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THE WORLD OF COMPUTER GAMES

A new research topic in the view of a sport researcher


Conference paper to be presented at ISHPES & ISSA Congress 2007, July 30August 5, 2007, Copenhagen,
Denmark. By Jesper Thiborg. Department of Sport Sciences, Malm University. (First draft. Not to be quoted)

Introduction
Can you believe it; playing computer gamei is almost as popular as practicing sportsii. In
Sweden the quantity of practicians of computer games are more than in both soccer and ice
hockey together.iii There are no reliable details about exactly how many people that is playing
computer games but roughly we are talking about 350 millions around the world and in
Sweden 2 millions.iv Playing computer games are particularly popular among children and
adolescents. A report from the Council of Media showed that 84 % of children between nine
and fifteen years old in Sweden have played computer games in the last year.v The computer
game industry is big around the world. In 2005 the worldwide sales of computer games was
estimated to a value of $30 billion.vi The Swedish computer game industry has increased
largely since 1998 and in 2006 5, 5 million computer games were sold to a value of 1, 7
billion Swedish crowns ($1, 2 billion).vii The computer game industry is as big as the musicand movie industry in Sweden.viii These statistics are not fully reliable but they tell us
something about the popularity of computer games.
In the wake of the popularity of computer games the phenomenon of electronic sport (esport), defined as competition in computer game, has arisen. In countries like South Korea,
China, Russia and Bulgaria e-sport have been more accepted by the sports world than in
Sweden.ix Roughly 250 thousand people are involved in e-sport in Swedenx at both low and
high performance level. Karl Danielsson has carried out a deep analysis of the similarities
between e-sport and traditional sport.xi He claims that e-sport in many aspects correspond to
Guttmanns theoryxii about what constitute modern sport. Despite of these facts and due to the
physical inactivity in most computer game playing people in general (adults and parents) have
a relatively negative attitude toward both computer games and e-sport.
In society today individuals have to find and practice leisure activities that contribute to
physical wellbeing.xiii New technology like robots and machines does the physical work we
humans used to do and today our work often is done behind a desk.xiv Besides peoples places
of work the new technology also have changed the way we are living our lives in the sense of
making everything more physically easier, and often we are expected to choose those
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alternatives that are the least physical and time demanding.xv Why walk or run to your friends
if you can take the buss or the car? Why open a door by hand if you can push a button that
automatically opens the door? Why even bother go to your workplace if you can be seated in
front of a computer with Internet at home and do your work? This physical passivity is one of
the reasons behind many of the widespread diseases in western societies. Examples of
diseases that are related with a physical inactive lifestyle are, heart- and vascular diseases,
Type-2 diabetes, obesity, brittleness of bones, joint- and back problems and large intestine
cancer.xvi
Sport is one of the most popular leisure activities among both adults and children and it is
seen as a contributor to both physical and psychological wellbeing.xvii In Sweden, sport is a
national movement with roughly 3 million people involvedxviii and approximately 60 % of all
children between nine to twelve years old are involved in sports.xix Many adults and parents
are involved with sport as organizers, coaches or functionaries. The sports environment is an
important place for adults to socialize children and adolescents. Within sports adults are given
the possibility to effect children and adolescent social-, physiological and psychological
development in a positive way.xx Research has shown that children and adolescent who are
involved in sports are more likely to carry on with the activity in adult life.xxi Besides the
positive effects and its importance as a socializing arena, sports are big business. The most
popular sports appear in newspapers, on TV and on the Internet. The most successful athletes
make tons of money and are treated as heroes. For example, David Beckham is one of the
stars within soccer and he might even be one of the most famous people in the world.xxii
Swedish stars like Peter Forsberg, Annika Srenstam and Zlatan Ibrahimovic are heroes,
someone to look up to and resemble for children and adolescent.
Adults and parents have a good knowledge in what sports are and the positive effects that
follows and extensively research has been carried out in the area. Sports are in contrast to
playing computer games an accepted leisure activity and both parents and society encourage
and support children to get involved. As mentioned, playing computer games are very popular
among children and adolescent and a new significant leisure activity has emerged.xxiii People
in the game industry are of course very pleased, parents and other adults are not. In Sweden
one study showed that almost three out of four parents experiences their childrens computer
game playing as problematic and that their perceptions of computer games differ from their
childrens.xxiv
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Playing computer games is a relatively new phenomenon in contrast to sports and it has been
and is developing very quickly. Often parents and adults lack both experiences and
knowledge about the phenomenon. The absence of knowledge may result in an enlargement
of the negative consequences of playing computer games. When parents are noticing that their
child is sitting alone in front of the computer all day long they might make some incorrect
conclusions. Playing computer games makes my child socially isolated and physically
passive, this is not good. Besides social isolation and physical passiveness parents and adults
in Sweden have been debating the issue of violence in computer games and addiction.xxv Due
to parents knowledge about sports and its positive effects and the enlargement of the negative
aspects of playing computer games it is not particularly strange if they prefer sport as a leisure
activity for their children before computer games.
Relative little research, especially within a Swedish context, has been carried out on the world
of computer games. The year of 2001 is seen as the first year of the international field
computer game studies and the first international conference for researcher within the field
was carried out in 2003.xxvi Most of the computer game studies have been focusing on the
possible negative aspects of playingxxvii, but in recent year more research has been done with a
neutral point of view. One question researchers have been debated is what computer games
is.xxviii Is it an entertainment, a narrative or a game? My point of view is that computer games
similar to sport are a very complex phenomenon which includes many different aspects. For
that reason I will just refer the phenomenon to the world of computer games. The aim of this
paper is to spread some light over this world with a perspective on children and adolescents
computer game playing. At the end I will introduce a research plan were similarities and
differences between e-sport and traditional sports as significant arenas for children and
adolescents socialization is in focus. I will first describe the world of computer games with
help of earlier computer game studies and reports in respect of three main questions at issue:
1. What do we know about the world of computer games?
- Who plays, what kind of games are popular and how much time do children spend on
playing computer games?
2. Why are computer games popular and what motivates children and adolescent to play?
3. In what way do computer game playing effect children and adolescent?

The world of computer games


In spite of the view of computer games as a relatively new phenomenon it has a history of
nearly fifty years. Malliet and de Meyer describe the history of computer games in a
meritorious way.xxix The scientist Willy Higinbotham converted an oscilloscope into a game
he called Tennis for two already in 1958. The inventors Steve Russell, Ralph Baer and Nolan
Bushnell have been regarded as the true inventor of the computer game. Steve Russell created
Spacewar, the first game on a computer and Ralph Bear designed a device that could be
connected to the TV which he played a kind of ping pong game. Bushnell is seen as the father
of the arcade computer game and he succeeded to bring the computer games to the general
public. In the 70s and early 80s home consoles was developed by Atari, Nintendo and Sega
and a game computer for domestic use were presented by Commodore. In this period of time
it became popular to play computer games; a new industry was born. During the 90s the
industry of computer games developed very rapidly both technically and economically.
Today playing computer games is a significant leisure activity for many people in
industrialized countries in Asia, Europe and America and it is a billion dollar industry, as
mentioned before. There are countless computer games which you can play on both game
consoles and personal computers (PCs). In the game consoles market there are a few
operations which dominates, Nintendo (Nintendo 64 & Game cube), Sega (Dreamcast), Sony
(Play station) and Microsoft (Xbox). In Sweden, amongst children and adolescent, it is more
popular to play computer games on PCs than on game consoles.xxx Due to the development of
Internet it is possible to play online with and against other people and communicate with
others who play computer games on PCs. The social interaction might be one of the reasons
behind the popularity of playing on a PC; another reason might be the access.
Many people in Sweden have the possibility to play computer games on consoles and both
online and offline on a PC at their home. In 2006 peoples access to a game console vary due
to age. Amongst people between 16-24 and 35-44 years old the proportion is circa 46 %, this
number is lower amongst people between 25-34.xxxi Further more, 32 % of children between
9-16 have a game console in their own room, more boys (49 %) than girls (15 %).xxxii
Statistics shows that from year 1998 to 2006 the proportion of peoples (between 16-84) who
have a computer at home have increased from 52,6 % to 82 % and the access to Internet have
increased from 31 % to 76 %.xxxiii More men than women and more younger than older people

have a computer at home and access to Internet. Approximately the proportion of men who
have a computer is 7 % higher than amongst women and the differences are 8 % when it
comes to access to Internet. Another statistics reveal that 38 % of children (between 9-16)
have a computer in their own room, more boys (49%) than girls (31 %).xxxiv
Despite the differences in peoples access to consoles and PCs the sales of games are similar,
roughly 2, 7 million games for both consoles and PCs.xxxv As mention before, the value of
computer games sales was 1, 2 billion dollars in 2006.xxxvi In Sweden there are roughly 68
cooperations that mainly develop computer games and these have 812 employed, 85 % of
these are men.xxxvii About 1 300 computer games titles were released in 2003.xxxviii Like
movies computer games have been categorised into different genres. In an overview of
different computer games 42 different genres were identifiedxxxix, the following genres are
example of the most popular: Action, First-person-shooter (FPS), Driving and racing, Sport,
Strategy, Simulation, Platform games (Super Mario), Adventure and role-playing, Puzzle- and
board games, Edutainment.xl Due to the games width the different types of genres should be
seen as guidance for the consumer and not as a definition of a computer game. Besides the
guidance with genres the computer games are PEGI-markedxli with a recommended age limit
and a warning mark due to objectionable content. The different age limits which different
games are recommended for are 3, 7, 12, 16 and 18 year and the other mark warns if the game
content discrimination, drugs, sex and nudity, violence, bad language or if it is frightening.

The computer game players


At the moment we know that the industry of computer games are big and that many people
have access to both game consoles and PCs at home to play on but how many people does
play computer games, how much do they playing and what games? The number of players is
hard to appreciate because it is increasing from year to year. As mention before, roughly 350
millions over the world and 2 millions in Sweden are playing. If you had asked me some
years ago who the typical computer game player was, my answer would be a10-13 year old
boy, today the answer to the question are more complex.xlii Boys, girls, men and women with
a diversity of backgrounds are in fact playing.xliii In spite of these facts I will focus on children
and adolescents computer game playing in their leisure time within a Swedish context. Two
national surveys show that playing computer games are not the leisure activity that they do
most often.xliv Children and adolescent between 9-20 years old appreciate that they are doing
activities like lesson to music, watch television, talk to people through the Internet, do sports,
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send and receive sms/mms, meet friends and do homework more often than they play
computer games. Further results of the surveys reveal that between 86 % to 92 % have played
computer games in the last year. A local survey carried out in the capital of Sweden shows
that 71 % of children between 7-9 years had played computer games.xlv
The differences between boys and girls computer game playing become clear when we ask
the children about how often they play and what types of games that they prefer. About 52 %
of children and adolescent between 13-20 are plying computer games every day or once a
week, more boys (77 %) than girls (24 %) and more children between 13-15 years old (64 %)
than between 16-20 years old (49 %).xlvi Children and adolescent who play more often also
play computer games for a longer time at one occasion.xlvii Boys prefers to play computer
games within the genres action- and first-person-shooter, sports and driving in contrast to girls
who prefers to play within the genres strategy, platform and games with a content of vogue,
home furnishings or horse riding.xlviii One study showed that the three most popular computer
games among boys were, in order, Counter-strike, World of Warcraft, Need for speed and
Fifa and among girls the games were The Sims, The harp, Super Mario and Counter-strike.xlix
The Swedish results about who is playing computer games are quite similar to results of
international research.l

The phenomenon electronic sports (e-sport)


Due to the quantity of computer game players it is not particular strange that some of these
wants to compete with and together with others and within e-sport they have their chance.
There has been little academic interest for e-sport. Karl Danielsson (married name Jonasson)
and The Swedish Board of Young People have conduct research were they describe the
phenomenon very well.li I will sum up their work very briefly.
E-sport is a new phenomenon and is heavily linked to the evolution of technology, particular
to the birth of Internet and when it was spread to the public. The history of e-sport starts at the
early 90s and it became more and more popular during the decade and today there are
approximately 250 thousand people in Sweden and 13 millions worldwide are involved in esport. The most popular genres within e-sport is action, first-person-shooter, sports, strategy
and driving/racing were games such as Counter-strike, Warcraft 3 and Battlefield are the most
popular. The competition is carried out via Internet or so called Local Area Network (LAN)
were both smaller and larger amount of peoples computers are linked together. In the winter
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of 2006 the LAN-event Dream Hack, which was held in Sweden, were appointed as the
worlds largest event ever.lii At the event there were 7752 visitors who paid entrance and 7788
computers were linked together. In the summer 2007 there were fewer participants, overall
circa 6000. The total amounts of price money were 200 thousand. At the event there were
mostly boys and men between 9 to 40, 10 % were women.
Competition via Internet and LAN makes it possible to play against another player in the
same computer game. Within e-sport you can compete against others in special leagues or in
world championships, similar to the competing system we can see within traditional sports.
Another form of competing that is present within e-sport is so called ladder and they are
carried out in communities via Internet. Communities are a scene were e-sport practicians can
read news, talk to each other and compete. Ladder is a system where the winner climbs higher
on the ladder and the loser must climb down. A new person who comes along begins at the
bottom. You can compete individual or in teams (so called Clans) with two or more members.
The practicians in Sweden are organized in national associations like Sverok, Tech Group and
Goodgame. These associations have approximately 70 thousand members. The best e-sport
practicians are professionals and are in some countries (South Korea) treated like superstars.
TV-Chanels in South Korea are sending e-sport matches and the interest from others outside
e-sport is big.

The popularity of playing computer games


Due to the technological evolution and childrens and adolescents access to computers,
Internet and game consoles a new popular leisure activity has arisen. In contrast to organized
sports children and adolescent might be attracted to playing computer games because the
activity is not as monitored by parents and adults.liii I believe that the experience of a free
zone while playing computer games is one of the key factors behind the popularity. But
besides that, what is it in the world of computer games that attracts children and adolescent?
This question has been an issue for researchers, parents and other adults. Klug and Schellliv try
to answer the questions, and they have some five theses which I will present.
The first reason why people likes to play computer games is that they want to have some
control over the event and to be involved in the story in games. When people watch a movie or
read a book they can not actively influence the story in the way they can when they play

computer games. The second reason is that people through the computer games can experience
events that they before only could as an observer. For example, you can be a manager of a
soccer team or you can play the role of David Beckham despite your lack of the necessary
physically talent. The third reason is that people can through playing computer games can
escape into an alternate reality. This reason is the same reason why people reads books or
watches movies, and they are not interested to gain control over the event. The fourth reason is
that people want to compete similar to people within traditional sports. Historical these players
played against the computer but today they play often against other humans. The last reason
Klug and Schell discuss are the possibility to explore fantasy relationships safely. For example
in Role-playing games the shy man could take risk without a risk in his approach to a woman.
One reason which have been somewhat neglected in Klug and Schells discussion is the role of
overcoming a challenge as an important reason to play computer games.
De Marialv thinks that one of the central reasons why we play computer games is our interest
in just overcoming challengers and learns new things. Another reason she think is important is
that we feel empowered and rewarded by success. Others raise the feeling of flowlvi as an
important reason why we play computer games.lvii In consistency, Salonius-Pasternak and
Gelfondlviii make a good point when they say that computer games have different degrees of
difficulties which make it possible for players to succeed irrespectively of their abilities.
Results of Swedish computer game studies have showed that players report the motive having
fun as the most important, other motives are just immersion, overcoming a challenge or
perform, the interaction with other and finally the story of the game is essential if the player
will pursue playing the game or not.lix

Consequences of playing computer games


As mentioned earlier, historical the computer game studies have focus on possible negative
effects and consequences of playing. Very little Swedish research has been carried out on the
field, due to these facts I will mainly present studies from an international context. Lee and
Penglx have done a review over research about effects of playing computer games. They claim
that the negative effect that has mainly been studied is violence in the games and its effects.
Violent computer games are popular among boys and girls and adolescencelxi and the violent
content have increasedlxii, should we be worried? Violence in computer games can in fact be
good for children and adolescent. Games with violent content can work as a valve and allow

them to handle complicated problem such as war or death without any risks.lxiii Research has
shown mixed results, experimental studies have shown a short term effect of aggressive
behaviour and other studies show no effects.lxiv There are contradictive results of the relation
between game violence and both aggressive affects and behaviour. However research shows
an increase in both aggressive thoughts and physiological arousal.lxvOne conclusion might be
that people gets effected but not to the extent that they act out their aggressiveness. Other
possible negative effects in relations with computer gaming which have been studied are
social isolation, addiction or game dependency, physical inactivity and poor academic
performance. In respect of the statement of computer game playing and its negative effects on
school performance, physical activity and social life there are no empirical support.lxvi Studies
have shown that children and adolescent who play computer games are as physical active as
they who do not play.lxvii Research shows that one in five, more boys than girls are addictive
or have game dependency.lxviii It is not strange due to the fact that developer of computer
game want to make the consumer to keep on playing.
In recent years studies have found positive effects of children and adolescents computer
games playing on spatial skills, reaction time, family relationships, parental obedience, social
network, school performance and abstinence from drinking and use drugs.lxix Further research
has to be carried out to secure these results. To study a specific factor and how it is influenced
by playing computer games is complicated, there are often variables left without
considerations. Due to this fact it is not strange that research shows contradictive results. My
point of view is that playing computer game similar to sports as a leisure activity can have
both positive and negative effects on children and adolescent. As stated by Carin Falkner in
her desertion, it is important that researcher, parents and other adults talks with and not about
childrens usage of medium such as computer games when it comes to the meaning that are
constructed and the social construction of playing and understand the world of computer
games.lxx

Conclusion
In line with Falkner I will in conclusion of this paper briefly introduce a research plan with a
focus on computer game and sports as leisure activities for children and adolescent. I believe
that there can be both positive and negative consequences of these activities, but in general
the attitudes toward sports are more positive than playing computer games. Reasons behind

the negative attitude toward computer games might be the lack of research about the world
and the fact that childrens playing are not monitored by adults. In contrast to playing
computer games sports is not a new phenomenon and it is a more physically demanding
activity. In spit of these differences there are some similarity between playing computer
games and sports. As discussed in this paper both computer games and sports as leisure
activities are important for many children and young. E-sport is in many ways similar to
modern sportslxxi and it would be interesting to compare these two environments.
The purpose of the research plan is to shed some light over children and adolescents
socializationlxxii in and through the leisure activities of playing computer games and sports.
More specific, the differences between practicians of e-sport and sport when it comes to
demographic variables, personality traits, participation motives and attitudes will be studied.
Further, I will study gender differences within and across the activities due to the fact that
there are differences in boys and girls socialization.lxxiii The research method I will use is
surveys and deep interviews of children and adolescent between 10-19 years old. The analysis
will be conducted on the basis of three groups of selections:
1) Children and adolescents who solely are involved in sports
2) Children and adolescents who solely are involved in e-sport
3) Children and adolescents who are involved in both e-sport and sports
The purpose with these three groups is to capture the essence of both e-sport and sports as an
environment of socialization for children and adolescents. Earlier research has focus on
childrens and adolescents computer game playing. Further there is a lack in the field of
computer game studies with a sport perspective. Few have carried out research where e-sport
and sports are compared. My wishes are to contribute to the lack of research within the field
of computer game studies.

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Includes both video games played on a dedicated console connected to a TV set or an other type of screen,
computer games, those played with a personal computer and Online games over Internet or . (Ungdomsstyrelsen,
2006. New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2.)
ii
Defined as an organised physical activity with more or less segments of competition.
iii
Almer, D., Danemar, T., Gustafsson, R., Tang, H., Wiklind, A., Wiss, A., & sterberg, W. (2005). Datorspel
Sveriges strsta sport. I A. Mosskin (Red.). Framtidens datorspel: En antologi om datorspelens framtid. (p. 1330). Stockholm: Elanders Infologistics Vst AB.
iv
Danielsson, K. (2005). E-sport: rrelse utan rrelse Informationssamhllets idrott. [E-sport: Movement
without movement The sport of the Informational society]. (Essay in Sport & society, 41-60p) Department of
Sport Sciences: Malm University.
v
Mediardet. (2005). Unga & Medier 2005: Fakta om barns och ungas anvndning och upplevelser av medier
vi
De Maria, R. (2007). Reset: Changing the way we look at video games. San Francisco: Berett/Koehler
Publisher, Inc
vii
Datorspelsbranschen. (2006). Frsljning av TV- och datorspel 2006. Internet source:
http://www.dataspelsbranschen.se/files/mdts-statistik-2006.jpg
viii
Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006). New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2
ix
Ibid
x
Almer, D., Danemar, T., Gustafsson, R., Tang, H., Wiklind, A., Wiss, A., & sterberg, W. (2005). Datorspel
Sveriges strsta sport. I A. Mosskin (Red.). Framtidens datorspel: En antologi om datorspelens framtid. (p. 1313-30). Stockholm: Elanders Infologistics Vst AB
xi
Danielsson, K. (2005). E-sport: rrelse utan rrelse Informationssamhllets idrott. [E-sport: Movement
without movement The sport of the Informational society]. (Essay in Sport & society, 41-60p) Department of
Sport Sciences: Malm University.
xii
Guttmann, Allen (1978) From ritual to Record The nature of modern sports. Columbia University Press
xiii
Engstrm, L-M. (2000). Idrott som social markr. Stockholm: HLS Frlag.
xiv
Faskunger, J. (2002). Motivation fr motion: En handbok fr hlsovgledning steg fr steg. Stockholm: SISU
Idrottsbcker AB.
xv
Engstrm, L-M. (2000). Idrott som social markr. Stockholm: HLS Frlag.
xvi
Rydqvist, L-J. & Winroth, J. (2002). Idrott, friskvrd, hlsa & hlsopromotion. Stockholm: SISU
Idrottsbcker AB.
xvii
Riksidrottsfrbundet. (2000). Idrotten vill. Idrottens hus, Farsta.
xviii
Ibid
xix
Redelius, K. (2002). Ledarna och barnidrotten. Idrottsledarnas syn p idrott, barn och fostran.
Doktorsavhandling, Institutionen fr samhlle, kultur och lrande, Stockholms Universitet.
xx
Bois, J.E., Sarrazin, P.G., Brustad, R.J., Trouilloud, D.O., & Cury, F. (2002). Mothers expectancies and
young adolescents perceived physical competence: A yearlong study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 22, 384406.; Ewing, M.E., Gano-Overway, L.A., Branta, C.E., & Seefeldt, V.D., (2002). The role of sports in youth
development. I M. Gatz, M.A. Messner, & S.J. Ball-Rokeach (Red.), Paradoxes of youth and sport. (p. 31-43).
Albany: State university of New York.
xxi
Perkins, D.F., Jacobs, J.E., Barber, B.L., & Eccles, J.S. (2004). Childhood and adolescent sports participation
as predictors of participation in sports and physical fitness activities during young adulthood. Youth & Society,
35, 495-520.
xxii
Dahln, P. (031209) Beckham mannen, myten och varumrket. Internet source: www.idrottsforum.org
xxiii
Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006). New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2
xxiv
Brun, M. (2005). Nr livet blir ett spel: Och andra utmaningar fr den digitala generationens frldrar.
Liding: Langenskild.
xxv
Sundberg, S. (2005, 1 november). Spel pverkar vrt stt att vara i vrlden. Svenska Dagbladet, kultur s. 61.
xxvi
Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006). New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2
xxvii
Salonius-Pasternak, D.E., & Gelfond, H.S. (2005). The next level of research on electronic play: Potential
benefits and contextual influences for children and adolescents. Human Technology, 1, 5-22.
xxviii
See for an example Frasca, G. (1999). Ludology meets narratology: Similitude and differences between
(video) games and narrative. Internet source: http://www.ludology.org/articles/ludology.htm
xxix
Malliet, S. & de Meyer, G. (2005). The history of the video game. In Raessens, J. & Goldstein (Red.),
Handbook of computer game studies (p. 23-45). London: The MIT Press.
xxx
Mediardet. (2006). Unga & Medier 2006: Fakta om barns och ungas anvndning och upplevelser av medier
xxxi
SCB: Statistics Sweden (2005). Peoples access to computer and Internet. Ref in Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006).
New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2
xxxii
Mediardet. (2006). Unga & Medier 2006: Fakta om barns och ungas anvndning och upplevelser av medier
xxxiii
SCB: Statistics Sweden. (2006). Tillgng till dator och Internet. Underskningar av levnadsfrhllanden.

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xxxiv

Mediardet. (2006). Unga & Medier 2006: Fakta om barns och ungas anvndning och upplevelser av medier
Datorspelsbranschen. (2006). Frsljning av TV- och datorspel 2006. Internet source:
http://www.dataspelsbranschen.se/files/mdts-statistik-2006.jpg
xxxvi
Ibid.
xxxvii
Datorspelsbranschen. (2006). Spelutvecklarindex 2005. Report 1-07 from The Swedish Games Industry.
Internet source: http://www.dataspelsbranschen.se/files/spelutvecklarindex.pdf
xxxviii
Robertson, E. (2004). Nordiska datorspel. Nordiska Ministerrd, Redikod (FF0000) AB
xxxix
Ibid.
xl
Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006). New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2
xli
PEGI stands for Pan European Game Information.
xlii
Se De Maria, R. (2007). Reset: Changing the way we look at video games. San Francisco: Berett/Koehler
Publisher, Inc; Newman, J. (2004). Videogames. London: Routledge.
xliii
Ibid.
xliv
Mediardet. (2006). Unga & Medier 2006: Fakta om barns och ungas anvndning och upplevelser av medier.
Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006). New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2
xlv
Alf, L., Algotsson, C., Frm, E., Hglind, D., Svensson, C., & Tarandi, E. (2005). Att spela eller inte spela
barns datorspelsvanor idag och i framtiden. In A. Mosskin (Red.). Framtidens datorspel: En antologi om
datorspelens framtid. (p. 33-54). Stockholm: Elanders Infologistics Vst AB.
xlvi
Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006). New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2
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Henningson, S. & Cifuentes-Valds, T. (2006). Kartlggning av ungdomars spel- och datorvanor i rebro
vren 2006. Socialfrvaltning Vster, Ungdoms- och familjeenheten, rebro
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Johansson, B. (2000). Kom och t! Jag ska bara d frst...: Datorn i barns vardag. Gteborg: Etnologiska
freningen i Vstsverige.
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Henningson, S. & Cifuentes-Valds, T. (2006). Kartlggning av ungdomars spel- och datorvanor i rebro
vren 2006. Socialfrvaltning Vster, Ungdoms- och familjeenheten, rebro
l
See Calvert, S.L. (2005). Cognitive effects of video games. In J. Raessen, & J.Goldstein. Handbook of
computer game studies. (p. 125-131).London: Mit Press; Lucas, K. & Sherry, J.L. (2004). Sex differences in
video game play: A communication-based explanation. Communication Research, 31, 499-523. De Maria, R.
(2007). Reset: Changing the way we look at video games. San Francisco: Berett/Koehler Publisher, Inc;
Newman, J. (2004). Videogames. London: Routledge.
li
Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006). New game: Om unga och datorspel. Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2.
lii
Dream hack. Internet source: http://web.dreamhack.se/index.php?page=varldsrekord
liii
See Carlsson, B. (2006). A Socio-Legal Reflection on Digital Sport; In World Leisure: Identity, Integration
and Community. Fritid Malm (under publicering); Johansson, B. (2000). Kom och t! Jag ska bara d frst...:
Datorn i barns vardag. Gteborg: Etnologiska freningen i Vstsverige.
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Klug, G.C. & Schell, J. Why people play games: An industry perspective. In P. Vorderer, & J. Bryant, (2006).
Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences. (p. 91-100). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, cop.
lv
De Maria, R. (2007). Reset: Changing the way we look at video games. San Francisco: Berett/Koehler
Publisher, Inc
lvi
The feelings of flow come up when there is a balance between our abilities and the difficulty of the challenge.
Jackson, S.A. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. Flow och idrott. Jnkping: Brain Books AB.
lvii
Carr, D. (2006). Play and pleasure. In Carr, D., Buckinham, D., Burn, A., & Schott, G. (Red.). Computer
games: Text, narrative and play. (p. 45-58). Cambridge: Polity Press; Lindmark, M. (2002). Flow i datorspel- en
studie av vrdet med att spela FPS. C-uppsats, Institutionen fr Informatik, Ume Universitet
lviii
Salonius-Pasternak, D.E., & Gelfond, H.S. (2005). The next level of research on electronic play: Potential
benefits and contextual influences for children and adolescents. Human Technology, 1, 5-22.
lix
Garca-Hernez, A. & Samaniego-Orts, A. (2006). Playing multiplayer online games- Attractive factors.
Master thesis, 10p, INF 800, Informatics; Henningson, S. & Cifuentes-Valds, T. (2006). Kartlggning av
ungdomars spel- och datorvanor i rebro vren 2006. Socialfrvaltning Vster, Ungdoms- och familjeenheten,
rebro; Mediardet. (2006). Unga & Medier 2006: Fakta om barns och ungas anvndning och upplevelser av
medier; Pezouvanis, E. (2003). Datorspel och motivation- Med inriktning p konkreta/abstrakta faktorer,
svrighetsgrad och ml. C-uppsats, Pedagogiska institutet, Stockholms Universitet.
lx
Lee, K.M. & Peng, W. (2006). What do we know about social and psychological effects of computer games? A
comprehensive review of the current literature. In P. Vorderer, & J. Bryant, (2006). Playing video games:
Motives, responses, and consequences. (p. 327-345). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, cop.
lxi
Anderson, D.A., Gentile, D.A., & Buckley, K.E. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and
adolescents: Theory, research and public policy. Oxford: University Press
xxxv

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lxii

Kirsh, S.J. (2003). The effects of violent video games on adolescents: The overlooked influence of
development. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8, 377-389.
lxiii
Salonius-Pasternak, D.E., & Gelfond, H.S. (2005). The next level of research on electronic play: Potential
benefits and contextual influences for children and adolescents. Human Technology, 1, 5-22.
lxiv
Egenfeldt-Nielsen, S. & Smith, J.H. (2003). Datorspel och skadlighet en forskningsversikt. PM till
Medierdet fr barn och unga. Publicerad p Internet, www.game-reseach.com; Kirsh, S.J. (2003). The effects of
violent video games on adolescents: The overlooked influence of development. Aggression and Violent
Behavior, 8, 377-389.
lxv
Lee, K.M. & Peng, W. (2006). What do we know about social and psychological effects of computer games?
A comprehensive review of the current literature. In P. Vorderer, & J. Bryant, (2006). Playing video games:
Motives, responses, and consequences. (p. 327-345). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, cop.
lxvi
Durkin, K. & Barber, B. (2002). Not so doomed: Computer game play and positive adolescent development.
Applied Development Psychology, 23, 373-392; Ungdomsstyrelsen. (2006). New game: Om unga och datorspel.
Ungdomsstyrelsens skrifter, 2006:2.
lxvii
Ibid.
lxviii
Lee, K.M. & Peng, W. (2006). What do we know about social and psychological effects of computer games?
A comprehensive review of the current literature. In P. Vorderer, & J. Bryant, (2006). Playing video games:
Motives, responses, and consequences. (p. 327-345). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, cop.
lxix
Durkin, K. & Barber, B. (2002). Not so doomed: Computer game play and positive adolescent development.
Applied Development Psychology, 23, 373-392; Quaiser-Pohl, C., Geiser, C., & Lehmann, W. (2006). The
relationship between computer-game preference, gender, and mental-rotation ability. Personality and Individual
Differences, 40, 609-619; Statens folkhlsoinstitut (2005:18). Hlsoeffekter av tv- och datorspelande: En
systematisk genomgng av vetenskapliga studier.
lxx
Falkner, K. (2007). Datorspelande som bildning och kultur: En hermeneutisk studie av datorspelande.
Dissertation: rebro Studies in Education. rebro: Universitetsbiblioteket.
lxxi
Danielsson, K. (2005). E-sport: rrelse utan rrelse Informationssamhllets idrott. [E-sport: Movement
without movement The sport of the Informational society]. (Essay in Sport & society, 41-60p) Department of
Sport Sciences: Malm University.
lxxii
Socialization is a process were individuals incorporate norms, values and attitudes through interaction with
significant others (Coakley, J., 2003. Sports in society issues & controversies. Singapore: Mc Graw Hill higher
Education; Greendorfer, S.L., 1992. Sport socialization. In T.S. Horn (Red.). Advances in sport psychology (p.
201-218). Champaigne, IL: Human Kinetics. )
lxxiii
Koivula, N. (1999). Sport participation: differences in motivation and actual participation due to gender
typing. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22, 360-375

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