sketches

miniature

are

They
preparinga complete story-board.

details of animation

working out

facial
typical

scenes

program

essential

Thumbnails

or

before

use

elsewhere

development

is
story-board

artists

many

defined

often

different

working on
figure.

developan identical
Story-boardhas been

relative dimensions

for all animators

follow. Thus, different artists

will

show

angles and

model

acter
char-

cartoon
principal

sheets

or

different

used

show

by

scenes

the

are

story-sketch

man.

Field

is the

animation

photographed.There
based

on

the

indicate

may
would

be the

and

and

animation

why

type
a

several

of animation

full

of 12

area

stand

layoutman

be
must
must

the

size

methods

stand

approximate size

4-field would

the

are

for

term

to

inches

of

be
in

of

computing

used.

For

width,

for titles to allow

be

to

area

so

that

computed

have

12-field

10-field then

cut-off,

for the television

in mechanical

slide rule in the back

or

these, each

instance,

good closeup size. Everythingon

be

drawn

the

camera

fractions,which
of his mind.

is

ANIMATION

Rotoscope
with

live

the

is

this

then
called

that

on

the

11"

live

14"

When

with

why

it

live

takes

often

action

Sound

generally

treatment

voices

for

train,
Cartoons

refers

preferred
Lead

analytical

check

(long
guide

meanings,

to

"e")

to

the

be

in

found

TV

instead

Sheet

and

in

with

of

sheet.
music

the

the

the

Sheet

before

music

the
Note

both

are

musical

that
section

of

the

next

the
It

terms

vening
inter-

is

test.

for

sound

to

often

pencil

terms

these

the

reel

animation.

both

track

sound

pose

notes,

of

(as

recording.

before

finalized

more

toon
Car-

whimsicality.

sound

action

commercials,
the

effects

finished

of

into

technique.

sound

with

rotoscope

exaggerative

planned

peaks

or

of

cueing

the

made

Cue

relations

in

begin

this

the

with

must

poses

For

exposure

done

film

key

and

This

the

to

for

time.

shoot!

to

refer

to

quality

humor

test

seconds

the

combined

at

for

animation

used

are

point

used
the

mathematically
for

the

frame

one

recordings

in

music

started.

is

as

amusing

figures

cartoon

action

dialogue

and

only

sound

to

and

fun,

Reel

the

given

instance)

took

expression

an

usually

are

are

Pose

show

is

the

complete

to

itself

that

action,

of

for

guide

then

is

(again

position

it

tographed,
pho-

projector

trace

exact

form

completed,

live

to

the

then

be

special

artist

an

sheets
is

original

in

combined

must

scene

peg-holes)

These
work

weeks

scene

Cartoon

frame.

be

can

action

permits

with

paper,

the

live

which

animation

cartoon

frame-by-frame

Down,

each

in

photographically
is

viewed

drawing

subject

the

First,

is

Projecting
x

animation.

film

which

by

process

photography.

action

process,

involved

141

special

computes

effects
have

chapter.

and

other

143

SOUND

effect. The

and

origin,transmission

not

of

size

Noise

has

wanted

in

Sound

or

Recording
The

is

the

arisingfrom
It refers to

Hollywood'sverb

film. Both

portionsof

audio

the finished work.

and

crew

Stage refers

to

studio

equipment

sound

of
to

nouns

as

used

act

this work

in

simplycalled Sound,

be

has

which

for the

also used

are

departmentof productionand as such may

"Sound is ready to roll."
in the expression
Sound

work.

in audio

as

film and

or
reception.
recording

the
transcribing
describe

in

place.

or

connotation
particular

Recording

is

studio

used
especially

recordingcharacteristics

television to refer to the sound

design and

is

term

treated
acoustically

been

noise.
soundproofliningto keep out extraneous
where
from silent stage.,
The term is used in film production
to distinguish
non-sound
certain
types of productionare scheduled. Since Live TV has
studio or the stage
the radio term
silent type of production,
no
practically
of the business to sound
in this branch
term
preferred
stage are generally
and

with

"silenced"

stage.
Track

Sound
the

is

film,the track

released

picture.On

for the audio

film term

recordingto

becomes

with

be used
visual

narrow

band

the picture.
be called the Sound
It may
Image,
printedalongside
it is termed
of sound, but generally
when
version
it is the photographic
100-Mil
hear the term
Track;
simplythe Track. Technically,
you may
width (1/10 inch wide)
this refers to a film printedwith the standard
sound
track. For original
(never for
recordingand for filing
purposes
Track
200-Mil
sometimes
a
(1/5 inch wide) is
printingwith the picture),
specified.

that is

Sound

recorded

sound

refers to

Picture

it;sometimes

on

this type
filmto distinguish
S.I.

or

N.S.,meaning

in television

or

as

Direct
the

sound.

no

that it will

sound

is

the

pictureand
of Sync.

Non-Sync

for
silently

live audio

with it when

it is telecast.

types of recording:Direct

various

Sound

photographedsimultaneously
the lipactions.
will match
voices

the

lesser used

term

this;also Sync

for

Sound

cause
(be-

or

Wild

in

are

Track

or

Wild

Sound

indicates

recording

seen"
photographed.Such "unpicturebeing simultaneously
be used with a separatepicturephotographed
tracks then may

without
voice

silent

If the resultant
synchronization).
they are said to be Out
improperlyput together,

are

Sound

This

hence

sound

pictureand
audio

on

that the film is

recorded;
is

the

marked
print,generally
neer
marking indicates to the audio engi-

printfrom

requirea

Recording means

Dialogue Sequence

made

of

techniquesinclude

Audio

composite pictureprintwith
indicated
as
S.O.F.,meaning sound

finished

Voice

Over

or

V.O.,

also sometimes

called

Narrative

Sound

144

SOUND

flti*

"Gaffoon"

and

the voice

referred to

as

Live

Work

at

Narration

Booth

Audio

TV

Commentary.

or

Re-Recordingor Dubbing
process of combining previously
volume
different scenes
to identical
completed sound tracks,adjusting
levels or
changing the auditorycharacteristics of previouslyrecorded
is the

sound.
It is
of

of course,
possible,
photographingthe
This

mentioned.
a

is

record

to

film

called

(or staging the

non-sync

voice

or

is recorded

over"

indicates
Post-Synchronization
with

This
to

with

(or actions

voices

in

re-record.

some

voice

to "dub
possible
and making it into

it is
scene

again for the

new

recordingcan

be made

called
new

This

is

is not

sound

by

played
to

to

which

of audio

material

that
and

synchronized
raphy.
photog-

are

later time, after

other

and

with

inflection

Track,

guide

the

picture,
for the

sound

singersto

track

tempo

at

recordingsession.
be

can

dubbing
the

Click

to

metronome,

pacing

with

be confused

made

was

establish

made

devised
dubbing carefully

note

lipmovements
a

cially
espe-

pictureis made.

after the

at
effects)

sound"

match.

Foreign language films

to

the

indicates

is not

clicks,like
periodic

It is well

viously
pre-

Post-Dubbing,which actuallymeans
direct recording,
on
an
satisfactory
original
voice." This is done by takingthe film
in a new
continuous
a
loop which is projected
again and
The
rehearsed
until
is
voice
action
a
new
lip

to

or
post-synchronization

audiences

the

previous voice

Track,

Cue

voice.

that has

actor.

the

Sometimes

as
telecast),

vance
ad-

is called

cases

So, if

live

in

Pre-Scoringor Pre-Recording,as against

procedure,Post-Recording,which

reverse

speakingvoices

singing or

term

is

new

understandable
words

broadly used
is not

to

to
cover

to

old

American

lipmovements.

any

re-recording

with
completelyinterchangeable

145

SOUND
It will
post-synchronization.
later in this chapter.
refers
Lip Sync correctly

be

mentioned

again in

the method

to

of

this other

meaning

of a
post-synchronization

match

However,
photographedlipmovements.
previously
and misused
misunderstood
(many use it to
throughoutthe industry
with caution.
direct recording)
it is a term
to be used
so
voice

to

PERSONNEL

"

TV's

Live

audio

control

of the

his

man

key
pickup

is

sound,

on

Chapter 4, especially
noting the
for the technical quality
and physical
responsible
discussed

was

Engineer who

Audio

as

received

stage,the

Boom

in

in

the

Man,

control

who

for

room

the

handles

telecast,and

microphone to

the sound.

Film

TV,

but the senior

who

crew

mean

METHODS

RECORDING

AND

it is

controls

as

discussed in

member

of the

the balance

and

Chapter5, has
is called

crew

similar boom

on

man

the Mixer, the sound

qualityof the sound

recording,
as

stage,

engineer
he

listens

ear-phonesat his desk console in view of the set. The sound is then
carried by line to magnetic tape or film recording
equipment in the studio
sound
instances,a sound truck which carries such
department,
or, in some
with

the

equipment. There

called the Sound

man

Recorder

Recordist

or

dles
han-

physical
recordingof the sound on magnetic tape, magnetic film
or
regularfilm.
for sound
with lipmovement,
Cameras
in synchronization
recording,
of two
are
System indicates that the sound recording
types: Double
the camera,
but works
is separate from
mechanism
Single
synchronously.
the camera
and the
is within
System indicates the recordingmechanism
film at the same
that the
the same
recorded
sound
time
is actually
on
picture is photographed.Singlesystem has been used for newsreel-type
and is generallyof poorer
productionsbut it presents problemsin editing
the

qualitythan

sound

double

Magnetic Tape
radio.

The

tape

is

Tape

or

system

work.

is used

in both

continuous

narrow

film and

stripor

ribbon

live TV,
of

as

thin

it is in

plastic

side the tape is

On
one
longer).
be magnetized.The
that can
with iron oxide particles
coated
magnetic
field of this metallic
surface
in recording to a precise
is "rearranged"
diately,
pattern.This pattern is the record of sound and it can be played immetransferred
broadcast on the air, duplicated,
to a permanent film
erased and used again for recording.
record or completely
Tape can be recorded at a speed computed in terms of how fast it
the recordinghead:
I.P.S. or ips, inches
For
extra
per second.
passes
sound ) 30 ips is used. Most
sensitive
(faithfulness to the original
fidelity
or

film

material,held

on

reel

(400'or

146

SOUND

professionalwork
slower

at

ips,the

3"

is recorded

recorders

home

record

can

Tape

four

in

Quarter-Inch Tape,

as

Seventeen-and-a-Hatf
has

coating.It
16mm

Tape

these standard
These

film

both
its

tape

with

and

it

be

used

Video

or

kept

oxide

iron

that

so

the

synchronization.

in

expected, film

stock

unwinding

the

film

and

again

camera.

requireprocessing

not

again. This

tape'sgreat advantage over

metallic

strand, has

other

saves

methods

is

iron

oxide

the

in

magnetic
immediately shown

be

recordingpicturesas

in

of

film

track

and

tracks
the

for the

home

movie

tracks
printedoptical
Sound

Film
of

are

widely used
generally
required.
was

and

picturecamera,

the

standard

it is still in

records

so-called because

on

you

in

method
use.

Sound

film which
can

which

subjected
it

then

can

magnetic

of
re-recording

field. It is not

magnetic tape

Optical Track,

and

and

handle

to

an

is coated

is then

track

sound

by

sound,

picturefor experimentalwork,

Recording

with the
an

same

method

This

area.

suppliesthe

reproduction.This permits quick erasure

sound

sound

as

magnetic tape.

to

picture,without

projectorequipped

well

recordingmagneticallyon

Magna-Striping,is

sound

narrow

recordingwhich

in the firstchapter,
is the

fairly
given way

called

completed projectionprint of

with

of

earlier method

an

Magnetic Tracking,also

track

different

business

films

television, where

used

until the development

equipment,
is then

actuallysee

chronized
syn-

processed
the

sound

modulations.
for
used
on

of

magnetic recordingsurface.

Tape Recording,mentioned

Magnetic Wire,

as

slower

of

with

edge,

one

be

might

and

industry's
newly-developedmethod
on
simultaneously
magnetic tape.

to

film base

(itdoes
instantly

erased

but

money,

is

synchronizationwith

be

can

ips,the

superior fidelity.
VTR

also used

specialcoated

played back

Portable

fidelity.
professional
recording:
work.
in film recording

for

can

as

are,

the

in motor

be

does) and

time

Tape

widths

can

widths

motor

camera

35mm

likewise work

All
as

the

recorders.

15/16

even

perforationson

or

as

proportionate sacrifice

Tape (17/2mm wide)

and
and

ips"and

radio, is

in

sprocketholes

drivingmotor

at

popular

used

faithfully
duced
proTA
and
at
even
satisfactorily
is not

magnetic tape

Us

at

speeds giving longerplayingtime

comes

ips. Music

records

voice

popularspeeds for

two

pockettape

speeds,but

15

at

Generally,
magnetic recordingis transferred to opticaltrack
editingpurposes or laboratoryprintingpurposes. The final prints
and
almost
networks
in telecast projectionby stations
are
always

opticaltrack.
There

are

Track, because

two

it

called RCA
primary types: Variable Area, sometimes
first promoted by the Radio
was
Corporation of Amer-

SOUND

147

Variable

ica. It is

louder

by
distinguished

the sound.
called

sometimes

promoted by
stacked

(Note

The

Track

Variable

wigglyline.

wavy,

alternative type of

Western

Western

sidewise

striations

Sound

Area

Electric

Electric.

It is

like infinitesimal

The

wider

opticaltrack

Track

Westrex

or

of

railroad

the

Track

wiggle,the

is Variable

Density.

because

was

distinguished
by

ties

Sound

Density

it

narrow

track. The

hair

first
lines

various

degrees of density,the lightest

being loudest.
differing
used on
is a trade name
Westrex
editingequipment, etc., as

have

that

well.)
"read" opticaltracks by eye
virtually
of the wiggles or
of the characteristics
through careful observations
editors also have
striations. Of course,
specialmachines to accomplish
The
this,as will be explainedin the chapteron editing.
accompanying
and
also
show
and
a
tracks,
area
microscopic closeup
photographs
density
of the grooves of a phonograph record" experts can
"read" these,too! But,
Film

experts

soon

learn to

148

SOUND

might be added, no one can read a field of magnetic tape

machine.
The
special
magnetic pattern justcan't be seen!
it

Disc

Recordings are

records)that play on
the

material

used

the

turntable.

reference

film stock.

is

from

the

this material.

in

Electrical

78

use

given
almost

an

all

is the

E.T.

safety

unbreakable

to

shellac-

record

(as

original
recordings
for any

disc

original
recording.

an

formal

to

for

popular slangword

processedfrom

copy

any

it is well

of the

three

rpm

refers

or

work
professional

for

term

recordings

that

point out

to

television,even

as

popularphonograph speeds:33/s,45
revolutions

to

casting
broad-

Most

per minute.

or

is at 33/s rpm.

So, the three standard

television

is

originalrecording

name

of

name

to

broadcasting.

R.P.M.

r.p.m.

Transcription

playingrecords

radio, can

to

or

for
especially
In

for

pre-1940days when

Platter

recording.
Pressingrefers
cut

the

refers

Acetate

an

base,

is also

the trade

or

making quantity copies.Shellac is the name

long used for phonograph records.
slangterm for a recording(as a noun ) and

verb).It is borrowed
cut

may

in

like material

were

that acetate

phonograph
classified accordingto

be

Lacquer

type (likehome

aluminum

an

Vinyliteor Vinylis

used
plastic

Wax

on

Note

use.

They

manufacture:

in

surface
syntheticplastic
or

flat,circular

without

methods

for

originalrecordingof

for

sound

magnetic tape (or magnetic film),opticalfilm and disc.

is most
Magnetic recordingwith its greater fidelity
generallyused, but
are:

quite feasible

it is

from
For
music

instance,
film and

transferred
then

which

either

to

combined

Loosely this

or

refer

to

method

magnetic
at

another

to

voice

to

or

bine
com-

or

disc. These

Session

can

with

the

Re-Recording

or

balanced

are

magnetic tape,
be individually

on

opticalfilm,edited

Dubbing

recorded

effects on

sound

session

from

an

sources.

more

any

is called

rather

fine

and

Dub

or

blended

Mix, but
dub

connotations:

existingrecord,

while

Dub, dubbing and

picture,

Session

into

that

as

in

single

mix

means

Dupe

all

note

verbs

correctlymeans
to
are

combine

used

as

to

from
to

nouns

itself.
recording
duplicated

Whether

have

may

components

have

words

re-record
two

one

track.

sound

these

film

certain

the various

new

from

all three.

on

and

transfer

to

SOUND

for

film,live

Microphone,

vibrations. The

the

television

instrument

quick word

EQUIPMENT

or

which
for

radio, sound
converts

first is

sound

microphone is

Mike

picked up by

waves

and,

to

electrical

of the

many

SOUND

up to 8 pounds,there are two

types weighingfrom a few ounces
classifications: Uni-Directional,also called Directional
Mikes,

149

general
all those

(not beingsensitive to other,

onlyfrom directed areas
Non-Directional
Multifrom
undesired
or
areas), as distinguished
Directional
Mikes, which pick up sound from all sides.
technical
Aside
from
factors,performersknow
microphones by
Mike
for
is
their shape or
Acorn
instance:
no
largerthan an
usage,
Mike
is shaped like a billiard ball,while the Lapel
the Eight-Ball
acorn,
the Hand
Mike
the coat
is held in the hand, the
Mike
is worn
on
lapel,
Table
Mike
is mounted
its own
is placedon
table, the Stand Mike
on
a

that

sound

pick up

The

stand, and
on

the

Gooseneck

Mike

circuit

for

called

or

the

Action

Mike

suspendsfrom

extension

learn,that

soon

First, the Dead

operation,and

in

movable

or

also know,

of mikes:

Boom

Gallows

or

Boom,

Performers

types

Mike

arm.

there

Mike, which

Live

Mike,

above, generally

reallyonly two

are

is not

connected

is. The

which

the

to

latter is

times
some-

learn to regard
performerseventually
all microphonesas hot,lest an unguarded word
(or their personal
opinion
be set
of the director!)
and
in rehearsal be transmitted
to
recording
for

down

to

smart

the

microphones,sound is
mixer
in film recording,
or
Mixing

or

where

bank

and

the

Console

volume

Mike,

posterity.

From
cables

Hot

the

of the
of knobs

mixer

sound

Panel
or

from

permits the

or

the
the

carried
to

Control
audio
various

control

of

by

one

or

the audio

engineerin

Panel

terms

engineer

are

sits. Dials

lines

more

Live

for the

TV.

ment
equip-

indicate

microphonesor sources
volume
and quality.

or

and

the
a

SOUND
sound

seem

caused

high volume.
word
Presence
is the sound
engineer's
descriptive
of sound. It is used to define a feeling
you are
director may
to it. A
to be standingrightnext
by

mixer, "Give

151

too

more

me

"close"

so

sound

the

to

say

imity
prox-

that you

this actor's voice."

in

presence

for relative

the faithfulness of sound

word
in evaluating
engineer's
have
A recording
to the original.
cellent
good fidelity,
meaning it has exmay
if bad. This indicates the obvious
or
reproduction,
poor fidelity
derivation
of the recording
or
Hi-Fi, taken from
High Fidelity
industry's
for "the best."
the engineer's
term
Balance
refers to the
proper location and handlingof microphones
the instruments
of an
orchestra. Therefore, Out
of Balance
in recording

Fidelityis

indicates

sound

component
of

sections

the

orchestra)are

an

total balance

characteristics of

response

not

specific
telephonecompany
characteristics

Balanced

Engineersrefer

Many

film and

rather

than

this

as

"low

designedwith

are

television

moderate

is said

studios

is too

to

be

surfaces

be

is

mission
trans-

give the
Bright or

time."

desired

or
high reverberation
completelyabsorbed, the studio

or

the
some

of the

absorbent.

settingitself,

reverberation.

sound

Brilliant

In

not

diffuse the reflection

to

the walls

depend on

give

to

when

Live

reflected
is said

has

sound

When
brightness.

to

Dead"

be

it has

reverberation.

Dampen
rugs,

means

to

or
draperies

other

surface used
Echo

to

deaden

reverberation

sound

Baffle
soundproofing.
dampen sound.

Chamber

refers to

device

refers

in
to

reverberates.
indicate

similar

reverberation
Filter
out"
a

Reverb

is short

is sometimes
is still another

used

obtained
to

portablewall

make

and

is

room

and

broadcast
a

term

then
sound

used

to

Such
electronically.
synthetic
a

trick
engineer's

studio
which

more

"live."

"strains
electronically

in a voice. Hence, to get the impressionof

qualities
the scriptmay call for a speech On Filter.
telephone,

certain

with

effect
givesa reverberating
This can
be
largehall or cave.

for reverberation

echoingeffect

studio

which

sound
it might be heard
in a
as
simulating
done
by puttinga loudspeakerin a small, hard-surfaced
pickingup the sound on another microphone as the

on

Line

completelysound

of

amount

frequency

reflection,from

reverberation

curved

the full studio, to

studio

sound

to

sound, while oppositewalls may

of

sound

reverberation, or

some

walls

proper

for

but

certain

string

highestqualitysound

much

cases,

or

the

to

Sound

walls.

no

has

which

wire

also refers

circuit;hence

and

give the

broadcastinguse.
constructed
recordingstudios are scientifically

too

audio

an

brass

levels which

sound

at

Effect. Balance

Ensemble

or

(for instance, the

elements

voice

152

SOUND

Sonovox

is

"speech"to

patented electronic

non-human

sound.

device

Thus,

which

gives

whistle

train

or

the
a

effect of

engine

car

"talks."
Distortion

refers to

originalsound
Boomy
sounds

and

is

the

difference in

be confused

Barny (not to
device)refers
caused

to

to

loud

low

with

reverberations.

barney,a

film

ing
soundproof-

camera

barn-like echo.

refers

by

the

reproduction.

characteristics accentuate

Feed-Back

qualitybetween

word
for a preponderance of low frequency
descriptive
Consequently,a studio may be called boomy, if its

recorded.

acoustical

as

unnatural

an

unwanted

an

"echo"

distortion

speakerbeing picked up

and

such

sound

in

re-recorded

the

in

microphone.
Other

distortions

sound

in

will be

discussed

Chapter 15.
Crack
A Mike
is slangfor "open a microphone."
Off-Mike
or
Off-Microphoneis an instruction to performersto
their lines
from the sensitive
side of a microphone and
away
give an impressionthey are at a distance.
Mike

dark

Shadow,

outline

which

between

gets

the

Wind

bane

can

be

is

wire

down

Effects

Man,

in

creates

or

is the person

and

who

the
and

net

wind

noises

separate

elsewhere

and

apart

the

in

from

"behind"

the

locale and

in

color

unwanted
in

"Print

the

the

locations.
called

country

simulate

to

stage

the sounds

for Live

TV.

from

record

picked up

Gaffoon,

work

His

tape

or

the

of

frogs and

Atmosphere, is

example,crowd

crickets,street

at

roars

noises,

sound

establish

of sound, to

primary source

For

scene.

for any

term

football

etc.

is
(singular)

Noise

an

is

problem

layerof tape

one

which

transfers

can

by

in

occur

accident

to

magnetic tape
the next

layer

wire

cable

reel.

Pipe
from

to

of

Through"

recordingwhen

outdoor

erasure).

proper

in

the

term
referringto an
engineer's
sound
herent
being picked up by the microphone or possiblyinthe film or
magnetic tape re-used without
tape (especially

Background

on

sound

also called

incidental

or

night sounds

game,

picture

records
plays special

the

identifiable

an

studio.

Background Sound,
used

when

so

microphone
subject background.
cloth scrim
the
placed around

(door slams, pistol

shots,etc.)required on
is

to

liver
de-

or

parts of

some

refers

men,

the

in

seen

light

cut

microphone to

of all boom

source

Screen

Sound

the

in

or

Feed

studio,

to

Studio

C."

are

slangverbs

transmitter

The

terms

or

for
over

conveying
a

in
originated

sound

network.
radio

and

by

"Pipe
now

the
are

or

sound
used

in

both

SOUND

for sound

and

picturetransmission.

Channel

term

the

in

throughwhich
the

recording studio

the sound

used

as

153

reaches

station's

the

to

the recorder"

to
referring

in

refers

not

electronic

circuit

with

be confused

to

frequency or
broadcasting

channel.
in addition

Loop,

sound

in

loopof

endless

Dubber

film

into
a

tape and

or

refers

room
recording

the

to

have

may

then

in

cut

firstput

are

out

or

the

on

small

the will of the mixer.

at

itself. A

tracks

six sound

dubbers, so

six

etc.,

reproducing channel

sound

final track. Sometimes

one

portant
voices, is impost-synchronizing
handlingof sound effects. Such

for the
re-recording
as
motors, nightnoises,

sounds

continuous

for

its usage

to

operator himself

re-

be

can

bined
com-

is also called

dubber.
refers to

Sync Tape

quarter-inch
tape

of

Inaudible

superimposingan
(above 14,000 cycles"above
means

in film

recording,
camera.
by
Impulse or high frequencysignal

with
synchronization

electronically
kept in

it is used

as

of

the range

This

the

human

the

ear) at periodic

intervals. This

to
then, when the tape is matched
signal
a
correct, constant
impulsethat maintains

the
supplies
Audible

Tones

which

second

per

instance,
Room

Tone

be

can

hear

can

those

are

much
is

sound

heard

describe

jargonto

track

essential

own

normal

it may

track

sound

different

on

Sound

Assembly
studios)where

has
editing
Erase

tape

other

occur

to

film

the

track

editingto

sound

refers
sound

to

of another

be

may

is another

desired

of

in

no

days

recorded

layman,every

room

term

the

various

on

This

sequence.

film

the

difference due

and

similar
Erasure

meaning
refer to

the
(neutralizing

again.

magnetic

the

tone.

editor.

discs

work,

removing

in

to

room

or

recording studios

in

differs from

in film

one

session, esperecording
cially

and

as

tapes

sequence.

described

the recorded

in

sound

after which
pattern),

(not

are

Editing,which

and rearranging
the parts of
deleting
a

if recorded

tone.

room

operation

tracks

by

for

its

on

changing temperature might

after

use

is
or

"silence" of

studio,(or

noticeable

tone

this

when

out

space

required and

is

acoustical reverberation

and

customary to record room

with commercials, for

the work

cycles
(Dogs,for

14,000

ear.

"silence"
special

is used

when

backgroundhum

room

togetherin

30 and

temperature!
Consequentlyif the

there
"silence")

Room

used

the

into

studio

affect the

It is

and

is cut

same

speed.

human

average

picture,

different qualityof "silence,"

distinctly
depending

acoustics"

studio
the

because, little as

has

studio

the

by

the film

highertones.)

studio. This
particular
between
dialoguesegments
in

between

waves

is done

film

dubbed
describes
Note

that

Chapter 13.
from
it may

netic
magbe

154

SOUND

*"

MUSIC

Singing Jingleof
Jingleor

All the

prominent,
Also

descriptive
jargon as

which

Noodle

is

the

more

many

used

are

Schmaltz,

(ordrama,

in the

which

sound

refers

to

studio.

saccharine,

for that

matter!)and Square or Corny,

unsophisticated"
by the sophisticated!

improvise music in an unobtrusive

every-man-for-himself
improvisation on

This
everybody participating.
informal
gatheringof musicians
than

called

loud, brassy,

criticism:

to

an

also

commercial;

of music

anythingconsidered

to

means

Clam-Bake

and

music

refers

NOTED

musical

words
descriptive

soft,subdued

over-sentimental

BE

Ditty.

familiar

such

TO

the

connotes

course

Commercial

TERMS

be

may

at

playingto

given

Session, which

Jam

while

way,

tune,
is

an

rather

themselves

entertain

public.

Riff is

repeatedphraseplayedover and over again by one section

the sax
or
(usually
trumpet)either by itself or behind the soloist.
who
but
reads
music
Paper Boy is an epithetfor the musician
a

solo. He's

not

Clinker

played or

so

favored

in

Blue

Note

or

when

Suspense
Mood
Theme

has

music

"Over

indicates

builds

musical

that

note

is

incorrectly

tense

excitement.

that establishes
refers

Theme

to

or

interpretsthe

melody

which

action.

identifies

character.

Background Music
scriptby

extemporaneous

an

Musical

or

or

the

do

or

sessions.

jam

refers to music

Music

program

Fake

rhythm. Hurry Music is

lightbut accented
the hero
is chasing the heavies, and, more
seriously,
an
acceptedterm for music that suggests the "unknown"

music

Mysterioso is
while

to

sung.

Bouncy
apropos

is unable

and

improvise

cannot

other

obviouslymusic

sounds, dialogueor
Under"

"Music

Music."

is

Another

or

"Down

that is

playedbehind

effects. This
and

scriptterm, "Up

Under"
and

may

or,

Out"

be

or

neath
under-

indicated

in

to dialogue,
referring
means

the

that the
selection

music

played
means
graduallybring in"
under
the applause."
"Sneak the theme
take out" the music.
or
music
refers to writingor selecting
to fit specific
Scoring of course
Score.
visual or
spoken action. The complete work is the Orchestral
and writingindividual
Arranging is the work of takingthe song or score
soloists. The
and
completed work is the
parts for the instruments
volume

is to

be

at full volume

Arrangement.

increased

until the

as

the talk finishes and

closing."Sneak"

to

SOUND

Sheet

Lead

melody
in

with

is

chord

Fanfare

is

used
generally"
or

Sheet

parts of

a few
attention-getter"

musical

for

gain interest

where

indicates

the other

to

is written

uled
is sched-

music

the program.

bars

short title or

basic

the

out

resoundingbrass,

of

announcement,
special

act.

new

refers to the music

Title Music
is

in relation

to

which

manuscript on

symbols.Cue

program,

music

155

the title of the program

played while

being seen.
Stingerindicates

Sting or

short

musical

Segue (pronouncedseg'-way"from
verb

and

noun

number

for blend

another

to

the

in

without

the
of

sense

chord

accent.

Italian

"it

musical

smoothlyjoiningone

break.

"Segue

between

two

the

from

both

follows")is

closingnumber

to the theme."

Bridge

means

Release, the

means

from

and

On

Can
mean

is

music

any

other

or

In TV

There

are

music

BMI

which
fees to

primary

American
writer"
receives

so

one

or

most

to

and

means

its

studios

play off

star.

to

Music

has

to

come

refers
station

welfare

requiresa

maintained

be made, in addition

must

types of

most

on

project
musical

recordings.

flat fee of $100 per

year

record.
that

groups
to

control

the

righted
copy-

programs.

Societyof Composers,
has

licensingof

recognizednumber

royalties
as

member

Authors
of tunes

of

this

lishers.
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and

lyrics

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organization.

Music, Inc., a competitive organization.

Societyof European Stage Authors and Composers

European music. All broadcast stations pay licensing

all of these

American

three groups.

requiresspecialclearance

Federation

of Musicians, labor

present position by James

using

or

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recordings.
from
the library
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payment

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Originalor unpublishedmusic
and
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composers.
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handles

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musicians

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used

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distinguished

organized filing
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musicians.

when

Exit

tape, film

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union

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recorded

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called

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SOUND

156

belong

musicians

Local

soloists

other
P.D.

music

free

28
work

talent

on

without
and

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These
and

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of

usually

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Chicago's,

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STOCK

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162

FILM

STOCK

Cinex
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FILM

AND

STOCK

PROCESSING

163

Notching the negative (done by cuttinga notch or indentation in

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FILM

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167

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168

FILM

STOCK

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STOCK

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The
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170

FILM

STOCK

AND

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STOCK

FILM

The
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than

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171

competitive

Hollywood

theaters

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PROCESSING

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OF

TIME

TERMS

IN

EDITING

FILM

EQUIPMENT

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MISCELLANY

13
Film

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OF

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no

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of an
one
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pistolfiring;

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the

to assemble
pieces together

from

the

172

ambulance
a

woman's

ing
mean-

film
siren

face

FILM

newsreel

screaming,plusvarious

shots

of

EDITING

173

presidential
inauguration.
he can
By selecting,
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put together

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narration"

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establishing
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cut to a section
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the audience, cut back to a closer shot of the president,
cut
to a single
of the president,
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person in the audience, cut to his biggestclose-up
back
it cocks, cut back
cut
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to the president,
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ing
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Sound

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editor

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this in most

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Film

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FILM

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release

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in Film
change of scene. It is the word of command
In recording
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EDITING

FILM

Number

Code
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There
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ing
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in

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snippedoff in editing.
used occasionally
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to

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verb
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piece
in

of paper

(or plastic

longerreel of film.

176

EDITING

FILM

Off is

Cord

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is used

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CUTTING

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than

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papering.

EQUIPMENT

or
Spliceris the term for the device that splices
joinsthe stripsof film
togetherin sequence. The operationis done by scrapingoff the emulsion

from

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called

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It should be pointedout that splices
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They
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projectionrooms

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for

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from

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also be used

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and

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of
Every editingroom

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film,with

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each

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film

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16mm)
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Moviola, best know

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EDITING

FILM

in

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Westrex

Viewer

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Sound
to

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Moviolas

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the number
or

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editor

sound

check

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and

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requiredin

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vance
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cartoons.

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useful

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synchronization.
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silent 16mm

other

(British)are

for any

for the editor

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such

equipment.

editingdevices.

for other

names

Acmiola

and

for such

genericterm

177

geared set

of

sprocket-wheel

(especially,
picture and
a

two-,

four-, or

sound)

six-Gang Synchronize
synchronizer

of rollers. Generally,
the

simply Counter,

recordingthe

feet

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editingdevices (such as the Moviola)

is

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consoles.
Bin

or

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for
receptacle

loose

film in

some

FILM

178

stage of
to

EDITING

keep the

often

film clean

It is

and

to

Pegs or nails
sprockethole) for

hung (by a
Rack

also refers

stored, above
for the

always lined

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film

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Above

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can

reference.

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the

emulsion.

the various

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to

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discard.

editingor

rolls of film

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the

are

is the

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in laboratories

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editingrooms

near

reels

for

more

of films. Vaults
be constructed
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to safety
safe-keeping
and
generallyhave controlled temperature and humidity,
regulations
both of which
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and life of

permanent

film.
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Tet

often used

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film. It is

sides of the film

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Headed"

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production schedule

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Ideally,

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EDITING

FILM

Work

is another

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it is the editor's

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dailyor rush is used by itselfit

includes any sound, if
automatically

the word

when

and
picture,

to

these
Daily Print distinguish

part.

necessary

version

back

Sound

and

Print

it.

work

The

with

picture
match

to

components. However,

sound

Work

Picture

these
technically,

two

cause
period,be-

this

printnormallymeans
track is being cut to

But

Print,

during all

film

179

safe,justsay sync

which

separate )

refers to

refers to

stands

current
con-

for either

180

FILM

EDITING

Sound
Dead

and

that

Sync, meaning

call this

S.A. for

the film,so

Sync

of the

are

synchronizeror

across
straight

the

it is

machine.

sync

know.

Another

composite printsare
of the

picture,due

be

to

the

to

of the

Track

Advance

Displacement amounts

Sound

or

from

it is measured

frames

It is 26

made

this way,

release

and

which

16mm,

when

both

Pulled

marks

which

the

of the

the

be

projectorshave

the

Sound

All

16mm.

Up

types

remove

to

be

track

sound

indicates

the

"up to speed"by

Sync

the time

the

certain

used

terms

the business

of

to

achieve

short

film

scene

on
briefly

this with

the

for

changed
and

35mm

laboratory.

advanced.
the

to
to

be

editor, printer or
threaded

projectoris to
(and picture)come

or

Flash

the

of
telling
bear

be

to

the

in

Academy

roll in order
on.

to

Cutting is

another

similar

for

name

which

develops a montage

Slavko

Vorkapichwho

was

or

quently
conse-

fast

rapid sequence

of

the

Flash, but

the

image

as

in

viewer.

for this, since

term

is called

sometimes

screen

from

reaction

suddenlyhits
problems.
laboratory
a

story"and

noting:

somewhat

flash,or flare,which

Vorkapich is

film

shots
techniqueof cuttingcontrasting

excitingemotional

an

scenes.

Cutting refers

Newsreel

the

in

editing"that

Dynamic Cutting is

camera

puted,
com-

tion
Projec-

or

be

must

the

sound

is

correctlyadvanced

requiredfor

indicate

which

point at

When

MISCELLANY

are

tempo

track.

start mark, printedon

single

from

scene

Printer's

pictureprintsare

There

been

which

and
carry

has

advance

is

advance

prints are

sound

requiredfrom

printsare

the

printsalso

leader,which

of

the marks

are

where
projectionist
sync. Release

different sound

or

actually,
(19/2,

release

overlapping sound

sound

Advance

correspondingpicture) in

replacedwith

indicate

indicates

Marks

Start

of

must

20 frames

to

composite printing,this

sync

for the

compensate

this

ahead

the sound

composite printing.
Obviouslythe projection
sync marks
to

indicate

may

This

it is difficult to

removing

for

dead

Sync marks,

the center

explains
why

marked
the

twin

for this is Editorial

term

projectionlens.

(25/2,actually)in

print without

negativesare

the

on

the leader

fact that

reproducer ahead

35mm.

He

made,

sound

since

marked

so

Sync.

Later, when

printed ahead

since

appropriate placeson

at

will
projectionist

Cutter's

or

they

screeningsand on the Moviola are in

in exact
alignment.The editor may

synchronismStraightAcross,

geared rollers
with

interlock

picture,in

don't

short

confuse

the result of

flash cuttingtechnique
dynamic (and arty!)
series

among

of related

scenes.

It is named

the first to realize the emotional

for

effect

EDITING

FILM

such

from

sequence.

Intercut

Insert
edited
used

as

to

means

detail

refers to

outside it. Suppose the

action

or

of the scene,

to

is resumed

at

the main

scene

interval

an

is

closeup

also

is

resumption of

Match

plain
ex-

playing
mother

the

often

cutaway

back

the editor cuts

when

have

may

elapsed.
ring
piece of action occurboys has heard a mad dog

second

Suppose the father of

simultaneously.
the scene
From
is loose in the neighborhood.
cutback to scenes
the dog,the editor would
A carefully
paced series of cutbacks between
build

closeup of

to

scene

children

angle.)Such

camera

of time

into

cutaway. (Generallythe

because
rapidly,

more

refers to the

Cutback

would

as

it. Cut-in

is two

scene

there is
That

the window.

different

the storyforward

moves

within

action

or

piece of footageedited

short

dog. In the middle

anxiously
watchingfrom
scene

scenes.

such
piece of footage,

short

two

verb, meaning edit-in.

Cutaway
with

forth between

and

explaindetails

to

scene

back

cut

refers to

Cut-In

or

into

181

the

of the children
of the father

playingwith
rushinghome.

simultaneous

the two

actions

suspense.
refers

Cut

to

scene

as

shot

with

different

with

has matching action

which
subject,
shot
shot. The
editor can
to this second
cut directly
conscious
the viewer
continues, without
beingparticularly

closer
generally

to

indicate

above

All the

the

Direct

Cuts,

or

an

and
of

immediate

lens,

camera

the previous
the

action

cut.

to
splicing

the

changinglocale or to indicate the passage of

it
scene
as
time, the editor may prefera Dissolve,which blends the new
also be
effects may
the old scene,
fades in over
fadingout. Other optical
indicated, as the next chapterwill describe. It is the editor's job to decide
between
what
these transitions
scenes
(unlessthe scripthas specified)
work
will be and he will order the fine grainsand optical
necessary to
next

tell the
Here
Both

Otherwise,

scene.

are

screen.

35mm
simplechart to get the relation between
photographed(at sound speed)and projectedat 24
is

second, but
relative

the

story on

in

the obvious

difference in size of the

images

two

and

16mm.

frames

per

affects the

footage.
Sound

Speed

24 frames
"

1440

1 minute

per second

frames

"

35mm

16mm

16 frames
90 feet

approx.
35mm

Here, reel

1000
is 2M
means

feet

1 foot

1 minute

1 reel

40 frames

1 foot
"

36 feet

approx. 400 feet

1 minute
1 reel

"

at sound
speed.
footageas 16mm
the
also
10-minute
means
subject(it
approximate

times
an

as

long

in

color),

the

ability

of

mentioned

ends

action

in

sound

for

track.

It

be

give
is

well

above

camera

or

repeated

make-up,

or

the

or

replaced.

to

note

and

projector.

that

below

in

Sound

loop
the

editor

over

camera

Looping

so

also

that

acting

action

to

to

used

in

film

( its

particular

Picture

loops

are

pre-recorded

guide

performers

recorded

previously
is

of

again.

sessions

of

inflections

sound

continuous

the

and

over

band

continuous

post-recording

in

and

timing

is

by

performers

used

are

chapters,

prepared

guide

to

the

to

to

be

may

loops

matching
is

costumes

or

earlier

together)

instance,

Sound

which

in

spliced

or

used,

sets

performers.

Loop,
two

of

appearance

183

EDITING

FILM

voice

re-recording

sions
ses-

effects.
also

refers

intermittent

to

the

movement

slack

of

section

at

the

film

lens

quired
re-

of

THE

WORLD

OF

OPTICAL
TRICKS

OF

MAGIC

EFFECTS

RE-PHOTOGRAPHY
SPECIAL

EFFECTS

MISCELLANEOUS

TERMS

14
Effects

Optical

THE

WORLD

Since

OF

effects

are

multitude

is the

simulate

to

devices
word.

the

are

world

Effects

forever

How

to

believe,the tricks

of make

train
explosions,

snow,

are

collisions

and

and

intriguing.

achieve

illusion of the

an

that the viewer

somethingso

will believe

real

thing?

that it is real?

cate
miniatures, models, animation, unbelievablyintri-

Specialcameras,
devices

are

part. Rain,

of visual

Illusion
How

television

vital

Special

MAGIC

and

movies

and

of

resources

It is
production.

never-endingworld

of

magic.
the effects

In live television
In

camera.

achieved

are

and

camera
films,staging,

OpticalEffects

Opticalsare

or

those
tricks,especially
laboratory

to

They
has been

normally made

are

completedin

in the control

room

SpecialEffects
an

unusual

in

Film

in

Live

or

in the film

blend

that

editingafter

used.

industryto
two

scenes

refer
gether.
to-

the

original
photography
be made
electronically

effects can

TV.

refers to any

scenic

devices

Similar

TV.

are
laboratory

used

terms

tronic
in the elec-

staging and

in

productiondevice

dramatic

effect

not

which

obtainable

ing
aids in achievunder

normal

productionmethods.
all

are

the

Magic

Weather

provinceof
it

is,but

effects and

other

similar

effects department.
special
magic.
very practical

the

184

staging illusions

OPTICAL

""

EFFECTS

OPTICAL

made

Opticalsare
known

the

as

are
opticals

plannedby

He

photographyhas been
in the

studio

at

or

TV

show
and

completed)and

in the
by a man
is being telecast.

control

involved

scenes

them

send

to

room

Film

In

requireseveral days

may
the

grainson

185

to

TV
plete.
com-

(afteroriginal

specialdepartment

the

laboratory.
goes througha ProjectionPrinter

the work

Here

the editor

fine

order

must

the

EFFECTS

EFFECTS

in Live
electronically

switcher, while

SPECIAL

AND

OpticalPrinter,

or

mounted
bed and equipped to make
camera
on
a type of lathe
special
visual changes in the image as it reproduces by projecting
or
on
optical
The
of
frame
a
to
new
a
optical
printer can enlargea portion
negative.
full frame
frame
to 35mm
size),reduce a part or all
(orenlargea 16mm
a

of the

picture(or35mm
to

It

be

running backwards

combine

can

16mm),

to

two

and

scenes

beginwith
Opticals

invert

and

other

so-called

transitions

between

many

make

the

it,reverse

action

it appears

so

tricks."
"optical
them.

elementaryeffect,the Fade, which bringsthe

appear
(fadein)and, later,may make it dispicturefrom black to full visibility
The
of
(fadeout).
length a fade may be controlled accordingto
lengthsof fades are 8-, 16-, 32-, 48- and 64pacing desired. Standard
frames. Fades
are
normallyused to open and close complete sequences
within

story.

Next

the

Super or Superimposure,which
another scene.
over
(or a title)

comes

placingone
The

scene

direct
the

by

usage,

an

effect of

is the

cut

switcher

used

most

gives the

between

transition

Next

scenes.

the editor,is the Dissolve, which

or

effect of

in

gives the

blendinginto another by fadingout the first scene

while the other is simultaneously
fadingin. Dissolves are used to bridge
a
change of locale or time, althoughthey may also be used simply to
soften the transition
between
two
camera
anglesof the same
subject.
one

Cross

scene

is another

Dissolve

being symbolizedin
is

Dis, and

The
which
two

when

notations
it

for

name

as

"X"; hence,

an

overlapstwo

ordinarydissolve

is not

dissolve,the

scenes,

Another

DX.

it is also

to be confused

with

ball may
match

be

match

dissolve is

in both

The

live and

Wipe

dissolved
a

to

favorite,almost

tion
abbrevia-

called

Lap

the Match

two
a
specialtransition between
scenes,
of
related
characteristics.
For instance, the
objects

is

sometimes

cross

Dissolve

dissolve
shot

of

solve.
Dis-

between
a

billiard

man.
closeupof a bald-headed
device
hackneyed,story-telling

The
used

film television.

is the third

importanttransitional opticaleffect,generally

followinggeometric patterns in wiping

or

pushing on

new

scene

to

OPTICAL

186

EFFECTS

replacethe previous
"one

that

scene

of
The

wipes,made
a

Vertical

to

an

the

move

Iris

the

Wipe

of the

wipes

off the

old

like

of different types

dozens

are

(Because

or

moving

left.Of
in any

wipes

direction

new

action

be

can

Wipe

TV.

which

desired.
features

constructed

desired.
in- as

"fade

small

full

reversed, of

with

as

be

can

coming

scene

Live

Wipe,

down,

or

up

course,

of confusion

circle

screen

it

iris in

course:

in" and

as

"fade out,"

)
get transposed.

Turnover

card and

the Vertical

graduallygettinglargerto

This

of these often

meanings
FlipoverWipe

turningover

screen,

scene.

of iris out.

literally

means

Likewise, the Horizontal

the effect of the

has

There

screen

or
diagonally

scene

phrasefor wipe

wipes begin with

moving rightor

center

the

for

across

in the

instead

OpticalWipe.

refers to the movement.

uprightline

French

in
opticalprinter for film,electronically

an

flat line

EFFECTS

another."

popularnames

most

features

an

in

The

scene.

chases

It is also called

SPECIAL

AND

Wipe

has

becoming the

the

new

effect of the
scene

The

on

Optical

Printer

the

first

reverse

scene

side.

OPTICAL

Bombshell

Wipe

Fairlyobvious
doors

wide

such

are

effect of

wipe
are

of the

some

hundreds

of

kinds

used

many

wherein

in film

of the

edge

new

187

"exploding"

scene

Expanding Square Wipe (the

off

scene

it

as

Wipe (the big

Door

scene),the

new

the old

Barn

Clock

Wipe (the
and

around)

sweeps

possible
wipes. Across the page are shown
in live television
tronic
(throughspecialelectelevision (made by re-photographyin the

new

to

is

scene

techniquein handlingany wipe,

softlyblurred, rather than sharp

hard.

or

""

TRICKS

Rolls

(pronouncedmat) are

other

opticaleffects,such

This

involves

the

fact

that

or

correctlyMatte

more

in the

obtain

opticalprinterto
overlayingone
image on

as

of which

or
strips,

and

is opaque

through the

scene

used

fit together
to block

clear,the other

from

Traveling Mattes

Togetherthe two

and

RE-PHOTOGRAPHY

stripsof film,each

two

of the frame.

OF

also called

TravelingMasks,

is

the

screen),the

Edge Wipe simplyrefers

the

the

as

presentinga

wiping

equipment)and
printer).
optical
Soft

wipes

it fillsthe

open,

clock hand

others. There

has

EFFECTS

old.

gets largeruntil

square

SPECIAL

AND

ExplosionWipe

or

of the

middle

in the

EFFECTS

vice

entire

The

versa.

different

out

screen

of another.

top

rolls,are

matte

the

out

blocks

wipes and
parts

exactlycomplementary
Where

area.

one

comes
"traveling"

term

the

stripsactuallytravel or progress with

to produce
opticalprinter,frame-by-frame,

film

the
the

new

negative.
combine
two
can
Travelingmattes
flying
throughthe sky or a commercial

car

shelf to

woman's

be done

must

then

scenes,

from

block

to

To

product moving

from

material

in

grocery
work

the two

matched

be made
mattes
must
complementary traveling
Combined, they make a singlescene.
standard
rolls are
wipes,matte
alreadyprepared for optical

all

printers.Others

be

can

combining two

prepared to

scenes

on

order

film. It

achieve

to

simply takes

any

time

desired

and

MultipleImage is the effect of several repetitionsof the

the screen.
This
subjectat once, possiblyrotating around
done

with

prism

in front of the

device

lens

is called

all at once,

placedin

of the

similar effect which

repeating one,
screen

accomplishthis,frame-by-frameart
the alternate unwanted

out

the illusion of

create

the art work.

For

in

hand.

to

scenes

as

front of the

money.
same

is

(liveor

camera

effects

camera

generally
film)or

opticalprinter.
combines

Montage,

several

which

different

has

composite picture or

images,rather

the various

images

overlappingsequence.

on

than
the

The

188

OPTICAL

EFFECTS

effect of any

it may

or

also

be

can

blended

the whole.

the many

cover

achieved

of the

Screen
screen

as

blocked

are

fast

Shot.

off to

telephoneconversation
in a newsreel
as
4-way split

or

screen,

Reverse
also

Motion

be

can

backward
action

used

which

left

and

held

Live
of

for
TV

or

over

the
the

So,

for human

the

to

with
so

but

fine

grain

the resulting"
the

diver

diving board.

Reverse

the

taken

reversed

Scene

or

originalrightis
to

match

it makes

as

and

trick of the

the

as

long

as

It is

the

Flop-

now

action

on

with

right-handed

resultant

effect

may

opticalprinter in holding

desired,

finally
projectedon
point of

any

the

so

that the
The

screen.

action

be

may

action

diver

appears

may

be

freeze framed

exception of

freeze

long the province

re-photography,

tricks of

all these

permits the

picked up by
camera.

course,

that,for instance,

necessary

be

to

unusual

an

do

can

and

This

photography,of

upward

frame.

Electronic

one

insertion

miniature

action, the television

travelingmatte
In color

does)

the

exact

cameras

area

this is called Color

Inset

overly intricate
Matting Amplifier,

or

illusions

same

live human

of

film's

figurein

traveling

motion,

as

picked up by another
the background
set can
serve
as
electronically
blockingout (as a

another

into

camera,

paintingor

of

the

motion,

reverse

already mentioned, accomplishesthe

matte.

side of the

study.
analytical

films, with

montage

either

on

when

expected.

was

it is

in mid-air

Frozen

scene

must

printingit

suspendedwhen

so

is sometimes

care

refers

Frame

frame

one

2-way splitas

opening montage.

screen

is
handed, lettering

Freeze

or

but

exactlywhat

be

not

This

screen.

portions

separate pictures.

shown

in film

be confused

to

the

turns

cuts,

SplitScreen,

different

more

be

last

effects.

is not

previous scene,

person

or

are

flies back

pool and

motion

the left of the

a

the

on

for comedy
primarily

Action

over

achieved

the

the

in

backward

of the

Reverse

two

direct

opticalprinterby running the

negative takingstock forward. This makes

the

run

out

comes

achieved

and

be

can

include

to

for this. It
may

in the

dissolves.

effect shows

reveal

both

people in

term

This

Splitscreen

transitional

of

connotation

togetherwith

scenes

is the favored

term

effect

fast sequence,

in

scenes

Vorkapich,mentioned

overall

an

Composite

or

of

opticalprinter for

an

also is used

Montage
Divided

of

need

product.A montage

wipes.
originalEuropean

is the

such

montages

of time

passage

or

an

montage

in the

events

number

little thingsto create

many

commercial

fast dissolves

of

EFFECTS

cover

by using

type

one

chapter,which
the

of

had
incidentally,

Montage,

without

It may

uses

togetherwith

editingand

SPECIAL

of
give highlights

is to

montage

impressionof

an

AND

scene,

in which

Inset.

the

transposedfigureappears.

EFFECTS

OPTICAL

SpecialEffects
in

that
practically
everything

cover

both
production,
In Live

These

achieved

by

189

is unusual

not

normal

or

TV.

fog.
lightning,

effects" rain, snow,

specialdevices

by superimposure effects

aided

Film

and

TV

TV, this includes weather

be

may

for Live

EFFECTS

EFFECTS

SPECIAL

"

SPECIAL

AND

on

another

from

the illusion

stage, with

controlled

camera

by

the

switcher.
In Film
in the

and

studio
in

effects
special

TV,

the

also various

the

screen.

instance, in

the

illusions

optical
printer.
appliedto the clever technician in
." often appears
Effects by
the credit "Special
Certain
are
specialists
employed within this field. For
who
has skill in handlingexfilms a Powder
is one
Man
plosions.

SpecialEffects Man
chargeof this work, and
on

weather-makingdevices used
obtained by tricks or re-photography

include

Minature

is the

dioramas

and

sets

title

within

are

the

province of

the

special

ture
department,both in Live TV and films,so they may stage miniatrain wrecks, burningbuildings,
etc.
earlier chapter,
the work of special
Class Shots,mentioned
in an
are

effects

portion of

effects in films. A
the upper
on

than

rather
glass,

the

scene

of

structure

may

scene,

also

are

is added

actual

in the

combined

be

such

scene,

cathedral

being an

Travelingmattes,
into

the

the work

camera

was

defined

scene

of the

set.

or

MISCELLANEOUS

Superimposure

castle

the

to

part

from

The

hill

the

on

or

painting
parts of

two

in the

optical
printer.
with
elements
concerned
two
combining
of film's specialeffects department.

where

"-

as

earlier

TERMS

as

giving the

effect

of

placingone

another. When
it is a simplewhite
over
a title)
lettering,
(especially
until the
this can
the other scene
be done by a Burn In, or exposure over
turns
on
area
completelywhite. If a black shadow
image in that specific
roll is requiredto
the title (calleda Drop Shadow) is desired, a matte
title area
and
the shading.Such
titles
block
control
the specific
out
distinctive. The
more
are
expensivebut are cleaner,sharperand more
to
burn in, abbreviated
to B.I., also is used
term
by opticalfilm men
scene

refer

to

the

film print which

background.The negativeof
background)is called a Hold
make

titles with

shadowed

such

carries
a

burn

Out

or

in

white

letters with

(carryingblack

H.O.

lettering.

letters

Togetherthey can

on

black
white

be used

to

PICTURE

PROBLEMS

SOUND

PROBLEMS

PROBLEMS

HANDLING

NOTES

AND

QUIBBLES

MISCELLANEOUS

FAULTS

FILM

NEGATIVE-POSITIVE
PRINT

EYE

CRITICAL

THE

15

THE

CRITICAL

Quality

Picture

Evaluating

EYE

miracle as television,there are an infinite

Obviouslyin such a complicated
number
of thingsthat can
often do.
go wrong. And
of
shame
to
a
more
Now, it seems
pseudo-critics
any
encourage
the
can

he

but
telecast,

be

this

of those

one

speaks

of the

or

Film

that evaluate

begin with

refer to the distinctness

"easyto
One

read"

is said

factor

who

irritating
persons

basic terms

TV,

such

of detail in

fact that the detail is in Focus

with

risk. You, too,

like

words

of Definition.

expert when

an

like

This

in

image. A picture that

good definition.
(the rays

is

Sharpness,which

of

lightthat

form

"contrasty,"
Live

TV

is used

term

an

obtainingdefinition

in

calculated

whether
picturequality,

definition

to have

sounds

qualityof the picture

"keystoning."

and
"degradation"
The

take

chapter must

is clear

to

and

refers to
the

image

the
are

There
three prime pointsat
are
converged in the same
correctly
plane).
which
focus is adjusted:
at the lens of the
at the lens of the camera,
of film)and at the viewer's receiving set. Unless
projector(in the case
all three are
correctlyfocused, the picture will be Fuzzy, meaning not
sharp and the detail not clearlydefined.
Another
the

of
ability

refers
definition is Resolution,which
obtaining
in TV, the amount
stock to reproducedetail. Similarly,

factor
film

in

191

to

192

EVALUATING

PICTURE

of detail is restricted

Contrast,in
and

he

the

to

number

lines is standard.

States,525

but

QUALITY

shadow.

The

is limited

important that

Fewer

picture,refers

lines would

to

the range
controls

engineer

the

in

of lines transmitted.

of

amount

the

In

United

lose definition.

between
of difference

during the

contrast

he

correction

light
hightelecast,

make,

can

it is

so

the

costumes,
picture's
makeup all be within
settings,
requiredContrast Range. This term refers to the maximum
latitude for satisfactory
of the shadow-highlight
scale. In
telecasting
black-and-white
this contrast
television's gray
telecasting,
range covers
in the chapteron
scale,as mentioned
Lighting.Lighting,too, has an
important bearingon contrast
laboratory
range and, in film processing,
and
of
stock also can
affect it. Remember
that as much
raw
handling
type
television's

contrast

within
possible"

as

Good

Contrast
the

wide

widest

satisfactory
and
highlight
contrast

is too

bad. Too

or

for

great
is used

In

in

film

for

approving term

an

difference between

good

mean

is

contrast
satisfactory

High

range.

bad,

similar term

is Hard.

necessarily

not

this indicates

as

the

than

contrast

says the
Low

low

dull, too
thing:flat,lifeless,

same

indicates

Contrast

narrow

very

in

range

but

does

not

the contrast

processingdecrease
build

in film

contrast

the

with
Low

in

highlightand
"High contrast" and
of

handle

TV, and

should

theater

made

for the two

Some

these

negativeis

too

special
to
possible

with

and

wider

contrast

is

cerned
con-

too

are

contrasty
for

theater

made

so
telecasting,

than

prints

extremelydifficultto

are

range

in

contrast

It is also well

avoided.

printsgenerallyare

note

to

television

than
to

that motion

prints;

well.

telecast

TV

Different
projection.

(from

the

negative)

same

purposes.
contrast

corrections

engineers.Darkening
the whole

up

lower

with

high contrast

generallytoo flat
be
contrast, can
controlling

printslikewise
prints,each

with

be

picture theater printshave

hence,

where

Likewise, it is

print is readilybuilt

film

Films
projection.

on

stock

contrast.

are
prints for television generally

for theater

image.

the Mud

In

Laboratory processing always

generations.

problem of

contrast

in the

is the

contrast.

mean
necessarily
good or bad.
"low contrast" are usuallyused in referring
to film
basic characteristics
For instance, where
are
helpful.
stock
contrasty,it may be printedon low contrast

shadow,

trasty
Con-

desired.

extreme

Flat,meaning lackingin contrast, likewise undesirable.

term

the range

singleword

the other

On

imately
approxindicates

Contrast

but does

telecast. Sometimes
satisfactory
fault-finding
sense,
meaning more

negativea

has

picture that

shadow

Contrastymeans

is desired.

range"

scene

and

up

can

the black

whites

become

be

made

is called

by
electronically
BattingDown.

lightgray.

If the

the

This

video

darkens

picture is lightened

by

the

Hittingthe Whites,

lighter.
remember
Finally,
knob

down

or

up

Snap

is

his

comparatively

something the

is

TV

viewer

can

receivingset.

jargonfor good

lots of

printhas

also

contrast

on

grays become

the darker

then

193

QUALITY

PICTURE

EVALUATING

and

contrast

the

sharpnessin

picture."This

snap!"

Brightnessrefers

the

to

overall

average

of

the

lightin

picture-

The engineercontrols brightness,

to densityin film processing.
equivalent
making the overall picturedarker or lighteras he chooses. The home
of films,
And
in the projection
receivingset also can control brightness.
the wattage of the projectorbulb affects
in a screeningroom,
especially
brightness.
of reproduction,
for faithfulness
term
as
Fidelityis the engineer's
be
used
describe
to
Fidelitycan
compared with the original.
ture
pichigh fidelity,
qualityas well as sound, hence: good fidelity,
poor
etc.
fidelity,

refers

Halation
of the

to

is

camera

also

this may

brightcircle of lightcaused when

pointed toward a brightlightor the sun. In

often

halo

or

when

occur

quiteundesirable.

white

extreme

is

next

to

Flare, but the

it is called

Sometimes

seen

the

lens

Live

TV

black-

extreme

latter term

more

of a too strong light(not the

problem of a reflection
from
a
glasssurface,chrome, glittering
jewelry,bald

refers to the

direct

light)as

heads,

etc.

Flash
more

PROBLEMS

PICTURE

used

is sometimes

used onlyin
correctly
Kick

and

rectified

Hot

Spot

are

the
by lessening

the camera,

the

to

of

sense

slangfor
lightsource

flare,but
objectionable

an

short scene,

to

avoid

is

confusion.

problem may be
causing it, moving the lightor

small

flares. This

the reflective surface

by toningdown

or

refer

to

with

wax

or

spray.

through the use of polarizingfilters which

eliminate
unwanted
certain
lightrays.
also can
Flares
be caused
or
by stray lightleakinginto camera
laboratorymechanisms, as will be explainedlater in this chapter.

Another

Bloom

Womp,

to

way

and

Blossom
TV

Live

it is

correct

are

other

names

for

slangterm

for

sudden

halation,and

it is also called

of brightness
in
flare-up

the

picture.
Other

Clouding
areas,

when

TV

Live

terms:

.refers

the

to

image

Streakingrefers

to

an

is

electronic
too

fogging of large dark (or light)

contrasty.

the unwanted

presence

of horizontal

streaks

or

194

EVALUATING

lines

the

across

Snow
low

PICTURE

picture,another

white

Tearing

by

is

for

effect in the
rip-like

called

generallycaused
interference

of the

obstruction.

by

and

Ghostingrefers

Static

of the

faultytube

in the

noise

to

second

in

Distortion

that

image

tube

caused

by

causes

be

to

the

Keystoning refers

or

wider

the

at

off

to

as

boxes

end

near

buildingor

orthicon

image

an

also refers to

to

camera

double-exposure,

abnormal

an

as

other

reproduction

wide-anglelens
lines at the
in a closeup.
Straight
just as the shape of the television
edge of the picture.

curved
at

picture tube

element.
optical

nose

appear

also

Static

camera.

haunts

in

refers
an

human

rectangular
shapes,such

appear

or

distortion

minor

lens

of the

picturemay

Keystone
or

Aberration

or

ance
picturedisturb-

audio.

distortion

edge of

receivingpicture.

to

studio

receivingsignal"bouncing"from

image

causes

receivingset picture,

Noise, refers

or

ghost also can be created

when
word
too great.The
are
high lights
mentioned
in the previous chapter.
as
Lens

the

by

interference.

Microphonics,also

result

reception,caused

in

flyover
spots that similarly

word

problem.

dots

Pigeons are

means

electronic

of fuzzy white
sprinkling
signal.
is

level

caused

QUALITY

which

distortion

In
buildings.

or

the

affects square

picture,these

the

(hence, shaped

camera

like

This is the result of using the wrong

camera
keystone).
angle and is a
common
problem.It also can happen in projectionwhen the projector
is tilted too high or too low to the plane of the screen.
Throw

is used

the

to

as

to

noun

SOUND

Many

of

audio:

fuzzy,in

the

abnormal,

the mud,

meanings

to
a

in sound.

cover

the

Now

transmission,

camera

Fading

to

in

is used

as

noun

Problems

Picture

static, noise,
fidelity,

sound

as

of
overloading

an

distortion
TV

from

the

also

apply to

film

jector
pro-

PROBLEMS

distortion

problems.Likewise,

change or

unwanted

also is used

under

poor

reproduction,whether
Blast

Live

listed

words

similar,obvious
the

distance

screen.

to

the

mean

sound
both

difference

between

all have

Distortion

refers

and
original

the

picture.

or

video

and

audio.

capacityof equipment
it also refers

causing

the

to refer to

to

similar
an

it
Originally,
in

similar

distortion

unwanted

ferred
re-

ing
recordingcaus-

overloadingin
in

drop

picture.
in sound

or

picturesignal.
Ground

Noise

refers to unwanted

noise

that is the result of the

faulty

EVALUATING

of

conditions

basic

the

of the

condition

quarters as

some

refers

Noise

result of the
in the basic

tone.)

room

unwanted

to

noise

in

noise.
is

Burp
the

for

synonym

noise

that is the
reproduction
not
necessarily
present condition of the material, which was
record
For instance, a worn
develops
phonograph
recording.

Surface

surface

(tape,disc, film) or faulty

in
is also mistakenly used

recording material

equipment. (Ground

sound

appropriatejargon

for

"tweet"

is the

is about

lay an

to

Frying is

the

to

that

whistle-like sound

or

from

distortion

off

also be

can

of the Live

appliedto

TV

indicates

and

dark, smoky,

that

lightthrough the

the

film

negative did

refers

Grain

the
positive,

the

the

be

that the

reverse,

lens. When

screen

when

result in
the

these

The

seen.

film
the

printedon

negative got

with
positives

texture

of

when

apparent
reflection

Edge
intermittent

of

the

mentioned

lightwithin

Flare
areas

result of careless

too

much

too

said to be Thin
"too

too

or

hot."

faults

in

the

little density.

picture itself. Black-and-white

the

pictureis said to be Grainy or

appear to be crawling with millions
was

may

the image
positive,

positive
printis

the

Flare

image

by patterns composed of tiny grainsof silver halide,

of times
the
on
are
noticeablymagnifiedhundreds

formed

picturesare
and

to

ness
bright-

enough

receive

not

of lightexposed was
Up, meaning the amount
for
Underdeveloped and Overdeveloped are terms
both

of

variation

Burned

processing,and

faster rate.

FAULTS

FILM

printedon

it barelycan
light,

so

dense.

too

indicates

Overexposed

may

or

at

full turn.

film.

lens. When

lightthrough the

or

rapid Fluctuation

wow,

NEGATIVE-POSITIVE

Underexposed

will be

pictureor

"-

much

comes

to

the

little each

but

similar

distortion

pitch,caused
speed.For instance,

sound, varying

in

recordingor playback equipment goes

a
warped phonograph record that slows down
slow or off-speed
projectoralso wows.
is

ment
equip-

faultyequipment.

when

Flutter

when

occurs

egg.

sound
bacon-cooking

refers

Wow

be

in

noise
unexpectedinterrupting

an

equipment.

Birdie

Flutter

195

QUALITY

PICTURE

or

lens. It may

Edge Fogging

along the
handlingor

of

Flare

to

sprocketholes
defective

tiny

The

This
particles.
too

refers
lack

cause

is due

Graininess.

duped

negativesare

earlier. Lens
a

have

to

many
to

an

screen

is particularly

times.

intersurface

of contrast.

lightaccidentally
exposing

of the film. This

equipment.

may

be

the

EVALUATING

196

PICTURE

LightLeak

is the term

equipment. Even
and

cause

is the

that it is
if the

stops with

camera

printswhen
of

the

the

scenes

be

Obviouslyall
the

at the

or

It also

over-exposed

so

beginningand

ends

of

happen

can

lightchange at

wrong

there

the

to

the

there

be

scenes

making
beginning

in

the

or

PROBLEMS
be

negativescan

abuses

the

negative

laboratory.
tion
throughreduplicaimage fidelity

camera

HANDLING

of

many
or

of two

exposure

times.

mistakes
are

unintentional

an

loss of

PRINT

either

of film that is flared

the shutter open.

many

""

In addition

previouscamera-exposedimage

any

negative,in the

same

negativetoo

frame

fault should

Degradation refers
of

to

the

on

enter

printingmishap may be part of a Mis-light,

meaning
scene
(as printed)is not as intended.
while
intentional
as
a
Exposure,
superimposure in some

Double
can

permit lightto

may

of the

exposure

cases,

printermakes

Such

scene.

ruins

usable. This is caused

not

room
dark-

or

reshot.

refers to

Frame

hole

or

camera

accidentally
exposingundevelopedfilm

course,

be

in
flaring

the film.

on

result of

must

scene

Flash

tiny crack

The fogging,
of
light.
the

for this unwanted

strayexposure

Fogging
and

QUALITY

which

at

occur

may

positives.

to

the result of

are

and
positive,

transferred

mishandling
time,

any

even

in release.

Scratches

the

are

most

the surface of the film

marks:
the result of

These

common.

also called

are

If wide,

Abrasions.

rubbingpressure:

long streak

lines which

Digs. If short, blunt,

continuingmarks

that

If the scratches

Rubs.

break

and

mittent
inter-

obviously

are

storm-like

are

in

total effect: Rain.

Scratches
screen

may

in the

or

to
impossible

methods

of

is scratched

and
positive

remove

the

negative and

will appear

scratch

from

will

white
the

the

on

black

appear

on

the

It is almost

screen.

negative althoughthere

treatingthem to make them less obvious. When

(but the negativeis not),it's a simplematter

is the

Dirt

that appear

lens,in

camera

the
can

prime
on

the

cause

the

are

positive
make

to

of scratches.

cles
Specksof dust, lint,and partithe
the
in
on
camera,
pickedup

picturemay be
in
laboratory
processing,
the

Dirt in the camera

projector.
dirt in the laboratory
as
positive,

the

in

up

in

print.

new

on

be

be

in the

removed

camera.

by cleaningit,but
When

always the cameraman's

there is dirt

fault,as

the

will appear

white
there

marks.
is

pickedup

often

there

are

and

editingroom,

no

cure

in the

loose

as

Dirt

black
on

marks

the negative

for dirt
camera,

times
some-

picked

it is not

bits of emulsion,

EVALUATING

the film when

scrapings from
from
the

the

it is cut

The

manufacturer.
and

careful

PICTURE

apart,in

the film rolls

cameraman

as

197

QUALITY

received

as

precautioncleans

frequentintervals.
Marks
Cinch
scratches
end of
at the beginningor
are
cross-screen
reels caused
by careless rapid rewinding and the friction of the film
overlappinglayers.
againstitself when it is pulledup in tight,
that
all
these
defects
be
caused
Remember
can
throughmishandling
gate

camera

at

aperture

negativesor the positivefilm.

called by
Vaporated prints,sometimes

of either

the

have

Treatment,

been

This
scratching.

Lacquer

vacuum

Wax

or

to

harden

the

of

Preservative

or

become

humidity,may
hard

in size,

that it cannot

so

negativemay

make

it

and

resist

so

other

used

from

to

with

Shrink

and

temperatures

even

quently
conse-

actuallyget

smaller

A
in projection.
sprockets

shrunk

or

machine

positives.
oil

picked up

in

projection

film.

the

have
a
laboratory
may
temporary problem
seasoned
in that it is Green, not
or
(ithas nothingto do
properlydry
with
It is difficult to project because
color!).
sprocketholes are not
The picturemay
the screen
the film in the
waver
on
or
correctly.
fitting
New

from

also

are

flexible.

to printmore
impossible

Splotchesmay result
the face of
spread over
film fresh

kinds

other

may

the

over

pass

Oil
and

emulsion

and
Brittle,lackingin pliability,

project.Likewise, it

to

Peerless

name,

pressure.

and keep them

protect films from scratching
Old film,not carefully
kept in a vault
correct

trade

subjectsthe printsto formaldehydeand

process

under

while

gases

treated

the

Buckle, pile up

projectormay

also buckle

film may

film

Green

through the

the

or

double

An

due

(Remember,
mechanical

to

in two
sufficiently
such handling is not

often

Jump

refers to
refers

mechanisms,

and

in and

overheated

breathing.
Weaving
more

camera

mechanism.

lems.)
prob-

three

or

trips

recommended

in

film.

green

the

out

projector,but

warm

stop
in

up

generallydries

emergencies.
Breathing,a fluctuation

except

and

to

side-to-side
an

motion

up-and-down

also,refers to

focus, also

be

may

caused

by

cause
faultyprojector likewise may
but
used synonymouslywith breathing,

or

is sometimes
a

of

out

on

bounce

jump

in

the

screen.

in

camera

or

continuingfilm action

projector
caused

tion).
imperfectmatching of two pieces of action in editing(or animaThis may
be caused
by a break in the film,which has- been rewith the loss of one
frames. But Jump Cut
is an
or
more
spliced
editing
device
frames
within
omit
certain
static
to
a
intentionally
single
trying

by

the

scene.

Ride

refers

to

an

movement"
irregular

like jump"

or

an

irregular

PICTURE

EVALUATING
The

television, but
kine

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film

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on

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also make

can

trick
engineer's

an

quickly-processed
negative form,

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of

phenomenon

same

positive

television
to

reverse

as

this

electronic

normal

in live

broadcasting

in

since

screen

negative image,

199

QUALITY

positive.

comedy

for

effect.)
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burn

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strobe

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fluidly.

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than

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than

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few

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by

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wall

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tinuous
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pear
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tendency

reported earlier,is

as

costume,

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when

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blush, unintentionally,

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a

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degrades itself. For

so

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and

is

wrong

television

how

begins

go

to

take

has

in

this business, in
such

made

perfectionas

matter

fact, that

progress
of

course.

in

its

it's

just

first years.

ONE
THE

THIRD

ADVERTISING
AND

OTHER

CREATIVE

AGENCY

MISCELLANEOUS

SERVICES

ADVERTISING
TYPES

TERMS

OF
TV

RATING

RESEARCH

RATING

METHODS

AND

OTHER

TV

CENT

AGENCY

CONTACT

TV

OF

TERMS
SERVICES

DATA

SERVICES

16
Advertising

ONE-THIRD

OF

Television

became

This
for

and

business
billion-dollar-a-year
advertising

network

cable

billion dollars" this thousand

Well,

pick up. Who

to

someone

you

Agency

CENT

after the transcontinental

years

tab

Sponsor

"

might say

it

paid
and

Mr.

was

the

completed.

was

million

five

within

dollars" is

fairlysizable

bill?

Mrs.

John Q.

Public"

but

it cost

them

onlya third of a cent out of every dollar they spent on goods and
services.
Actuallyall advertising
represents only about 3 cents in every
sales dollar and

television

represents only a fraction

over

of total

tenth

advertising
appropriations.
Yet this

penny'sfraction bought over

annually for the public.And

advertisers have
minute

to

be

the

on

been
air"

or

television

must

worth

much.

so

known

$1,000 a
be

in turn,

creates

second

The

sellingof goods

for

powerful means

product(or a service)in
sales and

moves

and

of

some

spend $60,000

to

Just what is advertising?

Advertisingmay be defined as
value of

2,000,000 station

for

of entertainment

rather

was

just one

costly:

commercial

advertising
message.

an

of

ously
Obvi-

communication
advertising

the art and

the minds

it

hours

of

science

of

the
establishing

customers.
potential

This,

merchandise.
services
200

has

been

recognizedas

creative

ADVERTISING"
force in
of free
And

national

our

competition.Competition,to

that turns
it is advertising

THE

AdvertisingAgency
and

creative

survive,

these

is

administrative

the

the
and

builds
advertising

agency'sscope
product,what

There

markets

must

sales.

into

AGENCY

lytical,
organizationof anadesign and
diagnose,

who
specialists

available

services

as

well

ble
desira-

as

sales and

reputationfor

the advertiser.

planningon how to package and price

how
to developthe sales organization
select,
other

many

factors

the

in

successful

of

conduct

business.

than 3,000

more

are

both

to

advertising
agenciesin

than $180,000,000each,

four

spend more
largest
clients.
At least
advertising

000

principle

include

may

dealer outlets and

the advertiser's

The

the

on

consumer.

Good
The

201

offer better values.

independentservice

an

developplansfor making productsor

to

is built

better values

ADVERTISING

AGENCY

AND

business

American

economy.

The

SPONSOR

30

more

the United

States.

for
annually,

agenciesspend more

than

from

of

their

$25,000,-

each.
this

From
the
placed,

Billing,or
receives

agency

of the

15%

television and

Gross

other

rates

have

to

the

the

total

cost

Commission,
Advertising

an

total cost.

or

Media
advertising

of communication)

means

revenue

all pay

advertising

fee that is

tomarily
cus-

Newspapers, magazines,radio,
(theLatin pluralof Medium, or

this commission

prepared
advertising

their established

from

serviced

and

them

for

by

the

agency.
The

also may,

agency

costs, talent

program
such

When

computes

agency
the

items

agency

essential

Net

at

also allow

all the

does

client,receive

to

mission
com-

the

(or non-commissionable)cost,

2%

additional for payment

of
financing

this media

the

15%

of

within

10

to
by adding 17.65% (equivalent

its commission

media

gross).Some

days.The

billed

are

the

vision
work: teleadvertising
charges,still photography,printing,etc.

other items

for various

with

by agreement

payment,

then

re-

bills the client.

The

Media

the measured
measured
Mass
national

TV,

Department of an agency
broadcast
period in radio

area

and

in newspaper

Medium

indicates

the
population,

radio, and

some

and

for Time,

contracts

television,and

Space, the

magazines.

medium

so-called

selects and

that reaches

largesegments

"masses,"as opposed to

magazines

and

newspapers

are

of the

selective groups.
said

to

be

mass

media.

Market, as

buy

or

noun

the individual

in
area

the
advertising,
designates
where
they may be found.

group
A TV

of

peoplewho

program

may

202

be

ADVERTISING"
aimed

at

market

of national

Spot Market
on

its exposure

heard

by)

and
The

to

advertising

lower

area.

in

Test

Boston

Market,

advertising
may

individual

an

magazine
radio

television

York

point out

rate

take

market, the

be

ket,
mar-

sentative
repre-

tested

in

bought separately

area

TV

of

Coverage

may

(reach

cover

may

station

station

in
advertising

high percentage
be
(potentially

cover

may

of

terms

give effective

coverage

(in

Map

people and area) throughoutgreater Detroit.

local,accordingto

stations

its

or

total distribution

collegemarket.

5 counties.

It is well

telecast

product

the

to

peopleor

the

of both

be

refer to

to

New

terms

kid

market, a

basis.

to

of)

AGENCY

introduction.

refers

Coverage

class

the

is used

non-network

AND

it may

or

in which

area

advance

market,

mass

Southern

SPONSOR

the

that advertisers
in which

areas

of

structures

rated

as

national, regional

they distribute

all newspapers

consideration, and

this into

are

so

favor

and
local

their
some

products.
television

with
advertising

rates.

""

CONTACT

Rarelyare
but both
and

two

agenciesorganizedwith

the smallest

the

and

creative,in addition

Contact, which

to

Agencies may

who

the media

have

have
such

the

CREATIVE

identical

must
largest

carries
generally

refers to the executives

the client.

AND

have

structures,
departmental
two

basic

services,

tact
con-

department.

the official title of Account

Service,

for all dealingswith

responsibility

titles as

Account

Account
Supervisor,

ADVERTISING"

(popularabbreviation:

Executive
as

Service, Service

Account
Creative

Creative

or

of the actual

TV

Director

Copy

film
direction,

Art

with
chapters,

directors

and

agencies,somewhat
as

the

Agency

the agency

the network

advise

Director

the

work

Creative

use.

visor
Super-

vision
creatingtele-

work

Where

of

creating

television
Creative

Supervisor,TV

is

rector,
Di-

Chief.

Copy

productionhave

been

discussed

in earlier

largeragencieshave

Most

men.

in television

writers

as

and

work

commercial

TV

also has

Producer

on
representative
or

station

film

or

this still-new
have

varied

""

OTHER

TV

meaning

at

meanings, but generally

show.

produceron

AGENCY

some

medium.

different

television

separatedin

are

His

work

is to

policyfor

of

matters

in regard to the production of

client,especially

The

of

related

in

are

Creative

or

magazines, etc.

confusingthe titles in
title is typical"
it may

agency

an

agency.

indicates

for the preparation

responsibility

also

Service

well
as
productionspecialists

programming

Director

terms

work.

commercial
TV

live

and

Such

Manager.

department.The

TV

or

203

has

Creative

TV

AGENCY

Client

of the staff agency

mention

Account

separatedfrom

include:

AND

and

newspapers,

titles may
separated,

every

Services

be

advertisingfor

art

Group

titles in this

typical
top
advertising
may

TV

A.E.)or

advertising
messages.

are

Print

SPONSOR

commercials.

SERVICES

and
largeradvertising
agency often is a highlycomplex organization
far beyond making client contacts
and
writing ads.
scope extends

its

Among

departments which

be

may

included

these:

are

is the

Research

to
analytical
department,using scientific methods
cussed
and
consumers
study media, markets, products,
copy. This will be dismore
fullylater in this chapter.
of business activithe whole vast area
to mean
ties
Marketinghas come
which
ing
concerned
with a productfrom the time of the manufacturare

process until the

from

this but

buys

most

consumer

that

agree

it and

it.

uses

Many

marketing includes

sales

area

or

Merchandising has
with
of

in

the

and

the

continuing

market.

been

defined

final sale to the

as

the work

consumer.

of

This

the
coordinating
includes

the

sales ideas, premium offers,store displays,

etc..
special
material
to refer to the advertising
Display is used as a noun
windows, on counters, etc., and plansfor moving merchandise

Point

of Sale

or

P.O.P.-Point

Sales Promotion

or

vary

for
responsibilities

packaging,distribution,
pricingagainstcompetition
study of the

definitions

vertising
ad-

creation

placed
at

the

of Purchase.

Sales Pro

is used
generally

to

refer

to

the

prepara-

204

ADVERTISING"

of

tion

SPONSOR

Relations

is another

clients. It includes

counsel

maintaining good

will

and

the

dissemination

of

and

client's

"

of

phasesof developingand

tomers
employees, stockholders,cus-

publicrelations,
beingconcerned

other

or

television

classifications:Time
the network

show

information
interesting

Cost,

the

to

Talent, as

as

channel

of

down

buying the

into

primary

two

telecast

periodon

Program Cost, the chargesfor the telecast

productionpersonnel.Occasionally
program

talent and
itself,including
is referred

the

TERMS

breaks

chargesfor

in any

with

etc.).

ADVERTISING

the sponsor

to

station, and

or

their

general.

MISCELLANEOUS
of

agencies for

some

(TV, radio, magazines, newspapers,

communication

cost

by

all

guidance in
the

branch

news

offered

service

with

publicin

is one
Publicity

cost

AGENCY

mailingpieces,catalogs,
etc.
printedliterature,

Public

The

AND

the

in

expression"Time-and-Talent"

or

total cost.

Above-the-Line
the
supervisorystaff,
of awards

cost

director

the
the

and

also is considered

Below-the-Line

makeup,

include

Costs

other

productionpersonnel(musicians,

director, cameraman,

assistant

costs, studio

or

location

the

quiz shows,

storyor writing.On

above-the-line.

include

Costs

his

talent,the producer and

star,

sets
etc.),

and

tion
physicalproduc-

rental, transportation,
meals,

and

insurance

generaloverhead.
Schedule
or

is

for the media, dates

term

refers to

campaign. Campaign

for
objective

advertiser.

an

The

Tune-In

singletheme

or

in all

coordinated
generally

is

campaign

Advertisingrefers

run
advertising

to

attention
calling
magazines, especially

Audience

Builders.

Courtesy

Announcement

called

given by

the network

Reminder

ID

of ads with

series

period

used.

media

the

(and,often,costs)for

station

or

Advertisingis
of other

consumer

or

refers

it is used

to

to

free

for small

term

called

telecast. These

television

by

form

the

ads

flat

by

is frowned

upon

by

established

rates

which

per

the NARTB
are

individual
because

equallyfair

to

or

are

signs which

of reminder

supplementa campaign

payment

ads

also

(or radio) spot

advertiser.

Per-Inquiryor P.I. Advertisingrefers to a

medium
which
the advertising
(newspaper,TV
reimbursed

TV

or

a
publicize
program.

to

done
advertising

:10 spot is sometimes

when

to

in newspapers

of

television

advertising,
cially
espe-

longer-length
spots.

method

of

station, for

payment in
instance)is

Such

an

departs from

response.
it

The

remind

all advertisers.

operation
system

of

ADVERTISING"

is
Cost-Per-Inquiry

individual
in

television spot

direct

1200

are

to

response

Returns

SPONSOR

AND

AGENCY

205

expenditure
requiredto obtain each
offer. For instance, an offer is made
advertising

the average

any

It costs

announcement.

$600

to

broadcast

there

and

50^.
Cost-per-inquiry:
inquiries.

is

used

term

to

results
tangible

refer to the

of any

cast
broad-

offer.
Premium
the

productto

the

consumer

the

anythingof

is

the

the

has

to

bargainbecause

offered

entire

cost,

the sponsor

is

the

sale of

for which

one

includingmailing and handling"thus

nothing,and yet

pay

with

in connection

Self -Liquidating
Premium

consumer.

pays

sponsor

value

has made

the

consumer

volume

get

may

purchaseof

the

valid

premium.

legalform, signedby actors, models, etc., giving

an
a
advertising
picture or likeness
agency and its client the rightto use
still photographs
for advertising
commercials
and
purposes. Television
requiresuch releases,to protect the agency and client from legalaction
for "invasion of privacy"
other things.
Note that release also means
among
news
a publicity
story as it is sent out.
station
to the
to ship a film print from
one
Bicycle(verb)means
next
station,rather than returningit each time to a central checkingpoint.
Talent

The

Release

is

from
expressioncomes
a
boy on a bicycleto

had

days when

earlymovie
rush

each

reel of

feature

sly theater
film to

owner

second

ever,
duplicate(but unreported)showing!Bicyclein TV, howsuggests no such chicanery.
all the costs of
used in the industryto describe
Nut is the slangterm

theater

for

the program:

"What's

the nut

on

the show?"

tional
addiwith a slight
uses
slangword which advertising
trick in a story
used
to refer to a device
twist. It is loosely
or
the desired viewer
developmentor commercial copy which accomplishes
with gimmick, generally
interest. Hook, althoughused
interchangeably
Gimmick

refers to
a

has

which

Madison

peopleand

in the

premium,

Story Hook
on

device

contest,

is

the

ad

to

get

coupon,

different

immediate

action

from

the

consumer:

offer,a request for mail,

special
It refers to the

connotation.

incident

or

etc.

tion
situa-

story hangs.

Avenue

is

the business

bantering reference

somewhat

itself. It derives

agenciesare
top advertising

located

on

from

this

the

to.

advertising

fact that many

street
particular

in New

of the
York

City.
tising
of AdverAssociation
pronounced "4A's,"is the American
national trade organization
to
Agencies,the elective and non-profit

AAAA,
which

belongmore

all American

improve and

than 300

major agencies (which handle

two-thirds

of

seeks to
of practice,
It sets the standard
billing).
advertising
the
of advertising
and is helpful
the cause
in solving
advance

ADVERTISING"
be

may

for

screened

selected

TV

In order

and

audience

approximatethe

to

the

estimate

checkingthe behavior

of

called

are

small

of viewers

watchingcertain programs

organizationshave

These
figures.

reactions.

comparative

test

Ratings or

percentage

audience.

as
television,

In

of the relative

measure

refers

Program Ratings.By

of viewers

(or receivingsets),

Sample

representativeof the
the

projection of

program

largegroup

be

to

or

of

studied.

the viewing

the

accepted

people chosen

Researchers

of the individuals

also provides

star.

number

small
relatively

for the selection

formulas

become

radio, ratingshave

of
"popularity"

that

to

in

which

methods

devised

probabletotals are computed mathematically.

Rating data
supplementaryinformation on the sex, age, familysize of

the

207

TERMS

RATING

number

research

stations,various

to

AGENCY

AND

SPONSOR

in the

as

lished
estab-

use

sample,so

that

the

findingson the small group may be considered

reliable" with a slight,
statistical error.
predictable
broadcast
of five percentage
In usual
measurement
a
reliability
holds
1200 houseplusor minus, is considered acceptable.
Consequently,
points,
selected may
be considered
a
correctly
representativecross-section
of the entire

studies

country. In
be

samplesmust

Random

or

Sample

mathematically
representativeas
be measured.

to

to

area
a

or

Area

be studied.

numerical
income

each

Sample

the

families

for

tuned
as

of the

cross-section

selected

are

(such
figures

in,

Audience

potentialaudience

course,

newspapers
not

as

to

match

age groups

out
or

and

of the total

of TV

in terms

families;

of the number
(regardless

also indicates

be confused

other
with

the number

of

of families

media.

the actual

This
potential.

number
is

of

people
accurately

more

(from radio)or Viewership (coined

Listenership

TV).
Television researchers estimate

number
in

known

of circulation

unit

by magazines,

described

the persons

means

are

of the total group

true

selected

indicates

Circulation should
or

critical,

groups

familyequalsone

reached

is

percent

the persons

means

that it is

means

Quota Sample

owned). Circulation,of

sets

of

cross-section

true

proportion of onlycertain

Circulation

fraction

larger.

Sample

Precision

where

of TV

families within
This

area.
population

stations

and

coverage

area

primary basis

for

of the

the

potential
transmittingsignal

accordingto
computing

time

costs

for

networks.

Viewers-Per-Set
Some

is a

the

circulation

programs

becomes
are

an

added

projected as

factor

in

computing

total audience.

(the
having 8/2 viewers-per-set

208

ADVERTISING"

SPONSOR

national average

refers

that hour.

at

40%

sets-in-use.

be

may

duringthe

these, 480,000

Audience

age and

under

women

Total
to

This
40

Audience

for

program

in

tune-on

of

to

total and
Inherited
who

station
a

show

average

audience

may

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they switch

TV?

which

And

the habit
often

patterns of
be

can

tuned

who

different

two

to

know

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an

over

how

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Audience
a

and

viewers

is

each.

of

many

tuned

are

in

ence
Audi-

Average

in. Too

in this

ability

of

the viewers

indicates

established

an

channel?
when

and

the same
on
previous program
the desirability
of programming

with

another

the

indicate

to

high.

tune-off

tween
largea discrepancybelack of holdingpower.
a

indicate

the

is

turnover

audience

term

did

Or

the program

high rating.
of

behavior
channel

they just tune

or

in to

is over?

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light,
greater programming strength

the

the number

(forthe

programs

same

is the

total

time

be tuned

with

in each

different 9,000,000
slightly
of four

he

successive

is

which

for instance,

reaching).An

coverage.

number
a

homes

sponsor,

differentviewers

many

given periodof

end

of identical

obviouslygives wider

of 9,000,000 may

average

week.

from

theyflow

viewers

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reached

that

the audience

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Duplicationcomputes

to

wants

How

as

achieved.

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are

do

way

are

teen-age girls?

many
of homes

six minutes

factor influences

from

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of the audience

is

over

air. For

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specialdata on the before-and-after

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they previouslytuned to the same

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program'sviewers.

did

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in

to

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questions as:

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percentage

immediately followingone

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a

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tuned

stayed tuned

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in

the remaining 40%. )

split

such

indicates

audience

or

total

given minute. Hence the total audience

the
while
might be 18,000,000 homes

any

to

for

tuned

at 9 p.m.

the characteristics

keep its

network.

or

to

long as

as

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Audience

have

on

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to

channels

period.Holding Power

time

program

program

at

Sullivan

Turnover

audience

all channels.

to

refers to the total number

only 13,700,000. This

is

average

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watchingthis show?

are

typicalEd

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refers to the average

on

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analysishelps answer

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in

sets

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sex.

minute

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sets

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share-of

60%

to

2,000,000

are

800,000

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sets-in-use.

all television

the percentage of sets-in-use

means

particular
program

there

instance, the peak hour, 9 p.m., may

For

example,if there

2/z)

nearer

the

to

Share-of-Audience
one

is

proportionof sets tuned to

time
particular
period.This is the total

duringa

TV

AGENCY

hours

duringprime

Sets-in-Use
channels

AND

of

program

week;
is tuned

telecasts

the

unduplicated homes
series.

but
in

all

For

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instance,

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regular

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amount

may
is

17,000,000 different

to

audience,

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jargon for

total number

of

(shorthand: CPM)
homes

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amount

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three

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say

$5,

per

home.

refers to the
television

percentage
show

its sponsor

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fillout

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this

within
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of

CPM,

cent

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sample of

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men,

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keeps an

each

station

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women

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are

program

automatic

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in order

list of programs
various

obtain

get

to

rating services

their

samples.In

additional

than the sponsor

SERVICES

METHODS

AND

by

methods

various

and

devices:

The

TV

set

owners

expected

are

for that week.

viewed

device

by

obtained

some

left

television
tised?
is adver-

the

to

of the TV

minute,

to show

to house

the

ones

use

at

case,

which

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TV

set.

operation-

on.

sample

in

the householder

have

been

one

of these

methods

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least

random

by personalinterviews

house

each

attached

length of time

the

check

listing

by placingprintedprogram

by telephonecalls to
telecast. "Was
lookingat
anyone
station? What
you viewing?What
and children
are
viewing?"

goes from

used

is sometimes

identical.

not

in and

S.I.

instance,

obtained

Ratings are

interviewer

product.For

rather

product name

record,minute

tuned

channel

or

a given
correctly

Identification

mechanical

S.P.I,

as

the sponcorrectly
identify
sor"this

peoplecan

programs

Ratings are

and

breaks

(or one-sixth

of $1.67

samplehomes.

diaries in

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to

estimated

an

Then

time.

advertised

achieved

those

Diary Ratings are

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of

costs

:60 commercial

able to associate
or

the

achieved

ratings are

sheets

of 5

thingsare

two

TV

Television

vertisemen
ad-

home).

per

(Index),generallyinitialled

of
soliciting

these

where

homes.

an

nighttimehalf-hour.

CPM/CM

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"-

to

give

that 3 out

the

differentiate

review

is

of commercial

of interviewees

with

program

sample may

name,

3 to

it reaches

of each

cost

rata

minutes

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indicates
to

indicated)with

so

(or CPM/CM)

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telecasts.

weekly

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if

half-cent

$90,000 show

that

is allowed

sponsor

the pro

to

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program.

$5 (or

is

the

for evaluating
yardstick

and

telecast

Commercial

Cost-Per-Thousand
down

is

(or persons,

$90,000 per

to

18,000,000 homes, the CPM

cost

four

in

instance, in television,if the time-and-talent

For

program

reached

be

would

Four-Week-Cume

unduplicatedhomes

of

Cost-Per-Thousand
the cost

so

(rhymes with "zoom")

Cume

viewers.

209

AGENCY

AND

SPONSOR

ADVERTISING"

viewed.
ods
meth-

four

used

to

date
vali-

data.

the ratingservices
Competitively,

may

vary

in

their total estimates

210

ADVERTISING"

based

SPONSOR

AND

AGENCY

their

that different services

samples.It is well to remember
No
one
measuring different
things.
ratingfigurefor one telecast is
on

so

these

experts and

agency

look for many

estimates

others
other

who

make

factors and

of

science

are
clusive,
con-

interpreting

long-timeaverages

before

decision.
reachingsignificant
Each
method
has certain shortcomings
and all these factors
obviously
be
The
must
weighed carefully. diarymethod may suffer from the keeper's
and
omissions
he
write
in
(or in a desire to please,
forgetfulness
may
than he actually
more
cannot
sees). The telephonecoincidental method
evaluate
homes.
The
recorder
does not measure
the fact
non-telephone
that anyone
is actually
left on at the
viewing" only that the TV set was
time; neither does it record the composition or size of set viewership.
recall is dependent on
Roster
the householder's
and
possible
memory
in answers.
prejudice
It's easy to see
forever controversial
are
why ratingsand rating methods
in television. Valuable
no.
guides,yes. Infallible,
The

best known

ARB

its habits

Nielsen

in

the

each

week

from

of

sex

to

"Audimeter,"

The

tune-in, tune-out, audience

minute, total

sets

per

audience
duplicated
Pulse

or

flow,audience

are

conducted

in the

gives ARB

local

cityratings.

method.

to

Their

attached

meter

average

the

the

is
set

channel

audience

readilycomputes

It

recall method.

roster

addition

data

device
to

homes, checking programs

personalinterview

program,

per
un-

well.

as

gives,in

to

audience

local service

sonal
Per-

for that
size

regarding audience

also has

identification. Pulse

sponsor

diary method,

program

data.

four-week-cume,

day (or the nightbefore).This

share-of-audience,

the

from

turnover,

other

and

these:

are.

automaticallyindicates

Telepulse (Pulse,Inc.)uses

interviews

and

flow

electronic

an

recorder

program

and

ratings
O

diarymethod

the recorder

uses

it is

The

also does

ARB

Co.)

and

home.

sample

audience, its

week.

(A. C. Nielsen

TV

uses
Bureau) basically

telephonecoincidental.

the size, age,

on

called

the

in national

services

Research

(American

with
validating
data

trade

and

tion
composi-

in many

TV

markets.
Trendex

the

(Trendex, Inc.) uses

givingfast overnightratingsfrom
are

in

competitive operation.Based

half hour, Trendex

and

also

(HIBA) by
for

data
supplies

sponsor

Still another

to

15

C. E.

commercials

competing

in

identification

service, the

on

telephonecoincidental
key cities where all three
number
of
on
a
specified

audience

major

productsin

each

and

networks
calls per

composition

index.

Hooper

Index

Hooper, Inc.,reports on
markets.

size, flow

method,

Weekly
market.

of

Broadcast

the relative

audience

figuresestimate

Advertisers

exposure

total audiences

OTHER

""

Starch

is

Rating

advertising

trade

testing print advertising,

on

"remembered

analytical

studies

"attitude

testing services,

Burke

"like-dislike," "before-and-after

addition

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other

three

to

reporting

or

TV

prominent
as

"attention,"

other

individual

factors

preference"

purchase

on

commercial."

such

on

reports

commercials,
the

are

reporting

Staff.

TV

toward

and

and

surveys

Starch

Daniel

also

Schwerin

Gallup-Robinson,
commercial

Starch
and

seeing"

the

by

SERVICES

DATA

the

for

term

made

messages

TV

211

AGENCY

AND

SPONSOR

ADVERTISING"

yardsticks.
code

MRP,
the

studies
and

emotional
to

attempts

"

of

costs

for

Rorabaugh
advertisers

length

of

York

New

Co.,

expenditures

and

other

data

on

data

supply

on

producers,

sponsors,

in

their

and

public

many

personnel

obtained

libraries:

published by

Personnel,

Agency

be

may

McGraw-

City.
List,

Agency

published

by

George

Register, published by

Advertising
York

New

McKittrick's

May

standard

is the

This

networks.

lation
tabu-

complete

McKittrick

Co.,

"

City.

Standard

to

commercials.

Advertising

McKittrick's
York

film

TV

available

books,

Directory
Hill,

of

listing

advertising agencies

on

these

from

is

(on Television)
of

type

Data

and

stations

response.

provides

S.R.D.S.

or

viewers

TV.

Reports

and

psychological

that

service

departments.

Reports

in

Ross

all TV

media

all

in

Service

is

commercial

of

reactions

of

patterns

Data

Patterns,

Response

rational

as

the

measure

Rate

time

Motivating
well

as

Standard

reference

New

for

name

City.

Directory

This

of

also

publication

Advertisers

is

National

Register

includes

data

name
.

someday

lead
.

all

the

on

publication

separate

advertisers.

your

lishing
Pub-

rest.
.

vertisers.
ad-

voted
de-

from

Extracts

of

Code

Television

The

the

Association

National

Broadcasters*

Television

and

Radio

on

PREAMBLE

Television
homes

is

include
of

varieties

and

seen

children

the

The

from

revenues

of

the

the

and

entertainment.

the

programming

make

law

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his

the

of

upon

networks,
agencies,
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all who

and

order

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programs
*

"

television

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be

known

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are

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the

in

of

of

host.
can
Ameriof the

ears

education,

broadcaster

and

and

eyes

culture

responsible

for

obligated to bring

his

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in

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production of

film

programming

encouraged
the

to

to

see

1771

it that
to

the

July 1956, by
N

to

live

programming

to

including

programs,

advertising

programs,

make

of the

out

attention

The

Street, N.W.,

may

best
their

serve

richness
of their

National

Washington
212

the

criticisms

broadcasters.

television

brought

Edition,

Broadcasters,

hand

guest and

the

is

mind

consequently that

information,

good

ground.
back-

constantlyin

and

all

agencies.

should

suggestions
be

talent
that

producers

sponsors,

viewers

should

have

and

and

races

free, competitive

to

however,

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bear

the

These

educational

between

available

all

every

audience,

television

station.

embrace

to

advertisingsupport

home.

American

of

is that

positive responsibilityfor excellence

bear

those

home

finest programs

of

all ages,

television

viewers

and
telecasting,

people

American

of

reach

primarily a

is

to
relationship

system

adults

of

type

every

of
responsibility

audience

television's

and

in

religiousfaith, and

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that

heard

Parents

and
in

of television

positive

particular
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children.

Association

6, D.C.

est,
public inter-

of

Radio

and

vision
Tele-

213

APPENDIX

ACCEPTABILITY

materials should

Program
with

of

MATERIAL

enlargethe

providehim

helpfulstimulation, and

the

which
responsibilities

the

of the viewer,

horizons

entertainment, afford

wholesome

him

PROGRAM

OF

his

towards

has

citizen

remind

society.

Furthermore:

a) (i)

Words

or
nationality

be

would

(ii)

for the

Reverence

is to

When

wherein

derivation,except

such

usage

dramatization

of effective

specific
purpose

likely

up

Contests

to

included

are

of

name

in

other than

God,

His

religious
grams
pro-

accurately
presentedand

are

rabbis

portrayed in their

their office and

dignityof

be held

of the

mention

any

powers.

rites

priestsand
the

mark

rites
religious

the

c) (i)

color,creed,

race,

any

as

attributes and

(iii)

national

of

when
are
forbidden, even
combatingprejudice,
to be understood
onlyby part of the audience.
Attacks
and religious
faiths are
allowed.
not
on
religion

such

b) (i)

are
forbidden, even
vulgarity
only by part of the audience.

likelyto be understood
(especially
slang) derisive

when

(ii)

and

smut
Profanity,obscenity,

the

circumstances

no

with

vested

are
callings

under

ministers,

are

to

ridicule.

lottery.
(ii) Any telecasting
designed "buy" the television audience by
requiringit to listen and/or view in hope of reward, rather
of the program,
than for the quality
should
be avoided.
constitute

not

may

to

d)

value
as
e

f)

is maintained

Respect

of the home.

relations

Drunkenness
desirable

h)

The

i)

The

by
j)

or

of

use

The

treated

justified

commendable.

as

are

generallyunacceptableas

addiction

narcotic

of

liquorin program
of

for

proper

presented as

never

plot or

as

be

be

shall be

displayed.
de-emphasized.

when
life,

or

scenes

necessary

required

not
not
to

be
the

shown.
opment
devel-

appropriate background is acceptable

presented with
which

American

not

shall
characterization,

of

manner

content

liquorin

gambling devices

bettingnor

are

illegal
drugs will

of

use

nor
casually

the

prevalent.

plotor

only when
in

and

consumption
the

and

problems.

abnormalities

administration

The

treated

is not

not

are

sanctityof marriage

material.

program

g)

and

crimes

the

Divorce

solution for marital

Illicitsex
Sex

for

would

instructional

discretion and
not

excite

in nature.

in

moderation,

interest

in,

or

and

foster,

215

APPENDIX

Television

e)

broadcasters

should

the

exercise

utmost

and

care

material, including
regardto advertising
to pronear
or
adjacent
presentation,
grams
for
children.
considerations
of
No
expediency
designed
the
vital
be permitted
to impinge upon
responsibility

discrimination

with

content, placementand

should
toward

children
and

which

be

must

is inherent

recognizedand

Television

in

vision,
tele-

accepted by

employingtelevision.
advertisers should be encouraged
to

advertisers
f)

adolescents,which

and

devote

all

portions

advertising
messages and program time to the
in the publicinterest in keepingwith
worthy causes

of their allotted

support of

ideals of the free competitivesystem.

highest
bodies
chargefor television time to churches and religious

the

g)

recommended.

is not
TIME

1.

STANDARDS

FOR

accordance

In

for

standards

2.

Reasonable
donor's

shall not

with

and

limited identification of
within

prizesis

or

be included

formats

wherein

necessary and

product or

its

donor,

statement, shall be included

of
3.

as

within

visual

of program

the

meaning

contest
content

of paragraph

presentation
concerning

beyond

commerical

of the

statement

presentationof

time

such

time

identification and
within

the

meaning

paragraph1, above.

The

standards

time

set

practiceof reservingfor
for station
4.

or

and

over

the

time

oral

prizeand

integral
part

commercial

as

1, above; however, any

the

COPY

the
good telecast advertising
practices,
advertising
copy are as follows:

name

awards

ADVERTISING

Announcement
number

break

of individual

available

are

and

3 one-minute

spot

are

live

which
length,

in

and

above

station

programs

minute

than

forth

or

are

not

affect the

the last 30 seconds

use

established
of each

gram
pro-

announcements.

designedto
recorded
carried

for sale to individual

announcements

do

accommodate

announcements,

within

designated
one
generally
a

the

body of the program

advertisers. Normallynot more

(which should

not

exceed

approxi-

APPENDIX

216

125

mately

15-minute
be

words

if

periodand

scheduled

within

be

not

or

three

the

information,and

and
listening

informative
these

to

than

More

reasonable

within

grams;
pro-

greater individual

aggregate

minutes

in

15-minute

length

lengthof the

nouncements
an-

program

of

the

material
advertising

standards

time

set

forth above

an

of

Because

content.

program

to

is

may

extent.

of

conventional

between
acceptable

not

are

single
program.

shall not

programs

plus the

announcements

ID

station

the framework

between

announcements

material,providea specialservice

the

back-to-back

two

the

should

services, features,shopping guides,

similar

integral
part

sponsored10 second
or

of

viewing publicin which

and

within

program.

characteristics
special

be waived
6.

30-minute

presentingwomen's

Programs
market

in

scheduled

periodin local announcement

scheduled, provided that

six minutes

be

six such

announcements

approximates
5.

than

more

30-minute

fewer

however,
may

presentedlive)should

programs
uled
sched-

Announcements

interrupta precedingor

following

program.
7.

Any

casual

under

service

8.

reference

talent in

by

trade

any

name

or

sponsor'sname
on

such

be

sloganmay

or

program

materials

the need

of

used

interest

should

be

maintaininga
APPEALS

DRAMATIZED

product,the

or

or

product or

to
languagesufficiently
descriptive

it should, except for normal

identify
and discouraged.
in
Stationary
backdropsor properties

the

another's

to

program

be
guest identifications,

television

showing
presentations

of his

name

product,his

onlyincidentally.
They
"On

entertainment.

not
fleeting,

too

proper program

demned
con-

should

Camera"

and
frequent,

mark
trade-

not

shots
mindful

trude
obof
of

balance.

ADVERTISING

AND

Appealsto helpfictitious characters in television programs by purchasing

the advertiser's productor service or sendingfor a premium should not
and such fictitious characters should not be introduced into
be permitted,
dramatized
the advertising
advertising
message for such purposes. When
other promaterial involves statements
dentists,nurses
or
by physicians,
fessional
of
members
such
material
be
should
presentedby
people,the
should be made
it
actual
apparent from
experienceor
profession
reciting
is dramatized.
the presentationitself that the portrayal
SPONSOR

IDENTIFICATION

Identification
accordance
as

amended,

of

with
and

Commission.

sponsorshipmust
the

be

requirementsof

the Rules

and

made
the

in all

sponsoredprograms

Communications

of
Regulations

the Federal

Act

in

of 1934,

tions
Communica-

Index

dictionarypurposes, this index

in the text. Occasionally,
two

For

it is

the page
of a word

indicates
forms

on

which
be

may

word

be

may

faced
found, boldthe

indexed, according to

way

used.

that radio
Lexicographersmay quibbleat the variance in hyphenizationrules,but remember
of
television developed a generation of "sight"readers who
required a style
writing
used especially
for words
but at odd
are
of command
quickly read aloud. Quotation marks
of the slang stilltoo new
also sneak around
times they may
to be digested.
some
for later
readers are
invited to help in corrections
Errors
there are, no
doubt, and diligent
before

editions.
H.

"

adversary,46
advertising(chapter),200
advertising
agency, 201
201
commission,
advertising

205

AAAA,
B

printing,190
Television,25

ABC

aberration, 194
above-the-line

costs, 204

abrasions, 196
abstract

(animation),

abstract

set, 132

Academy, 175
Academy leader,

203
203

antagonist,46

A, 81

anthology,34
anti-climax, 45

81

a.o.,

agency

show,

77,
apple-box,

agency

TV

agency

account

service, 202

agent

202
supervisor,

Agfacolor,169

Acmiola,
acorn

air

177

82

Alcohol

58

art

105

art

Tobacco

Tax

allocated

commercial

alternate

31
sponsorship,

(chapter),81
Actors' Equity,82

AM,

"actuals," 36
53
(production),

42
adaptation,

additional

dialogue,43
scenes,

38
adjacencies,

Adlux,

115, 130

adult western,

adventure,-36

36

76

Radio
Guild

American

ad lib, 89

(chapter),122
direction, 122
director, 56, 71, 122

AS, 115
"as broadcast," 27
"as broadcast"

Federation
"

a.d. (art), 123

time, 48

27

American

154

artificiallight,
93

across-the-board,38
"action!",79

additional

vision, art
Di-

26

actor

93
light,
sample, 207

arranging, 154

and

112

210

arrangement,

air monitor,

acoustics, 142
acromatic,

area

Akeley head,

mike, 149

arc

check, 23

133

approved script,44
ARB,

156

AGVA,

stock, 160

director, 123

(actor's),82

AGMA,

acetate, 148

aperture, 106, 110

38

art

account

acetate

54

package, 38
producer,203

manager,

ace,

print, 163

155

account

98

169

Anscocolor, 169

APR

of Television

Artists,81

45
script,

A.S.C., 102
ASCAP,

tists, ash can,

of Variety Ar-

82

155
98

aspect ratio, 167

150
amplifier,
amplitude modulation, 27
anamorphic lens, 171
angel,83
angle shot, 116
animated
diagrams,135

assistant

editor, 173

assistant

producer,41

Animatic, 125

associate

director, 52

associate

producer,41

animation

McM.

138

animators,

Ansco,

answer

agency
175

director,137
stand, 140

25
affiliate,

AFTRA,

executive,

account

137

animation
animation

a.e., 203

AFM,

W.

(chapter),134

assembly,153
assistant

animators,

assistant

director

138

(film), 68

(Live TV), 52

217

INDEX

218

A.T."T., 23

atmosphere (sound),
46
(staging),
86
player,
atmosphere
audible

tones,

audience,

152

153

207

blushing,199

Balop strip,125
Balopticon,125
98
banks (lighting),
barn

doors, 99

barn

door

BMI,

155

BNC

Mitchell, 120

b.o.,85

wipe,

187

board

fade, 150

barney, 120

boff, 91

audience

builders, 47, 204

barny, 152

boffola, 91

audience

composition, 208

barrel, 177

bombshell

audience

208
duplication,

base

audience

flow, 208

basic network, 24

audience

33
participation,

battingdown,

audience

research,

reaction

94
light,

audience

turnover,

"Audimeter,"

208

control

Bell

man,

54
145

below-the-line
below

audio

engineer,54,

audio

operator, 54

bench

audio

signal,142

best

audition, 47, 83

AV,

115

39
availability,

audience, 208

average

B
"

b "

w,

prints,166

176
(editing),
69
boy,

55, 70, 145

grip,70

bouncy, 154
box-office,85
box-office TV,
break

best side, 91

29

(scenery),133

(time), 91

138

break

b.i.,189

through,129
90
break-up,

bicycle,205

breakaway, 129

billboard, 36

breakdown,

201
billing(financial),
(name), 36, 82

breathing,197

bin
binocular

168

boss
costs, 204

the threshold, 150

b.g.,126,

61

Auto-Cue,

Howell

"

70, 113
man,

boom-swinger,70
perforations,
boomy, 152
93
booster light,

bellylaugh,91

audio, 20, 142

audio

boom,

104

166

210

book, 88

192

boom

Howell,

Bell "

206

187

boo-boo, 91

115

ECU,

wipe,

190
(vignette),

63

bridge (music), 155

bright (sound), 151
193
brightness(picture),

bipak,168

brilliant

121
(tripod),

birdie, 195

"bringit up," 150

97
baby spotlight,
9
4
light,

bit, 86, 88

brittle,197

bit

part, 86

broad, 96

player,86

broadside, 97

97
baby (light),

back

(sound), 151

back

lot,78

bit

back

projection,73

blade, 99

brute, 98

back-timing,63

blast, 194

buckle, 120, 197

back-to-back, 38

bleeding,199
blimp, 120

burn, 95

backdrop, 129
background, 126, 138
background artist, 138
background designer,138
background music, 154
background noise, 152
background plate,73
73
background projection,
152
background sound,
backing,128
94
(lighting),

(sound),
balanced

block, 38
block

burn

programming,

38

in, 189

burned

up, 195

blocking,63
blockingplan,62

burp, 195

"blood-and-thunder," 35

bust shot, 115

business, 88

bloom, 95, 193

busy, 132

bloop, 182
blooped out, 182
bloopingthe track, 182

butt-end

176
splicer,
96
butterfly,

buzz

track, 179

blossom, 193

baffle,151
balance

Burke, 211

157

line, 151

94
balancinglights,
Balop, 125
Balop crawl, 125
Balop roll,125

blow, 91

blow-up, 127
blow-up print,166

cable,23
cable

man,

55

blue

note, 154

calibrations,111

blue

print,166

call letters,27

blur pan,

blurb, 48

114

call sheet, 75
75
calls,

INDEX

change bag, 120

99

cameo,

(chapter),101

camera

(circuit),153

"camera!", 79
136

animation,

camera

actor, 85

character

angle,116

camera

(broadcast), 26

channel

color (locale),46
168
(processes),

color chart, 77, 132

color distortion,199

chase, 46

color film, 168

camera

center,

chaser, 155

color frame, 21

camera

chain, 58, 121

cheat, 91

color inset, 188

camera

dollyman,55

checker, 140

camera

engineer,55

checking,140

color process, 168

color separations,189

camera

hog, 89

chief electrician,69

camera

left,87, 113

Chinese, 112

"come

62
light,
log,69

choreographer,41
Chorus Equity,82

65
(signal),
comedy, 35
comedy drama, 35
comedy variety,35

camera
camera

87

operator, 69
rehearsal, 62

camera

cinch marks, 197

camera

report, 120

CinemaScope, 171
cinematographer,102

camera

right,87,

Cinerama,

camera

113

170

85

comic,

strip,136

comic

cinexes, 162

118

color temperature,- 93
closer to the camera"

144

commentary,

camera

set

camera

stand, 140

cinex

strips,162

commercial,

camera

stock, 160

cinex

tests, 162

commercial

up,

Vision, 105

Camera

(film), 69, 101

cameraman

(Live TV),

55,

101

music,

commercial

ditty,154

circulation,207

commercial

Kodachrome,

(music), 154

clambake

clean up, 139

cleaned up, 100

tet, 178

Class A

tetrachloride,178

claw, 106

card, 82
135

cartoon

animation,

cartoon

sound, 141

cartouche, 126
cast

201
(advertising),

composite check print,163

composite negative,167
composite print,163
composite shot, 188
composite test print,163
composition, 102

carbon

"cast and

spot,

77
clap-sticks,

carbon

credits,"37

title,37, 124

(station), 39

time

59
compatible,

clear time, 39

compound

click track, 144

conflict,45

client service, 203

console, 49

client-approved
script,45
34
cliff-hanger,

animation,

136

consumer

opinion surveys,

consumer

research, 206

castingagainsttype, 86
castingdirector,41, 71

climax, 45

contact, 202

catch

95
light,
90
catch-phrase,

clinker, 154

contact

printing,161

clip,99,

contest

show, 33

catwalks, 133

clock wipe, 187

close shot, 115

175

eel flare,198

closed circuit, 23

continuity,45
continuityacceptance, 45
continuityclearance, 45

cells,139

closed

contrast, 192

eels,139

115
closeup,

contrast

Cellomatic,125

closingsig,50

contrasty, 95,

139
celluloids,

clouding,193

control

panel,149

control

room,

Television, 25

CBS

center

Central

stage,

87

c-o,

casting,87

Century stand, 99
chain

(camera),

(network),

24

lens,112
23

coaxial cable, 23
code

number,

chain break, 28

coding,175

chalk, 88

coincidental

"chalk

cold

it!",88

64
"change!",-

conference, 29

25

coated
coax,

58

circuit

175

ratings,209

176
splicers,

color aid charts, 132

169

48

155

77
clapper-boards,

48

commercial
commission

59

cans,

announcement,

circle vignette,190

(program),90
77
clap-board,

155

canned

48

204

campaign, 48,
can,

219

192

range,

192

52, 58

cookie, 99
32

co-op

program,

copy

crawl, 124

copy

reserach, 206

206
copy testing,
cord off,176
core,

176

corn,

90

206

220

INDEX

cornball, 90
corny, 90, 154

cutaway, 181
cutback, 181

corrected

cut-in

print,162

72,
(editing),

205
cost-per-inquiry,

cuts, 175

209
cost-per-thousand,
commercial
cost-per-thousand

cutter,

209

56, 71,
designer,

costume

123

181

direct positive,160
direct recording,
72, 143

173

cutting,174
cutting basket, 177
173
cuttingroom,

direct sound, 72, 143

director

directional mikes, 149

director, 52

set, 76

eye, 130

cover

shot, 116

cycle (animation), 137

204

courtesy announcement,
cow-catcher, 49

dirt, 196

162

cynex,

dis, 185

209

CPM,
crab

dolly,112

crack

mike, 152

Craig viewer,

177

discovered,46

dailyfee, 83

discussion show, 34

dailyprint,163

Disney-esque,137

dampen,

203
display,

151

director, 41, 71

"crawl," 37, 124

darkroom,

crawlingtitles,124

d.b.

dissolve, 114, 181, 185

120, 168

(programming), 24

(sound), 150

creative, 203

148
recordings,

dailies,178

dance

113

crane,

disc

D
209

CPM/CM,

photography, 69,

Directoryof Advertising
Agency Personnel, 211

cyclorama,130

177

of

102

(broadcast), 38

202

coverage,

diorama, 129
direct cuts, 181

cover

counter,

69

man,

dinkie inkie, 97

(network), 28

31
co-sponsorship,

minute,

dimmer

distortion,
152,

194

divided

188

screen,

36
documentary,

creative

director,203

dead

(acoustic), 151

creative

services, 203

dead

mike, 149

creative

supervisor,203

dead

pan,

credit crawl, 124

dead

sync, 180

credit title,
37, 124

de-blooping,182

dog, 90
dolly,112
dollypusher,55
dollytracks, 112
dollyman,55

credits,37, 82

decibel, .150

"don't print it,"79

creepie-peepie,103
cropping, 126

definition,191

dot, 99

196
degradation,
delayedbroadcast,

double, 87

88

cross,

89

dissolve, 114, 185

Deluxe

cross

95
lighting,

demo,

48

demo

reel, 48

cross-over,

crowd

88

24

Color, 169

cross

broad, 97

double

exposure

(effect),190

(fault),196
double

demonstration, 48

shot, 116

double

printing,190

49
double-spotting,

double

45

crowfoot, 121

denouement,

cruiser, 61

density,162

double

system, 145
take, 88

CS, 115

depth interview, 206

depth of field,110
depth of focus, 110

"down

and

deuce, 98

dramatic

developing,160
dialoguedirector,68
dialoguesequence, 71,
diaphragm, 110
diaryratings,209
96
diffused light,

drape,129

CU,

115

cuckoolorous,
cue,

99

65

cue

cards,61

cue

62
light,

cue

print,182
sheet, 141, 155
track, 144

cue
cue

209

cume,

cumulative

audience, 208

curtain, 129

(command),
(delete),63

"cut!"
cut

65, 79

under," 154

down

stage, 87
drama, 35

143

94
(lighting),

draper,57
draper worker, 57
draperydepartment,57
dress (rehearsal), 62

(set), 132

diffusers,96

dress extra, 86

diffusion,120

dress rehearsal, 62

diffusion discs, 96

dressed, 127

digs,196

dresser, 57

(edit), 173

dimmer,

114
(stop),

dimmer

98

board, 98

dries up, 91

drift,198

INDEX

driver, 71

emulsion

198
pile-up,

drop (card), 124

(scenery),129
drop in, 124
drop out, 124
dry end, 168
dry rehearsal,62
dry run, 62

emulsion

speed,167

190
e.o.f.,

feed-back, 152

Epidiascope,125

femcee, 86
feminine

153

(sound),
fidelity

erect, 133

21
(electronic),

e.t, 148

field

54

e.t. man,

lamp,

150

40
producer,

executive

94
fillerlights,

dx, 185

46
exposition,

ear,

99

echo

chamber,

ECU,

94
fills,

"fillum,"157
film base, 157

93

exposure

meter,

exposure

sheet, 138

115

edge flare,195
edge fogging,195
edge numbers, 174

film

clip,175

film director, 68

(misuse), 54
172
editing(chapter),

extra, 86

film

95
eye-light,

film fax, 58

eye-mo,

103

film man,

Eyemo,

104

film

film prints,163
film

editing(chapter),172
editingroom, 173

film room,
58
facilities,

editor, 173

facilitiesdirector,56

173
supervisor,

(audio), 150
(video), 185

fade in, 114

eightball mike,

fade

149

film

fake

104

59

speed, 167
stock (chapter),157

film TV

out, 114

67
(chapter),

filter (lens),120

(sound), 151

(music), 154

(prop),89

elbows, 99

producer,68

film strip,125
film studio (misuse), 59

fading,194

millimeter, 104
mm,

film

fade

editorial sync, 180

effects (chapter),184

54

pick-up,60

edit, 173

editorial

176

film cement,

exterior, 76

151

research, 206

economic

187

film, 157

110

ext., 76

Eastmancolor, 169

94
fill-ins,

155

dye
dynamic cutting,180

exposure,

pick-up,60

filllights,
94

expandingsquare wipe,
wipe, 187
explosion

transfer print,169

field (animation), 140

shot, 114
establishing

exit music,

133

151

193
(picture),

escalator clause, 82

exciter

lead, 84

Ferraniacolor, 169

153

erasure,

Dutchman,

29

slate,77
title,
37, 124

erase,

dubbing, 144
dubbing session, 148
dupe, 148, 166
dupe negative,166
duping print,166
Dutch angle,116

Commission,

enlargementprint,166

end

153

dubber,

25

Trade

fee-TV,
feed (actor),89
(transmit),28, 152

end

dub, 148

Communications

Commission,
Federal

end, 175

98

Du-Arc,

Federal

filterfactor, 120
final cut, 179

ceiling,
128

148
electrical transcription,

false

55
electrician,

fanfare, 155

fine cut, 179

electron, 20

fashion director,56

finder (camera), 119

fashion

71
stylists,

electronic inset, 130, 188

"fast!"

66
(signal),

electronic camera,

105

117

44
final script,

(fashion),56
fine grain, 166

electronic media, 20

fast motion,

Electronicam, 105

favoringshot, 116

first cameraman,

Electrozoom, 112

fax, 58

firstcut, 178

fax rehearsal,62

firstdraft,44

86

emcee,

emergency
emote,

cuts, 63

89

emulsion, 157
emulsion

number,

221

175

firm, 38

FCC,

25

fish

FDA,

26

pole,70

kw, 98

featured

84
performer,

"fix,"126

featured

player,84

fixative,126

69

26

INDEX

headsets, 59

idiot cards, 61

heavy,85

idiot sheets, 61

heroic, 127

ike, 103

85
juvenile,
l
juvenileead, 85

hi-fi,151

image, 22
image orthicon,

hiatus, 38

imbibition

hi

hat, 121

keg

103

97
light,

Kelvin,93

process, 169

impulse,153
93
light,
93
incident light,
independentstation, 25

key, 94
key-holevignette,190
94
key light,
key number, 174
keystone,194
keystoning,194

ingenue, 85
ingenue lead, 85

kicker

"hit 'em," 78

110
infinity,

kid show, 35

"hit film," 64

information, 21

kill,90

"hit it!",64

inherited audience, 208

"kill 'em!", 78

in-betweener, 138

210

HIBA,

high contrast,
151
high fidelity,
121
hat,
high
high key, 94
94
highlighting,
94
highlights,
high speed photography,117

in-the-mud, 150, 192

192

"hit the

78
lights!",

hitch-hike, 49
hitch-hiker,49
the whites,
hitting

193

hits the floor,133

contest,
hog-calling
Hogue lens, 111

hokum,
hold

83

kick, 95, 193

holdingpower,

208

"kill it!",79

inkie,97

kilowatt, 98

139
inking-and-painting,
inky,97
inky dink, 97

kine, 23

inside prop

intercom,

audience, 208

holdover

57, 71

economist,

hook, 205

man,

58, 70

of

Broadcast

kw, 98

interior, 76

scanning, 21
lab, 160

interlock screening,178
intennittent

movement,

horns, 198

interview

horse opera, 36
96
hot (lighting),

IO,

show, 34

145
i.p.s.,

hot kine, 24

iris,110
iris

hot reflectors,100

"it's in the can!", 80

wipe,

J
56

HS, 115
hue, 132

jack,128
jam session,

154

96
jelly,
63
j.i.c.,

track, 143
154

iconoscope,103
I.D., 28, 49
ID, 28, 49

(record), 148

lap dissolve, 114,

185

lapelmike, 149

hotel-TV, 29

hurry music,

197

latitude, 168

hot spot, 95, 193

manager,

160
laboratory,
lacquer (film preservative),

latent image, 167

186

176
splicer,

show, 38

106

lamp operators, 69
167
latensification,

103

hot mike, 149

house

shot, 115
Kodachrome, 169

kuke, 99

intercut, 181

169
internegatives,

house

23

knee
50

59

horizontal wipe, 186

100-mil

tube,
kinescope

21
interlacing,

Index

Advertisers, 210

hot

23
kinerecording,
kinescope,23
23
kinescoperecording,

klieg,98

interlaced

hookup, 24

95
light,

inkers, 139

tripak,168
integral
integratedcommercial,

90

Hooper

incandescent

int., 76

out, 189

home

inaudible

insert, 72, 116, 181

h.o., 189

223

154
jingle,
"jinny,"98
jinnyman,

LAS, 115
lavendar, 166

lay an egg, 90
layoutartist, 138
layoutdesigner,138
lead (casting),
46, 84
lead-in, 50
lead sheet, 141, 155

70

juicer,55, 70
jump, 197
jump cut, 197
junior,98

leader, 175

leadinglady,84
leadingman, 84
leg,25
lekolite,99

INDEX

224

lens, 107

lot,77

McKittrick's

lens cap, 120

lens distortion,194

low

contrast, 192

McKittrick's

low

key, 93

lens flare,195

lower

lens hood,

LS, 115

119

211
106

magazine,

lens stop, 110

lens turret, 119

level, 150

magazine (camera),
magazine concept, 32

115

205

Avenue,

melodrama,

35

memory

85

magna-striping,146

mere

limbo, 132

man-on-the-street, 33

board, 126

title,
36,

main

124

make-up artists,57, 71
make-up department,57
make-up supervisor,57
makegood, 28
lead, 84

93
light,
Mercer
176
clips,
merchandising,203

115

MHS,

microphone, 148
microphone boom operator, 55
microphonics,194
middle

break, 28
of the scale," 162

"middle

mike,

148

mike

boom,

mike

shadow,

miming,

"mark

miniature

it!",79, 88

market, 201

(speech),88

market

marquee,

married

sets, 129
129
82

movie," 47

"minute

196
mis-light,

36

mascon,

print,163

Mitchell

59

mix,

masking flat,128

mixer, 70, 145

masks, 120

mixing panel,149

medium,

115

mass

live mike, 149

master

control,59

live sound, 142

master

control

"M.O.S.," 72

live-stock show, 83

master

monitor,

master

of ceremonies,

(chapter),51

104

camera,

148

live action, 72

live title,124

152, 198

73

minimum,

marketing,203

liningup, 118
lipsync, 74, 145
207
listenership,

70

miniatures,

research, 206

line rehearsal, 62

23

microwave,

manufacturer-dealer, 32

21
(electronic),

(acoustic),151

shot, 115

menace,

male

live

106

"Maguffin,"46

58

201

medium

magnetic tape, 145, 146

146
magnetic tracking,
magnetic wire, 146

line (cable), 23

research, 206

magna-scale,127
magnet

135

department,201

media

retention, 199

libraryshot, 73
lightbox, '176
lightbridge,98
lightcue, 65
lightleak, 196
lightlevel, 93
lightmeter, 93
lighting(chapter),92
lightingdirector, 55
lightingengineer, 55
lightingequipment, 96
78
"lights!",
77
lily,
limited animation,

media

medium,

Madison

line monitor,

media, 201

lenticular,170

LHS,

Agency List, 211

vertisers,
Directoryof Ad-

MLS,

201

panel,59

"

o,

mobile

58
86

25

unit, 60

mock-up,
model

127

(actor), 86

master

positive,166

local,28

master

scene,

locale, 46

master

shot, 114

model

sets, 129

location, 76

master

track, 74

model

sheets, 140

location unit, 78

match

cut,

log,27

match

dissolve, 185

logo,126
logotype,126
long shot, 114
loop (cable),

matching negative, 179

modulated

material, 88

modulations, 150

matte

box, 119

monitors,

28

matte

finish,126

monochrome,

(network),

25

matte

rolls,187

monopak,

Live

TV

74, 153,
(recording),
(threading),106
looping,183
"loosen up!",64
"lose the light,"
62

183

114

181

(facsimile), 129

modeling light,95
(animation), 137

modern

track, 179
58
168

169
187

mattes,

119

montage,

matting

130, 188
amplifier,

mood

music,

mood

programming, 38

me,

MCS,
MCU,

86
115
115

mooz,

mosaic,

113
121

154

225

INDEX
motivation

(plot),45

network

motivation

research, 206

"neurotics," 36

mountain

neutral

129

row,

mouthing, 73
"move

together!"

farther

apart!"
from

era!"
cam-

65
(signal),

(sound),
show, 35

211

MRP,

mikes, 149

nurse,

mural

oater,

TV, 29
murals, 130

nut,

outside

over,

"over

36

off

camera,

microphone, 152

83

clearance, 45

off

45
rights,

off mike, 152

music

terms,

off

154

83

screen,

comedy,

musical

director,41,

musical

programs,

35

on

camera,

musical

theme, 154

on

151
filter,

musical

variety,35

"on

35
71

omnies,

mysterioso, 154
35

sound, 143
86

code, 26

(also appendix)
93
light,

Television,25

n.d., 120

negative,160
negative cutter, 173, 179
negative matcher, 179
60

nemo,
net

201
(financial),

(network), 24
network, 24
network

pacing, 46

on

the cable, 23

package, 31
pad, 91
padding,63
padding the part, 91

on

the net, 23

painters (animation),

on

the nose," 63, 65

the system, 23

option time, 27

one-shot

(camera),

116

(program),34
"one-take!", 79
opaque

slides,125

opaquers,
opaques,

139

125

open-end program,

32

opening sig,50
opening title,124
operator, 69

opticaleffects (chapter),184
opticalnegative,167
opticalprinter,185
opticalprinting,161
opticaltrack, 146
opticalwipe, 186

139

(scenery),70
pan

one-light
print,162

85

narration, 144

NBC

p. a. system, 59
83

the air!",64

"on

natural

p.a., 53, 83

86

"on the button," 63

72

NARTB

overdeveloped,195
overexposed,195

197
splotches,
"okay!",65

musical

narrator,

music," 154
scale,82

over

oil

under," 154

narrative

58, 70

over-modulation, 150

o, 25

"

man,

63

117
over-cranking,

O
o

pick-up,60

outside prop

205

music

mystery,

outlet (network), 25

outline,44

music

name,

of sync, 143, 198

out-takes, 175

71

multipleexposure, 190
multipleimage, 187
32
multiple sponsorship,
multiplex,121
Multiscope,125

of register,198

out

143

n.s.,

59
oscilloscope,

out

notching,163

105

multi-directional

mute,

149

sound, 143
it," 121

"notch

89

Multicam,

"music

28
origination,

orthicon, 103

143

noodle, 154

mugging,

154

score,

organ

non-directional (mike),
non-sync

muff, 91

63

98
(lighting),
166
(negative),
original
42
(story),

199

194
(picture),

noise

176

Mr.-and-Mrs.

orchestral

stock, 160

nitrate

option, 38, 82
option time (actor),82
(network), 27

optionalcuts,

cutting,180

Nielsen, 210

farther away

Moviola,

newscasts,

n.g., 76, 79,

(signal),65
"move

35

35

newsreel

65
(signal),
"move

120
densityfilters,

commentaries,

news

closer

184
opticals,

time, 27

(camera),

113

(make-up), 91
pancake (make-up), 91
77, 133
(platform),
pancake turner, 54
panel show, 34
dolly,112
panoram
175
(editing),
paper
paper boy, 154
119
parallax,
133
parallel,
parallel
development,46
partialanimation, 135
32
participatingsponsorship,
patch, 174
patchboard,59
pay-as-you-see
pay off,90

TV, 29

INDEX

226

Peerless
pegs,

p.o.p., 203

portraitproof,126
197

treatment,

pose

reel, 141

positive,160

178

penciltests,

post-dubbing,74,

139

per-inquiry,204

perambulator,112
106, 157,
perforations,
Performance

155

174

set, 127

persistenceof vision, 102

Phonevision, 29

photo animation,
photo-enlargementdrops, 130
photo flood, 96
photo murals, 130
photographicimage, 160
126
photostat,
204
p.i.advertising,
"pickit up," 64
pick it up, 91
pick-up,60
pick up cues, 91
pick up the option,82
136

picturecheck print,163
picture dailyprint,179
picture print,163
picture quality(chapter),191
picture work print,179
64
"pictures,
please!",
126
piercedlettering,
pig-squealTV, 29

project,89

powder

189

128
practical,
practical
set,

projectingdown,

128

praise agent, 83
166
precisionf.g.,
precisionsample,207

pre-emption,28

projectionroom, 59
projectionsync, 180
projectionTV, 29
54
projectionist,

promotion trailer,47
prop

70

master,

premium, 205

prop

73
pre-record,

properties,57

144
pre-recording,

pre-score, 73

property men,
props, 57, 132

144
pre-scoring,

proscenium,

presence,

151

preservative,197
press agent, 83

pressing,148
pressure

plate,106

men,

57, 70
57, 70

126

126
proscenium title,
protagonist,46
protection fine grain, 167

protectionshot, 116
protectiveflat,128

preview, 47
61
preview light,

cuts,
provisional

preview monitors, 58
203
print (advertising),
(film),161
"printit!",79

"psychos,"36

"printthrough,"152
180

printing light,162
printing stock, 160

"privateeye,"35
private line,59

PL, 59

process

planned cuts, 63
plate,73
148
platter,
90
play it straight,
155
off,
play
play on, 155
38
"play-or-pay,"
playback,73
43
playreader,
plot,45
plug,48
point of purchase,203

process

projection,73
screen,

process

shot,

73
73

processing,161

producer,40
54
producer-director,

product identification,209
product research, 206
productionassistant, 53
productionbreakdown, 75
productiondirector, 41
56
productionfacilities,
productionmanager, 69

63

drama, 36
psychological

publicaddress,

59

publicdomain, 156
publicrelations,204
publicrelations representative,
83
204
publicity,
publicity
agent, 83
publicservice announcements,
34

publicservice

plate,73

process

141

projectionprinter,185
printing,161
projection

p.r., 83

printing,161

point of sale,203

program

125
Projectall,
man,

printer's
sync,

pitch,48

program

74, 144
post synchronization,

47
pilot,
pilotprint,163

152

assistant, 53
cost, 204

ratings,207
programming (chapter),30

pigeons, 194

pins, 157

program

144
post-recording,

128
practicable,

per-inquiry,204

pipe, 28,

144

pot, 150

174

Fund,

Trust

perfs,106, 157,
permanent

productionmeeting, 41
productionscript,44
productionsupervisor,41

120
filter,

Polaroid

pay-TV, 29
p.d.,156
pedestal,112

pullback,
pullfocus,
pulledup,

broadcasts, 34

113
110
180

Pulse, 210

punch, 89
"punch up," 58
pusher,55

q.k.,24
quarter-inch
tape, 146
research, 206
qualitative
quantitativeresearch,

quick kine,

24

206

INDEX
returns

quiz show,

reverb,

34

'em," 78

"save

scale, 82

151

scanning line,21

reversal stock, 160

sample,207

quota

saturation, 132

205
(advertising),
128
(scenery),

quick study,89
78
"quiet!",

reverse

angleshot, 116

reverse

motion,

scenario, 44

scene

44, 87
dock, 133

199
reversingpolarity,

scene

stealer,89

rain, 196

rewinds, 176

scene-to-scene

rake,

rhinocerous

rack, 178
rack

reverse

119

over,

133

118, 188

scene,

188

scene,

hide, 133

ride, 197

scenery

random

ridinggain, 150

scenic

rating methods,
ratingterms, 207

209

card, 39

rate

ratings,207
raw
raw

RCA

150

tape,
track, 146

127

terms,

artist, 123

154
riff,

scenic

50, 71,
designer,

97
rifle,

scenic

painters,56

rig,133
rigging,98

schedule, 204
162

Schwerin, 211
scoop, 96

riser, 77, 133

scoring,154

"roll 'em," 78

scratch-off animation,

read the track, 137

"roll it!",
64, 78

scratch print,182

read

roll titles,124

scratches, 196

shot, 116

reaction

through,62
reading (actor),83
182
(editing),
65,
"ready!"(signal),

projection,73,

screen

rear

roller titles,124

66

rebate, 28

130

room

sound, 153

room

tone,

153

record

rotoscope, 141

operator, 54
sound, 142

rough cut,
roughs 'em

Screen

Actors

Guild, 81

Extras

Guild, 82

test, 83

scrim, 96

script,43
scriptclerk, 53, 69
scripteditor, 43
53, 69
scriptgirl,

recall ratings,209

recapture, 28

178

in, 98

second

assistant, 68

recording,143

routine, 88

second

cameraman,

recordist,145

r.

p., 73

second

grip,70

red

r.

p.

recorder

ratings,209

62
light,

reduction

m.,

148

rubs, 196

print,166

through,62
"running double-headed,"

reel, 176
93
light,

running shot,
rush print,163

reflectors,100
89,
register,

198

113

lead, 85

second

unit, 78

178

69

82

segue,

155

self-liquidating
premium,
selsyn,150

rushes, 178

166
f.g.,
registered

second

SEG,

run

reflected

senior, 98

separationnegatives, 169
separationpositives,169

registration
pins, 106
release (music), 155
release print,163
"release studio," 64

44

sequence,
service

feature, 34

safety,160
safetyfilm, 160
safetystock, 160

service

group,

SESAC,

155

repeat, 24

SAG,

set, 127

144
re-recording,
session,
re-recording

sales pro, 203

sales promotion, 203

set

decorator, 58, 70

set

sample print,163

set

designer,56, 71
dresser, 58, 70

set

95
light,

set

up,

reminder

s.a.,

204
advertising,
60

remote,

pick-up,60

remote

research, 203, 206

148

180

81, 82,

session

83

sample (research),
sample reel,48

retake, 76

25
satellite,

sets

satire, 35

setting,127

return

outline,44

flats;128

207

203

fee, 83

resolution, 191

research

135

Screen
screen

Rorabaugh Reports,211
Ross Reports,211
roster

recorded

123

Schmaltz, 154

"rightdown the middle,"

94
rim lighting,

stock, 160

corrections, 162

dock, 133

scenery

ranch, 78

sample,207

227

118

in use,

208

205

228

INDEX

"settle down,"

slide film, 125

78

98
seven-fifty,

seventeen-and-a-half

tape, 146

slipman,

114

shadowing, 132

"slow!"

share of audience, 208

slow

share of market, 206

slow

motion,

shared

I.D., 49

slow

take,

shared

31
sponsorship,

slug,175

sharpness,191

66
(signal),

burn, 89

snap,

Shipman backings,130
Shipmans, 130

"sneak," 154

shoot, 76

sneak

shootingbreakdown, 75
shootingon twos, 135
shootingschedule, 75
shootingscript,45
shop carpenters, 56

snoots,

shot, 64, 76
75

shot, 115

99
spiders,
48
spiel,
100
spill,
174
splice,
176
splicer,
splitfocus, 110
splitnetwork, 24
reel,176
split
splitscreen, 188
31
splitsponsorship,
spool,176
200
sponsor (chapter),

47

99
99
194

snow,

soap-opera,

34

soapers, 34

soft

edge wipe,
96
light,

187

soft reflectors,100

print,163

solarization,198

shutter blur, 198

152

Sonovox,

(print),143

identification,209

sponsor

soubrette, 85

(research),209

88

S.P.I.,209

preview,

snouts,

soft

shrink, 197
S. I.

90

snapper,

s.o.f.,143

show, 31
show

193

Society leader,175

shot breakdown,
shoulder

specialevents, 33
specialmaterial, 43,
33
specials,
34
spectacular,
111
(lens),
speed
79
"speed!",

56

s.m.,

specialbusiness extra, 86
specialeffects (chapter),184
58, 71,
specialeffects man,
189

117

89

shellac, 148

carrier, 86

spear

slide film projector,125

sponsoredprogram,

31

sports commentary,

35

sports event,

35

sports

35

sound

(chapter),142

side, 87

sound

advance,

sig,50
sign off, 27
sign on, 27

sound

boom

man,

sound

check

print,163

sound

48
spot broadcasting,

21
signal,

sound

signature,50

sound

dailyprint,179
department,70
displacement,180

72
silent,

sound

effects,142

spot

silent

sound

effects

182
library,

spot market, 48, 202

sound

effects

man,

sound

speed, 117

silk,96

simple animation,

136

180
70

55, 152

simulcast, 38

sound

equipment,
film,142

154
singing jingle,

sound

film

116
single,
singlesystem,

sound

image, 143

145

situation

(drama),

situation

comedy,

46

recording,146

spot campaign, 48
94
spot lighting,
man,

69

48
spot television,
97
spotlight,
spread,63
sprocketholes, 106, 157,
157
sprockets,

sound

mixer, 70

square,

sound

stage, 87
stage center, 87
stage directions,87

sound

picture,143
print,163

16

millimeter, 103

sound

reader, 177

16

mm,

103

35

148

spot,

news,

48

154

stage carpenters, 56

sound

recorder,70,

tape, 146

sound

skip-frameprinting,190
sky drop, 130
98
sky light,
sky pan, 98
(comedy), 35
slapstick
77
slapsticks,

sound

recording,143
speed, 117, 181

stage hands, 56
stage left,87

stage, 143
track, 143

stage manager,

sound
sound

truck, 70

sound

work

16mm,

slate,76
77
slating,

slide, 125

sound

soup,

145

stage

print,179

56

right,87

staging coordinator, 56
staging plan,62
stake-outs, 63

167

S.R.D.S., 211

space, 201
louder!"

174

65
(signal),

"speak
65
"speak softer!" (signal),

Standard
211

Register,
Advertising

INDEX
Standard

Rate

Data

"

Service,

talk back, 59

check, 87

stunt

229

styleconsultant, 56
56
stylist,

talkingin your beard, 89

61
tallylights,
tape (magnetic),145, 146
(measuring),118

standby,160

Subscriber- Vision, 29

TCU,

standingset, 127

29
subscription-TV,

TD,

standup comic, 85

successive

star, 84

summer

211

"stand

by!",63, 78

stand-in, 86
stand mike.

Starch

149

rating,211

start, 175

87

stunt

man,

stunt

show,

33

frame

negative,170

arcs,

shade, 119

98
(lighting),
(scenery),129

start

leader, 175

super, 126, 185

start

marks, 180

stat, 126

supered title,126
superimposed title,126

static, 194

superimposure, 126, 185

teaser

break, 28

station

break

station

ID, 49

suspense,

station

identification,27

sustainingprogram,

station

identification spot, 48

swish

technical animation,

technicians, 56

supernumerary,
surface noise, 195

teepee, 60
Telco, 23

45, 154
31

telecast,20, 31
telecine,59

(pan), 114

step block, 133

step on lines,91

switch, 58

telecine

switcher, 54

telecruiser,61

step printing,190

switchingpanel,54

telefilm,23

sync,

21, 179

telemat,61

sync

machine,

79
"sticks!",

sync

sound, 72,

still,126

sync

tape, 153

stereo,

73

sticks,77

stillman,

stillphotograph,126

sting,155
stinger,155
stock, 72, 182
stock music,
stock

music

177
143

155

66
"stop!"(signal),

stop motion, 134

photography,117
stop motion
story board, 123
story editor, 43
story hook, 205
treatment.

Telepro, 61

synopsis,44

23
tele-recording,

Tele-Q,

61

telethon, 34
23
teletranscriptions,

182
library,

stop (lens), 110

story

36
telementary,

telemeter, 29

TelePrompTer, 61
Telepulse,210

182
library,

table mike, 149

television,19

table top, 129

tachometer, 121

Telop, 125

television cutoff, 77

"tack," 121

ten

tail leader, 175

tener,

90
tag-line,

test

44

180
straight
across,
85
straight
man,
193
streaking,

stretch,63, 65
strike,133

stripfilm, 125

82

98

(actor),83
box, 121

88
(actor's),
(scene), 76
"take
," 64
"take five!",
79

"take it

away!",64

texture, 132

"take

down,"

theater ad-film,47

take
138

per center,

(technical), 182

tails,175

story-sketch
man,

59

synchronism,179
synchronizedprint,163
177
synchronizer,
syndicatedprograms, 32

stock shot, 72, 182

stock shot

room,

107
telephoto,
44
teleplay,

synch, 179

70

it

test
test

market, 202

test

pattern, 60

test

strip,121

150

takingstock,
84
talent (performers),
204
cost),
(program
160

theater-TV, 29
theme

(music),

154

44
(story),

thin

(image), 195

strobe effect,199

talent agent, 82
talent director, 41

35

millimeter, 103

studio card, 124

talent release,205

35

mm,

studio directions,87

talent scout, 83

thread, 106

stripshow,

135

technical director, 54

Technicolor, 169

86

station

spots, 49

120

tearing,194

93, 98

sun

T/E,

teacher,71

hiatus, 38

sun

115
54

38

103

INDEX

98

watt,

preservative),

(film

wax

(record),
weather

148
76

permitting,

wild

motor,

121

wild

sound,

72,

wild

track,

wild

wall,

wind

197

weaving,
web,

197

46

weenie,

36

Electric
147

Westrex,

54

65
X
X

(dissolve),

185

(staging),

pairs,

80

"

128

128

women's

177

42

writer-producer,

(signal),

185

wipe,
wire

Editer,

Westrex

147

71

up!",

it

writer,
152

flat,

wings,
track,

"wrap

128

up!"

wing

drama,

western

Western

143

screen,

"wind

24

76

w.p.,

wrangler,

143

XCU,

23

shows,

88

115

35
Y

wet

whip
whiz

end,

168

pan,
pan,

"whodunit,"
wide

"widen

womp,

angle

the

yuk,

114

wood-shed,

114

woof,
35

wide-screen,

193

lens,

107

shot!",

64

89
Z

64

work

light,

work

print,

wow,

100

195

zip

179

title,

working

171

91

zoom,

44

114

pan,

zoom

Zoomar,

113

lens,
112

112

231