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Biological Control of Weeds on the Prairies

Updated: March 2004


Introduction
There are some very tough weeds on the prairies. They compete with valuable crop and forage plants and threaten
many native plant species.
Many of these weeds have been very expensive and difficult, if not impossible, to control with more traditional
methods. In some instances, the chemicals used for control are non-selective compounds, which will also damage
non-target plants and may leach out of sandy or gravelly soils, or compounds that give top growth control only. In
addition, because of leaching, chemicals cannot be used on weeds that grow close to bodies of water.
Many problem weeds are abundant in rangeland and along riverbanks and gullies, so the use of non-chemical control
methods such as mowing or cultivation can be limited by the topography and size of these areas. These difficulties
have prompted scientists to investigate a third alternative: the biological control of weeds.

What is biological control?


Biological control covers two key concepts: the deliberate use of a weed's "natural enemies" to suppress its
population and the use of these live organisms to maintain this lower population density. A weed's natural enemies
may be arthropods (insects, mites and their relatives), bacteria or fungi. These "control agents" feed upon or cause
disease in the weed, thereby limiting its growth, reproduction and spread.
There are two distinct primary approaches to weed biocontrol: classical and inundative.
Classical (inoculative) biocontrol involves the release of a relatively small number of control agents. These agents
feed on the weed, reproduce and gradually suppress the weed as their population grows. For this approach,
arthropods are generally used as control agents.
Inundative biocontrol. In this type of biological control, large quantities of a control agent, generally a pathogen (a
bacteria or fungus that causes disease in a weed) are applied to weeds in much the same manner as a chemical
herbicide would be.

How are biological control agents identified and introduced?


Step 1: Identifying target weeds To be considered a good candidate for biological control, a weed should be:
1.

non-native

2.

present in numbers and densities greater than in its native range and numerous enough to cause
environmental or economic damage. The weed should also be

3.

present over a broad geographic range


have few or no redeeming or beneficial qualities

4.

have taxonomic characteristics sufficiently distinct from those of economically important and native plant
species

5.

for classical biocontrol, the weed should occur in relatively undisturbed areas to allow for the establishment
of biological control agents. Cultivation, mowing and other disturbances can have a destructive effect on many
arthropod biocontrol agents. Inundative biocontrol agents such as bacteria and fungi are less sensitive to
these types of disturbances so may be used in cropland.

Step 2: Identifying control agents and assessing level of specialization Scientists observe weeds in their areas of
origin (Asia and Europe in the case of many weeds in Canada) and collect the insects and other organisms attacking
the plants and affecting their survival. Most of the pathogens being examined as biocontrol agents are native to North
America.
These organisms are subjected to a multi-level screening process to assess their host range and their effect on the
weed. These screening efforts do two things: they ensure the safety of any valuable crop, forage or native plant
species that the agents may encounter when released, and they assess the efficacy of the agent.
Assessing the host range (how specific the potential biocontrol agent is to a particular plant) is probably the most
important step in this process. Over very long periods, some plants and herbivores have evolved to form very close
associations. Plants have developed a number of defenses, such as toxic chemicals, that plant-eating organisms
(herbivores) must overcome. Some herbivores have evolved the ability to bypass only certain host plantTMs defenses
such that they cannot feed or develop on anything else.

To find out how specialized a particular agent is, scientists collect and expose them to a wide assortment of plants.
These plants include crop and forage species as well as species native to the intended release area, especially if the
species are close relatives of the weed. Screening potential biological control agents ensures that only those with a
very narrow host range (i.e. those that represent no threat to crop, forage or native species) are released.
Step 3: Controlled release All biological control agents must be approved under the Plant Protection Act and are
reviewed by an advisory panel of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada before they can be released. Following federal
approval, the agents are released on their target weeds at selected experimental sites, which are closely monitored.
Data from these sites help to assess both the agentsTM potential for survival under field conditions in western Canada
and their potential to cause damage to the target weed.
Step 4: Full release and identifying optimal release sites If the agents survive our harsh climate and damage or
suppress the weeds in the controlled tests, they can be released on other weed infestations.
The agents are released on as many varied sites as agent numbers, time and resources will permit. Note that
instructions for the proper method and timing of agent releases should be followed closely, and these instructions will
vary with the species of agent. The agents are then carefully monitored. Release on a large variety of sites allows
scientists to find the habitats best suited to each species.
Many types of biological control agents spend at least part of their lives underground and can be very sensitive to the
soil types and conditions present in the various areas. For example, the black dot leafy spurge beetle, Aphthona
nigriscutis, spends its entire larval stage underground feeding on leafy spurge roots. Information gathered from a
number of release sites indicates that these beetles prefer dry, sandy soils and will not do nearly as well in soils with
higher moisture levels.
Step 5: Monitoring release sites (classical) Release sites should be monitored periodically to assess the size of the
biological control agent population and the effect of the agent on the weed. A sweep net is particularly useful for
sampling insect biological control agents that feed on the foliage of the weed. (Figure 1).

Figure 1. A sweep net helps in monitoring.

Monitoring release sites is very important to determine if agents have established on a site. Some insect biocontrol
agents may need two to five years before their populations increase to a sufficient size to have a visible impact on
weed numbers.
When the classical control agent is establishing on a weed infestation and increasing its numbers, the site should not
be mowed or disturbed. Herbicide may be used along the boundaries of the weed infestation to help contain the weed
while the biological agent is increasing in population and spread.
Step 6: Redistribution (classical) If a biological control agent is released on a site with favourable conditions, its
population can grow quickly.
A large number of insects can suppress the weed in this area and may allow for the establishment of an "insectary".
This is an area where the insect population has grown to the point where the insects can be collected in very large
numbers. Insects collected from these sites can be distributed to other weed-infested areas. Once established, the
insects can suppress the weeds in these areas as well. An important point to remember is that it can take years
before a biocontrol agent.s population reaches this size. The agents should not be collected for redistribution before
this time.

Figure 2. Relative weed and biological control agent population size

Step 7: Maintaining control agent populations (classical) What happens to the control agents as their food supply
dwindles over time? Because the weeds are never completely eradicated, a small population of insects stays on the
few remaining plants. Insects that cannot be supported by the weed population at this lower level either move to new
stands or die.
If weed numbers increase for some reason, the number of insects will increase as well. Weed numbers fluctuate
around a new, much lower equilibrium point after control is implemented (see Figure 2).

Advantages and limitations?


Biological control is advantageous because of its selectivity; there is little danger of damage to non-target plant
species. Biological control agents are also very effective in inaccessible areas.
Another attractive feature of biological control is its negligible environmental impact. This weed control method does
not bring any of the problems associated with herbicide residues, contaminated groundwater and weed resistance to
herbicides.
Individual applications of classical biological control are also potentially much less expensive over time. A small
number of biocontrol agents can, once established, grow to very high densities and provide continuous control of a
weed over a large area.
When the cost of development is considered, classical biocontrol is generally less expensive than chemical control.
Classical biological control does have its limitations, however. It lacks the immediacy of chemical control. Populations
require time to become established, so signs of weed suppression are rarely evident in the first year. Screening work
(determining the selectivity and effectiveness of a biocontrol agent) is also very time consuming and is subject to
limited funding.

A prairie success story

Figure 3. Leafy spurge biocontrol (Edmonton)

Herbivorous insects have shown the greatest potential as classical biological control agents, and most of the work on
the biological control of weeds on the prairies involves their use (Figure 3).
Evaluating the effectiveness of these insects to control some of the worst weeds on the prairies is the focus of much
research by Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food, Manitoba
Agriculture, the Alberta Research Council and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, in cooperation with agencies from
around the world.
The most successful insect to be used in the prairies is the black dot spurge beetle (Aphthona nigriscutis). Release
of these insects on leafy spurge has resulted in a 99 per cent reduction in spurge stand density in one area and a
corresponding 30-fold increase in grass biomass after four years.

Figure 4. Leafy spurge has become a serious problem

Leafy Spurge (Euphorbia esula) is a deep-rooted, noxious perennial weed that was accidentally introduced to North
America in the early 1800's (Figure 4). The plants grow to a height of 1 metre, have long, thin, dark green leaves and
can be identified from a distance by their distinctive yellow-green flowers. Since its introduction, it has spread to
become a very serious problem on rangeland, pasture and grassland throughout the southern prairies and is

gradually working its way north. year. Each adult female is capable of producing about 150 offspring in a growing
season. This control agent does best in dry, sandy soils (Figure 6).
Leafy spurge is very competitive and easily out-competes many forage and native plant species. The juice of the
plant is a white, milky latex that may cause mouth and throat blistering in cattle and contact dermatitis in people.
Ingestion of large amounts of leafy spurge has been suspected of causing death in cattle.
Cattle avoid spurge-infested areas, greatly reducing the livestock carrying capacity of infested range and pastureland.
Leafy spurge has proven to be very difficult and expensive to control with herbicides and virtually impossible to
control with cultural techniques.

Figure 5. Black dot spurge beetle

Originating in Europe, the black dot spurge beetle (Aphthona nigriscutis) measures 2 to 3 mm in length. Adult beetles
feed on the foliage of the weed and larvae feed on the roots (Figure 5).

Figure 6. Good black dot spurge beetle release site

The larvae cause most of the damage to the plant, both directly through their root and root hair feeding, and
secondarily by creating feeding wounds that provide an entry for various disease-causing organisms. The black-dot
spurge beetle produces one generation per year. Each adult female is capable of producing about 150 offspring in a
growing season. This control agent does best in dry, sandy soils (Figure 6).

Figure 7. Brown-legged spurge beetle

Several other spurge beetles have shown promise in controlling this noxious weed: Aphthona lacertosa and Aphthona
czwalinae, the brown-legged and black spurge beetles (Figure 7) and Aphthona cyparissiae, the brown dot spurge
beetle.
The brown-legged and black spurge beetles have been available in numbers for only a short time, so characterization
of their habitat requirements is ongoing. Initially, they seem to prefer relatively moister and loamier sites than A.
nigriscutis. The brown dot spurge beetle shows a preference for slightly moist, sandy soils in open sunny areas.
Research is continuing to find insects that will attack leafy spurge in forested areas.

Biological control work in progress


Agents currently being tested:

scentless chamomile (Matricaria perforata) with the Austrian stem-mining weevil Microplontus edentulus and
the gall midge Rhopalomyia sp.

yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris) and Dalmatian toadflax (L. dalmatica) with the stem-mining weevil Mecinus
janthinus and yellow toadflax with the root- mining moth Eteobalea serratella (Figure 10)

field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) with the gall- forming mite Aceria malherbae

cleavers (Galium spurium) with the gall mite Cecidophyes rouhollahi

hound's-tongue (Cynoglossum officinale) with the root weevil Mogulones cruciger

purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) with foliage feeding beetles of the genus Galerucella

Figure 8. Scentless chamomile (Matricaria perforata) with the seed weevil Omphalapion hookeri

Figure 9. Bladder campion (Silene vulgaris) with the foliage, flower and seed-feeding tortoise beetle Cassida azurea

Figure 10. Yellow toadflax (Linaria vulgaris) with the stem- mining weevil (Mecinus janthinus)

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is being evaluated as a possible candidate for biological control.
Trials focusing on inundative biological control are also underway. The first pathogen to be registered as a
bioherbicide was the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f.sp malvae (Figure 11) for control of round-leaved
mallow (Malva pusilla) in field crops (Figure 12). This bioherbicide was formerly licensed for commercialization under
the tradename BioMal. Currently, it is licensed to Encore Technologies LLC with a tradename to be determined for
commercial release in the near future.
Other target weeds for inundative biological control are wild oat, green foxtail, Canada thistle, cleavers and scentless
chamomile.

Figure 12. Lentils treated with Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f.sp. malvae (lower left) and the untreated control (lower right) three weeks
after application.

How to obtain biological control agents


Farmers, ranchers and landowners with any questions or an interest in obtaining these biological control agents
should contact:

local provincial government crop specialist or extension agrologist

municipal agricultural fieldman

Dr. Alec McClay, Alberta Research Council (Vegreville) (780) 632-8207

James Tansey (780) 422-1107 and Dan Cole (780) 422-0919, Agronomy Unit, Alberta Agriculture, Food and
Rural Development (Edmonton)

Clark Brenzil (306) 787-4673, Sustainable Production Branch, Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food
(Regina)

Kim Brown (204) 745-5671, Crop Diversification Section, Manitoba Agriculture (Carmen)

Dr. Rose DeClerck-Floate or Dr. Rob Bourchier, Agriculture and Agri-Foods Canada (Lethbridge) (403) 3274561

Dr. Karen Bailey or Dr. Susan Boyetchko, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (Saskatoon) (306) 956-7200

Contact any of the above if landowners are interested in hosting experimental sites or have additional questions.
Photos courtesy of Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development; Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada; Alec McClay
and Robert B. Hughes, Alberta Research Council.

Management of Soil-born pathogens

Management of Soilborne Pathogens


(Reviewed 3/09, updated 3/09)
In this Guideline:

Publication

Glossary

Soil is a reservoir for many plant pathogens and plants are under constant attack by these
soilborne organisms. If conditions become favorable for infection, plants will develop
disease. Population levels of soilborne pathogens, including bacteria, fungi,nematodes, and
some viruses can be reduced in the soil by appropriate treatments.
Learn which pathogens attack the crop to be grown. Examine the crop regularly, at least
weekly, for symptoms of disease or signs of pathogens. To monitor for root diseases, select
a few plants from different locations and remove plants from their containers or gently
scrape or wash away soil. Examine roots and crowns for browning, softness, or other early
indications of disease. Also look for discolored or wilted plants and fungal growths
aboveground, which may indicate more advanced stages of disease. Test kits are available
for detecting Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Phytophthora fungi infecting greenhouse and
container-grown nursery plants. However, keep in mind that some test kits do not
specifically test for pathogenic species; in such cases, nonpathogens could result in a false
positive result. Use test kits in combination with other information to make good pest
management.
Understand the conditions and practices that promote disease and regularly examine for and
remedy disease-promoting conditions and practices.Poor sanitation, inadequate drainage,
and improper irrigation are the primary conditions that promote diseases of roots.
Remove crop residue and old or low-quality plants that will not be marketed.
Soil Solarization. In warmer climatic areas, solarization has been effective for disinfesting
containerized soil or growing medium and soil in cold frames, as well as soil in open fields.
For soil in containers, monitor the temperatures of the growing medium closely to ensure
that it is high enough to control pests by placing a soil thermometer into the center of the
mass of the soil mix. Planting media can be solarized either in bags or flats covered with
transparent plastic or in layers 3- to 9-inches wide sandwiched between two sheets of
plastic. A double layer of plastic can increase soil temperature by up to 50F. In warmer
areas of California, soil inside black plastic sleeves can reach 158F (70C) during
solarization, equivalent to target temperatures for soil disinfestation by aerated steam. At
this temperature, soil is effectively solarized within 30 minutes. At 140F (60C), soil is
solarized in 1 hour.
In open fields, soil is more easily covered with a single layer of plastic. Soil temperatures
will be lower except at the surface, so plastic should be left in place for 4 to 6 weeks. For
maximum effectiveness and treatment predictability, solarize open fields only in warmer
climatic areas, unless previous testing has given consistently desirable results. Solarization
is acceptable for organic production.
Heat. Heating the soil is very effective and has the advantage over chemical treatment in
that the soil can be planted immediately after cooling. Many plant pathogens are killed by
short exposures to high temperatures; however, experience has shown that the soil
temperatures should be maintained for approximately 30 minutes. Most plant pathogens
can be killed by temperatures of 140F (60C) for 30 minutes; however, some viruses (as
well as weed seeds) may survive this treatment. (Where weed seeds are a problem, a

higher treatment temperature is required, but the tobacco mosaic virus [TMV] and some
weed seeds still will not be killed by the higher temperature.)
Although pure steam at sea level is at 212F (100C), the temperature at which steam is
used to treat soil is usually about 180F because of air that is present in the steam or in the
soil being treated. If air is mixed with steam, the temperature of the steam-air mixture can
be closely controlled, depending on the ratio of air to steam. It has been demonstrated that
some diseases, such as Rhizoctonia damping-off, are much less severe in soil that has been
treated at 140F rather than at 180F. Experience will tell the grower at just what
temperature to treat soil. As a starting point try 140F (60C) for 30 minutes.
If a cement mixer is used to heat a bulk quantity of soil, generally it is not necessary to
introduce air into the steam because a large amount of air is present in the mixer and the
temperature can be controlled by simply regulating the flow of steam. Expensive air blowers
are not required for this method.
Steam heating of containers filled with soil in vaults likewise may not require the
introduction of air into the steam to control the temperature. However, circulation within the
vault to insure even distribution of heat is important. Circulating fans can be located within
or external to the vault and the steam can be introduced into the recirculating air. Leave
space between the vaults and check temperatures throughout the vault to insure that there
is good circulation of steam air.
Soil Fumigants. The most useful soil fumigants are methyl bromide and chloropicrin. (The
2007 Critical Use Exemption list allows use of methyl bromide for moderate-to-severe
pathogen infestation.) Although registered for use, metam-sodium (Vapam), and dazomet
(Basamid) are not very effective for controlling many soilborne pathogens,
including Verticillium and Fusarium oxysporum. Fumigants such as methyl bromide are a
source of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) but are not reactive with other air
contaminants that form ozone; methyl bromide depletes ozone. Fumigate only as a last
resort when other management strategies have not been successful or are not available.
Methyl bromide is a gas at temperatures over 40F. It escapes rapidly from soil if not
applied under a gas-proof cover. Polyethylene sheeting is commonly used to confine methyl
bromide, although the gas does slowly escape through polyethylene. Methyl bromide is
probably the most versatile of the soil fumigants because of its ability to diffuse rapidly
through the soil and kill many kinds of organisms, weeds, and many seeds. Soil generally
can be planted in just a few days after removal of plastic covers, although there are
exceptions. A few plants such as Allium spp., carnations, and snapdragons are sensitive to
and may be damaged by inorganic bromide that remains in the soil following fumigation.
Leaching the soil with water before planting is helpful in reducing the amount of bromide in
the rooting area. Methyl bromide alone usually does not kill all of the microsclerotia
ofVerticillium dahliae, the fungus that is the causal agent of Verticillium wilt. When this
fungus occurs it is often necessary to include chloropicrin in the fumigant.
Methyl bromide may be injected by chisels if the soil is covered immediately by plastic. It is
the only soil fumigant that needs to be applied under plastic covers. This is a restricted use
material and requires a permit from the county agricultural commissioner to be purchased

and/or applied. With the impending loss of methyl bromide as a registered funigant,
research is being conducted to find viable alternatives because of ozone depletion concerns.
Chloropicrin (trichloronitromethane) must be injected into soil. It is the best fumigant for
controlling Verticillium dahliae. It generally is combined with methyl bromide in various
mixtures depending upon the organisms in the soil. If used alone, a water seal may be used
to confine the gas; however, the gas is very objectionable and irritating (it is commonly
known as tear gas) and, if not effectively confined, it may drift to inhabited areas. This is a
restricted use material and requires a permit from the county agricultural commissioner to
be purchased and/or applied.
Soil Fungicides. Some fungicides work best if incorporated before planting. Others may be
incorporated or applied after sowing or planting. Some soil fungicides control a narrow
range of organisms while others control a wide range of organisms. Some of the narrow
range chemicals are the most effective in controlling a specific organism. Combinations are
used to increase the number of organisms controlled.
Fosetyl-Al (Aliette) is active against Phytophthora species and some Pythium species. It is
applied as a soil drench or as a foliar spray but is more effective as a foliar spray. It is
absorbed by foliage and moves into roots. It is used as a drench at 0.8 to 1.6 lb a.i./1000
sq ft using 0.5 to 1.5 pt water/sq ft. As a foliar spray it is applied at 2 to 4 lb a.i./100 gal
water.
The active ingredient in SoilGard is Gliocladium virens, a soilborne fungus that under certain
conditions helps provide control of Pythium andRhizoctonia fungi.
Iprodione (Chipco 26019) is used at 0.2 lb a.i./100 gal water applied as a drench (12 pt/sq
ft) at seeding or transplanting. It is effective against Rhizoctonia damping-off, Sclerotinia,
and gray mold. Some iprodione is absorbed by plant parts.
Mefenoxam (Subdue Maxx) is active against Pythium, Phytophthora, and downy mildews but
is not effective against pathogens outside of this group of organisms. This material replaces
the fungicide metalaxyl. It is applied at planting as a drench and periodically thereafter as
needed. Mefenoxam is also available in a granular formulation to use before planting. It is
water-soluble and readily leached from soil. It is absorbed by plant parts including roots;
movement in the plant is primarily in the xylem. Use of this material over a period of time
may lead to resistance.
PCNB (Terraclor), also called quintozene, is very active against diseases caused
by Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia spp. and is the best available material for southern wilt
caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. It is insoluble in water and must be thoroughly mixed with soil
to reach its desired depth of control. It works through vapor action and has good residual
action. It is inactive against Pythium pathogens. It is used at 0.5 to 1 lb a.i./1000 sq ft and
mixed into the top 2 inches of soil for control of Rhizoctonia damping-off. Germination of
some seeds may be inhibited and small plants may be stunted by this fungicide.
Streptomyces griseoviridis (Mycostop) is a biofungicide reported to help control seed rot,
root and stem rot, and wilt caused by Alternaria andPhomopsis in container-grown

ornamentals. In the greenhouse it may suppress Botrytis gray molds and root rots
of Pythium, Phytophthora, andRhizoctonia.
Thiophanate-methyl (FungoFlo, Cleary's 3336, Zyban, Systec, etc.) is generally applied after
sowing. It helps to control Rhizoctonia diseases, cottony rot, Thielaviopsis rots, and some
Cylindrocladium diseases. It is not effective
against Pythium spp., Phytophthora spp., Sclerotium rolfsii, Botrytis spp., or Fusarium spp.
It is used at 0.5 lb a.i. or less/100 gal water and applied as a drench or heavy spray (1-2
pt/sq ft). Thiophanate-methyl is absorbed by plant parts exposed to the chemical. Roots
may absorb the fungicide (or its breakdown product carbendazim), which moves in the
xylem to transpiring leaves.
Trichoderma spp. (Garden Solutions, Root Guardian) is a biological fungicide reported to
help provide control of root diseases caused by Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium in
nursery and greenhouse crops. It is formulated as a seed protectant, a soil drench, and as
granules.
Triflumizole (TerraGuard) is a protectant fungicide used as a cutting soak, soil drench, foliar
spray, or through chemigation for control ofCylindrocladium spp. Its use is restricted to
enclosed commercial structures such as greenhouses and shade houses.
Seed Treatments. Streptomyces griseoviridis (Mycostop) is used as a seed treatment for
damping-off and early root rots for ornamentals planted in fields or greenhouse. Captan and
thiram are also seed treatments; they are generally applied at rates of 1 to 4 oz/100 lb
seed, but they offer only a small degree of protection.
Materials used for bulb or corm dips include thiabendazole (Mertect), which controls
Fusarium basal rot and Penicillium blue mold.
Treatment of Containers and Equipment. Debris, soil, and plant material cling to
containers and equipment; thoroughly wash equipment to remove all soil or planting mix
particles. Heat treatment is effective in killing the plant pathogens that adhere to containers
or that are in the debris. Where steam is not available, hot water or solarization can be very
effective. Most plastic can be treated with hot water at temperatures that cause minimal
softening. The minimum water temperature should be 140F (60C) whenever possible.
Treatment time can be as short as 1 minute. Longer treatment times are more reliable and
the container or equipment must reach at least 140F (60C). For solarization, containers
should be moistened, stacked, and placed beneath a double-layer tent. Incubate for 30
minutes at or above 158F (70C) or 1 hour at or above 140F (60C).
Sodium hypochlorite (the active ingredient in bleach) is effective in killing some types of
fungal spores and bacteria. It penetrates clinging soil and plant material very poorly. It is
effective only as a surface disinfectant, so containers, tools, etc. must be free of soil and
plant material and clean before treatment. Sodium hypochlorite is generally used as a
surface disinfectant at 0.5%. To achieve this concentration of sodium hypochlorite,
household bleach can be diluted 1 part bleach to 10 parts water. For known contaminated
materials, a stronger solution diluted 1 part bleach to 5 parts water (1% sodium
hypochlorite), may be more effective in killing pathogens. Allow the solution to be in contact

with nonporous materials for a minimum of 5 to 10 minutes, then rinse well with clean
water to remove bleach and avoid phytotoxicity. Bleach dilutions must be made fresh each
day because once diluted, the effectiveness of the solution diminishes over time. Debris,
potting mix, and other residues left over in bleach washes will also reduce bleach
concentration.
Quaternary ammonia compounds are excellent bactericides and viricides, and are effective
in killing some kinds of fungal spores. They penetrate plant material and soil poorly so
containers, tools, etc. must be clean before treatment.

Biological pest control


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The current scope of this article does not include composting techniques. For these
see Composting: Destroying pathogens, seeds, or unwanted plants or Mulch: Mulching
(composting) over unwanted plants.
Biological control is a bioeffector-method of controlling
pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms.[1] It relies
on predation,parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also involves an active
human management role. It can be an important component of integrated pest management (IPM)
programs. There are three basic types of biological pest control strategies: importation (sometimes
called classical biological control), augmentation and conservation.
Natural enemies of insect pests, also known as biological control agents, include
predators, parasitoids, and pathogens. Biological control agents of plant diseases are most often
referred to as antagonists. Biological control agents of weeds include seed
predators, herbivores and plant pathogens.

Contents
[hide]

1 Types of biological pest control


o

1.1 Importation

1.2 Augmentation

1.3 Conservation

2 Biological control agents


o

2.1 Predators

2.2 Parasitoid insects

2.3 Micro-organisms

2.3.1 Bacteria

2.3.2 Fungi

2.3.3 Viruses

2.4 Combined use of parasitoids and pathogens

2.5 Plants

2.6 Indirect control

3 Effects of biological control


o

3.1 Effects on native biodiversity

3.2 Effects on invasive species

4 Grower education

5 See also

6 References

7 Further reading

8 External links

Types of biological pest control[edit]


There are three basic types of biological pest control strategies: importation (sometimes called
classical biological control), augmentation and conservation. [2]

Importation[edit]
Importation (or "classical biological control") involves the introduction of a pest's natural enemies to a
new locale where they do not occur naturally. This is usually done by government authorities. In
many instances the complex of natural enemies associated with a pest may be inadequate, a
situation that can occur when a pest is accidentally introduced into a new geographic area, without
its associated natural enemies. These introduced pests are referred to as exotic pests and comprise
about 40% of the insect pests in the United States.[citation needed]
The process of importation involves determining the origin of the introduced pest and then collecting
appropriate natural enemies associated with the pest or closely related species. Selected natural

enemies are then passed through a rigorous assessment, testing and quarantine process, to ensure
that they will work and that no unwanted organisms (such as hyperparasitoids) are introduced. If
these procedures are passed, the selected natural enemies are mass-produced and then released.
Follow-up studies are conducted to determine if the natural enemy becomes successfully
established at the site of release, and to assess the long-term benefit of its presence. [citation needed]
To be most effective at controlling a pest, a biological control agent requires a colonizing ability
which will allow it to keep pace with the spatial and temporal disruption of the habitat. Its control of
the pest will also be greatest if it has temporal persistence, so that it can maintain its population even
in the temporary absence of the target species, and if it is an opportunistic forager, enabling it to
rapidly exploit a pest population.[3] However an agent with such attributes is likely to be non-host
specific, which is not ideal when considering its overall ecological impact, as it may have unintended
effects on non-target organisms.[citation needed]
There are many examples of successful importation programs, including:

Joseph Needham noted a Chinese text dating from 304AD, Records of the Plants and Trees
of the Southern Regions, by Hsi Han, which describes mandarin oranges protected by biological
pest control techniques that are still in use today.

One of the earliest successes in the west was in controlling Icerya purchasi, the cottony
cushion scale, a pest that was devastating the California citrus industry in the late 19th century.
A predatory insect Rodolia cardinalis (the Vedalia Beetle), and a parasitoid fly were introduced
from Australia by Charles Valentine Riley. Within a few years the cottony cushion scale was
completely controlled by these introduced natural enemies.

Damage from Hypera postica Gyllenhal, the alfalfa weevil, a serious introduced pest of
forage, was substantially reduced by the introduction of several natural enemies. 20 years after
their introduction the population of weevils in the alfalfa area treated for alfalfa weevil in
the Northeastern United States was reduced by 75 percent.

A small wasp, Trichogramma ostriniae, was introduced from China to help control
the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis), one of the most destructive insects in North
America, making it a recent example of a long history of classical biological control efforts for this
major pest.

The population of Levuana iridescens (the Levuana moth), a serious coconut pest in Fiji, was
brought under control by a classical biological control program in the 1920s.

Classical biological control is long lasting and inexpensive. Other than the initial costs of collection,
importation, and rearing, little expense is incurred. When a natural enemy is successfully established
it rarely requires additional input and it continues to kill the pest with no direct help from humans and
at no cost. However importation does not always work. It is usually most effective against exotic
pests and less so against native insect pests. The reasons for failure are not often known but may
include the release of too few individuals, poor adaptation of the natural enemy to environmental
conditions at the release location, and lack of synchrony between the life cycle of the natural enemy
and host pest.[citation needed]

Augmentation[edit]
Augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, boosting the naturally occurring
population. Relatively few natural enemies may be released at a critical time of the season
(inoculative release) or millions may be released (inundative release). An example of inoculative
release occurs in greenhouse production of several crops. Periodic releases of the
parasitoid, Encarsia formosa, are used to control greenhouse whitefly, and the predatory
mite Phytoseiulus persimilis is used for control of the two-spotted spider mite. Lady beetles,
lacewings, or parasitoids such as those from the genus Trichogramma are frequently released in
large numbers (inundative release). Recommended release rates for Trichogramma in vegetable or
field crops range from 5,000 to 200,000 per acre (1 to 50 per square metre) per week depending on
level of pest infestation. Similarly, entomopathogenic nematodes are released at rates of millions
and even billions per acre for control of certain soil-dwelling insect pests.

Hippodamia convergens, the convergent lady beetle, is commonly sold for biological control of aphids.

The spraying of octopamine analogues (such as 3-FMC) has been suggested as a way to boost the
effectiveness of augmentation.[citation needed] Octopamine, regarded as the invertebrate counterpart
of dopamine plays a role in activating the insects' flight-or-fight response. The idea behind using
octopamine analogues to augment biological control is that natural enemies will be more effective in
their eradication of the pest, since the pest will be behaving in an unnatural way because its flight-orfight mechanism has been activated.[clarification needed] Octopamine analogues are purported to have two
desirable characteristics for this type of application: (1) they affect insects at very low dosages (2)
they do not have a physiological effect in humans (or other vertebrates). [4][dubious discuss]

Conservation[edit]
The conservation of existing natural enemies in an environment is the third method of biological pest
control. Natural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their
conservation can be simple and cost-effective. Lacewings, lady beetles, hover flylarvae, and
parasitized aphid mummies are almost always present in aphid colonies.

A turnaround flowerpot, filled with straw to attract Dermaptera-species

Cropping systems can be modified to favor the natural enemies, a practice sometimes referred to as
habitat manipulation. Providing a suitable habitat, such as a shelterbelt, hedgerow, or beetle
bank where beneficial insects can live and reproduce, can help ensure the survival of populations of
natural enemies. Things as simple as leaving a layer of fallen down leaves or mulch in place
provides a suitable food source for worms and provides a shelter for small insects, in turn also
providing a food source for hedgehogs and shrew mice.Compost pile(s) and containers for making
leaf compost also provide shelter, as long as they are accessible by the animals (not fully closed). A
stack of wood may provide a shelter for voles, hedgehogs, shrew mice, some species of
butterflies, ... Long grass and pondsprovide shelters for frogs and toads (which themselves eat
snails). Not cutting any annual or other non-hardy plants before winter (but instead in spring) allows
many insects to make use of their hollow stems during winter.[5] In California prune trees are
sometimes planted in grape vineyards to provide an improved overwintering habitat or refuge for a
key grape pest parasitoid. The prune trees harbor an alternate host for the parasitoid, which could
previously overwinter only at great distances from most vineyards. The provisioning of artificial
shelters in the form of wooden caskets, boxes or flowerpots is also sometimes undertaken,
particularly in gardens, to make a cropped area more attractive to natural enemies. For example, the
stimulation of the natural predator Dermaptera is done in gardens by hanging upsidedown flowerpots filled with straw or wood wool. Green lacewings are given housing by using plastic
bottles with an open bottom and a roll of cardboard inside of it.[5] Birdhouses provide housing for
birds, some of whom eat certain pests. Attracting the most useful birds can be done by using a
correct diameter opening in the birdhouse (just large enough for the specific species of bird that
needs to be attracted to fit through, but not other species of birds).
Besides the provisioning of natural or artificial housing, the providing of nectar-rich plants is also
beneficial. Often, many species of plants are used so as to provide food for many natural predators,
and this for a long period of time (this is done by using different types of plants as each species only
blooms for a short period). It should be mentioned that many natural predators are nectivorous
during the adult stage, but parasitic or predatory as larvae. A good example of this is the soldier
beetle which is frequently found on flowers as an adult, but whose larvae eat aphids, caterpillars,

grasshopper eggs, and other beetles. Letting certain plants (as Helianthus spp, Rudbeckia spp,
Dipsacus spp, Echinacea spp) come into seed is also advised, to supply food for birds. Having some
trees or shrubs in place that carry berries is also practiced and provide a source of food for birds.
Often, trees/shrubs are used that do not produce berries fit for human consumption, avoiding food
competition. Examples are Sorbus spp, Amelanchier spp, Crataegus spp, Sambucus nigra, Ilex
aquifolium, Rhamnus frangula. Obviously for this to work, these trees can not be pruned/trimmed
until after the birds and other animals have eaten all of the berries.
Also, the providing of host plants (plants on which organisms can lay their eggs) may also be
necessairy. These organisms for which host plants can be foreseen can be certain natural predators,
caterpillars, and even a limited amount of host plants for pests can be tolerated. The latter ensures
that natural predators remain in the vicinity and tolerating a certain amount of loss to pests would be
needed anyhow since no chemical pesticides can be used (organic pesticides can be used but often
can, on itself, not eliminate all pests during an infestation). This, as natural predators are susceptible
to the same pesticides used to target pests. Plants for caterpillars are optional and only ensure that
sufficient amounts of moths are produced which form a source of food to bats. Bats may be wanted
as they also consume large amounts of mosquitoes, which despite not targeting any plants, can still
be a nuisance to people in areas where there is much standing water nearby (i.e. pond, creek, ...).
Conservation strategies such as mixed plantings and the provision of flowering borders can be more
difficult to accommodate in large-scale crop production. There may also be some conflict with pest
control for the large producer, because of the difficulty of targeting the pest species, also refuges
may be utilised by the pest insects as well as by natural enemies. Some plants that are attractive to
natural enemies may also be hosts for certain plant diseases, especially plant viruses that could be
vectored by insect pests to the crop.

Biological control agents[edit]


Predators[edit]

Lacewings are available from biocontrol dealers.

Predators are mainly free-living species that directly consume a large number of prey during their
whole lifetime.
Ladybugs, and in particular their larvae which are active between May and July in the northern
hemisphere, are voracious predators ofaphids, and will also consume mites, scale insects and
small caterpillars.
The larvae of many hoverfly species principally feed upon greenfly, one larva devouring up to fifty a
day, or 1000 in its lifetime. They also eat fruit tree spider mites and small caterpillars. Adults feed on
nectar and pollen, which they require for egg production.

Predatory Polistes wasp looking for bollworms or other caterpillars on a cotton plant

Dragonflies are important predators of mosquitoes, both in the water, where the
dragonfly naiads eat mosquito larvae, and in the air, where adult dragonflies capture and eat adult
mosquitoes. Community-wide mosquito control programs that spray adult mosquitoes also kill
dragonflies, thus reducing an important biocontrol agent.
Several species of entomopathogenic nematode are important predators of insect pests.
[6]
Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita is a microscopic nematode that kills slugs, thereafter feeding and
reproducing inside. The nematode is applied by watering onto moist soil, and gives protection for up
to six weeks in optimum conditions.
Other useful garden predators include lacewings, pirate bugs, rove and ground beetles, aphid
midge, centipedes, spiders, predatory mites, as well as larger fauna such
as frogs, toads, lizards, hedgehogs, slow-worms and birds. Cats and rat terriers kill field mice, rats,
June bugs, and birds. Dachshunds are bred specifically to fit inside tunnels underground to
kill badgers.
More examples:

Phytoseiulus persimilis (against spider mites)

Amblyseius californicus (against spider mites)

Amblyseius cucumeris (against spider mites)[7]

Typhlodromips swirskii (against spider mites, thrips, and white flies)

Feltiella acarisuga (against spider mites)

Stethorus punctillum (against spider mites)

Macrolophus caluginosus (against spider mites)

Parasitoid insects[edit]
Parasitoids lay their eggs on or in the body of an insect host, which is then used as a food for
developing larvae. The host is ultimately killed. Most insect parasitoids are wasps or flies, and
usually have a very narrow host range.
Four of the most important groups are:

Ichneumonid wasps: (510 mm). Prey mainly on caterpillars of butterflies and moths.

Braconid wasps: Tiny wasps (up to 5 mm) attack caterpillars and a wide range of other
insects including greenfly. A common parasite of the cabbage white caterpillar- seen as clusters
of sulphur yellow cocoons bursting from collapsed caterpillar skin.

Chalcid wasps: Among the smallest of insects (<3 mm). Parasitize eggs/larvae
of greenfly, whitefly, cabbage caterpillars, scale insects and Strawberry Tortrix Moth (Acleris
comariana).

Tachinid flies: Parasitize a wide range of insects including caterpillars, adult and
larval beetles, true bugs, and others.

Examples of parasitoids:

Encarsia formosa was one of the first biological control agents developed.

Diagram illustrating the life cycles of Greenhouse whitefly and its parasitoid wasp Encarsia formosa

Encarsia formosa A small predatory chalcid wasp which is a parasitoid of whitefly, a sapfeeding insect which can cause wilting andblack sooty moulds. It is most effective when dealing
with low level infestations, giving protection over a long period of time. The wasp lays its eggs in
young whitefly 'scales', turning them black as the parasite larvae pupates.

Eretmocerus spp. (against white flies)[8]

Aphidius colemani (against aphids)

Gonatocerus ashmeadi (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) has been introduced to control


the glassy-winged sharpshooter Homalodisca vitripennis (Hemipterae: Cicadellidae) in French
Polynesia and has successfully controlled ~95% of the pest density.[9]

Parasitoids are one of the most widely used biological control agents. Commercially there are two
types of rearing systems: short-term daily output with high production of parasitoids per day, and
long-term low daily output with a range in production of 4-1000million female parasitoids per week.
[10]
Larger production facilities produce on a yearlong basis, whereas some facilities will produce only
seasonally.
Rearing facilities are usually a significant distance from where the agents will be used in the field,
and transporting the parasitoids from the point of production to the point of use can pose problems.
Shipping conditions can be too hot, and even vibrations from planes or trucks can disrupt the
parasitoids.[10]

Micro-organisms[edit]
Further information: biopesticide
Pathogenic micro-organisms include bacteria, fungi, and viruses. They kill or debilitate their host and
are relatively host-specific. Various microbial insect diseases occur naturally, but may also be used
asbiological pesticides. When naturally occurring, these outbreaks are density-dependent in that
they generally only occur as insect populations become denser.

Bacteria[edit]
Bacteria used for biological control infect insects via their digestive tracts, so insects with sucking
mouth parts like aphids and scale insects are difficult to control with bacterial biological control.
[11]
Bacillus thuringiensis is the most widely applied species of bacteria used for biological control,
with at least four sub-species used to control Lepidopteran (moth, butterfly), Coleopteran(beetle)
and Dipteran (true flies) insect pests. The bacteria is available in sachets of dried spores which are
mixed with water and sprayed onto vulnerable plants such asbrassicas and fruit trees. Bacillus
thuringiensis has also been incorporated into crops, making them resistant to these pests and thus
reducing the use of pesticides.

Fungi[edit]
Fungi that cause disease in insects are known as entomopathogenic fungi, including at least
fourteen species that attack aphids.[12] Beauveria bassiana is used to manage a wide variety of insect
pests including: whiteflies, thrips, aphids and weevils. A remarkable additional feature of some fungi
is their effect on plant fitness. Trichoderma species may enhance biomass production promoting root
development, dissolving insoluble phosphate containing minerals.[citation needed]
Examples of entomopathogenic fungi:

Beauveria bassiana (against white flies, thrips, aphids and weevils)

Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (against white flies, thrips and aphids)

Metarhizium spp. (against beetles, locusts and grasshoppers, Hemiptera, spider mites and
other pests)
Lecanicillium spp. (against white flies, thrips and aphids)

Cordyceps species (includes teleomorphs of the above genera: that infect a wide spectrum
of arthropods)

Trichoderma species are used to manage certain plant pathogens. Trichoderma viride has
been used against Dutch Elm disease, and to treat the spread of fungal and bacterial growth on
tree wounds. It may also have potential as a means of combating silver leaf disease.

Several members of Chytridiomycota and Blastocladiomycota have been explored as agents of


biological control. From Chytridiomycota, Synchytrium solstitiale is being considered as a control
agent of the yellow star thistle (Centaurea solstitialis) in the United States.[13] Synchytrium
minutum occasionally parasitizes kudzu and was considered as a control agent against this weed
outside of its native range, but S. minutum parasitizes agricultural crop plants more frequently than it
parasitizes kudzu.[14] Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis was briefly considered and soundly rejected as
a means of controlling invasive frog populations in Hawaii.[15] From Blastocladiomycota, certain
members ofCoelomomyces were explored as possible agents of biological control of mosquitoes.[16]

Viruses[edit]

The European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is seen as a major pest in Australia and New Zealand.

A viral biological control that can be introduced in order to control the overpopulation
of European rabbit in Australia is the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus that causes the rabbit
haemorrhagic disease.

Combined use of parasitoids and pathogens[edit]


In cases of massive and severe infection of invasive pests, techniques of pest control are often used
in combination. An example being, that of the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire,
family Buprestidae), an invasive beetle from China, which has destroyed tens of millions of ash
trees in its introduced range in North America. As part of the campaign against the emerald ash
borer (EAB), American scientists in conjunction with the Chinese Academy of Forestry searched
since 2003 for its natural enemies in the wild leading to the discovery of several parasitoid wasps,
namely Tetrastichus planipennisi, a gregarious larval endoparasitoid,Oobius agrili, a solitary,
parthenogenic egg parasitoid, and Spathius agrili, a gregarious larval ectoparasitoid. These have
been introduced and released into theUnited States of America as a possible biological control of the
emerald ash borer. Initial results have shown promise with Tetrastichus planipennisi and it is now
being released along with Beauveria bassiana, a fungal pathogen with known insecticidal properties.
[17][18][19]

Plants[edit]
The legume vine Mucuna pruriens is used in the countries of Benin and Vietnam as a biological
control for problematic Imperata cylindrica grass. Mucuna pruriens is said not to be invasive outside
its cultivated area.[20] Desmodium uncinatum can be used in push-pull farming to stop the parasitic
plant, Striga.[21]

Indirect control[edit]
Pests may be controlled by biological control agents that do not prey directly upon them. For
example the Australian bush fly, Musca vetustissima, is a major nuisance pest in Australia, but native
decomposers found in Australia are not adapted to feeding on cow dung, which is where bush flies

breed. Therefore the Australian Dung Beetle Project(19651985,) led by Dr. George Bornemissza of
the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, released forty-nine species
of dung beetle,[22] with the aim of reducing the amount of dung and therefore also breeding sites of
the fly.[23]

Effects of biological control[edit]


Effects on native biodiversity[edit]

The cane toad, Bufo marinus

Biological control can potentially have positive and negative effects on biodiversity.[3] The most
common problems with biological control occur via predation, parasitism, pathogenicity, competition,
or other attacks on non-target species.[24] Often a biological control agent is imported into an area to
reduce the competitive advantage of an exotic species that has previously invaded or
been introduced there, the aim being to thereby protect the existing native species and ecology.
However the introduced control does not always target only the intended species; it can also target
native species.[25] In Hawaii during the 1940s parasitic wasps were introduced to control a
lepidopteran pest and the wasps are still found there today. This may have a negative impact on the
native ecosystem, however, host range and impacts need to be studied before declaring their impact
on the environment.[26]
Over the past 15 years with the rise in biological control interest there has become a greater focus
on the non-target impacts that could occur.[3] In the past many biological control releases were not
thoroughly examined and agents of biological control were released without any consideration.
When introducing a biological control agent to a new area, a primary concern is its host-specificity.
Generalist feeders (control agents that are not restricted to preying on a single species or a small
range of species) often make poor biological control agents, and may become invasive species
themselves. For this reason potential biological control agents should be subject to extensive testing
and quarantine before release into any new environment. If a species is introduced and attacks a
native species, the biodiversity in that area can change dramatically. When one native species is
removed from an area, it may have filled an essential ecological niche. When this niche is absent it
may directly affect the entire ecosystem.[citation needed]
Vertebrate animals tend to be generalist feeders, and seldom make good biological control agents;
many of the classic cases of "biocontrol gone awry" involve vertebrates. For example the cane
toad, Bufo marinus, was intentionally introduced to Australia to control the introduced French's Cane
Beetle and the Greyback Cane Beetle,[27] pests of sugar cane. 102 toads were obtained

from Hawaii and bred in captivity to increase their numbers until they were released into the sugar
cane fields of the tropic north in 1935. It was later discovered that the toads could not jump very high
and so they could not eat the cane beetles which stayed up on the upper stalks of the cane plants.
However the toad thrived by feeding on other insects and it soon spread very rapidly; it took over
native amphibian habitat and brought foreign disease to native toads and frogs, dramatically
reducing their populations. Also when it is threatened or handled, the cane toad
releases poison from parotid glands on its shoulders; native Australian species such
as goannas,tiger snakes, dingos and northern quolls that attempted to eat the toad were harmed or
killed.[28] This example shows how small mis-introduced organisms can alter the nativebiodiversity in
large ecosystems. If native species are reduced or eradicated, a domino effect can take place until a
new equilibrium is reached.
Other examples of biological control agents that subsequently crossed over to native species are:

Rhinocyllus conicus, a seed-feeding weevil, was introduced to North America to control


exotic thistles (Musk and Canadian). However the weevil does not target only the exotic thistles;
it also targets native thistles that are essential to various native insects which rely solely on
native thistles and do not adapt to other plant species.

The mongoose was introduced to Hawaii in order to control the rat population. However it
preyed on the endemic birds of Hawaii, especially their eggs, more often than it ate the rats.
(Note, however, that the introduction of the mongoose was not undertaken based on scientific
or perhaps anyunderstanding of the consequences of such an action. The introduction of a
generalist mammal for biocontrol of anything would be unthinkable by any reasonable standards
today.)

5 cats brought to the subantarctic Prince Edward Islands to catch mice in 1949 multiplied to
3,400 in about two decades and started to threaten local extinction of birds. They had to be
infected with feline distemper virus. The rest were shot and completely eliminated by the 1990s.

The sturdy and prolific mosquito fish was introduced from around the Gulf of Mexico to
around the world in the 1930s and 40s to combat malaria; however, it was found to cause the
decline of local fish and frogs through competition of other food source as well as eating their
eggs.[29] (See Mosquitofish in Australia)

Living organisms, through the process of evolution, may achieve increased resistance to biological,
chemical, and physical methods of control over time. In the event the target pest population is not
completely exterminated or is still capable of reproduction (were the pest control means a form of
sterilization), the surviving population could acquire a tolerance to the applied pressures - this can
result in an evolutionary arms race with the control method. Successful biological control reduces
the population density of the target species over several years, thus providing the potential for native
species to re-establish. In addition, regeneration and reestablishment programs can aid the recovery
of native species. To develop or find a biological control that exerts control only on the targeted
species is a very lengthy process of research and experiments.

Effects on invasive species[edit]

The invasive species Alternanthera philoxeroides (alligator weed) was controlled in Florida (U.S.) by the
introduction of Agasicles hygrophila(alligator weed flea beetle)

Biological control programs aim to reduce or eliminate populations of ecologically and agriculturally
harmful invasive species. Examples where this has been achieved include:

The alligator weed[30] was introduced to the United States from South America. This aquatic
weed spreads rapidly and causes many problems in lakes and rivers. The weed takes root in
shallow water causing major problems for navigation, irrigation, and flood control. The alligator
weed flea beetle and two other biological controls were released in Florida. Because of their
success, Florida banned the use of herbicides to control alligator weed three years after the
controls were introduced.[31]

Galerucella calmariensis, a leaf beetle, has been introduced in North America as a control
agent for purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria).

In the late 19th century cottony cushion scale was discovered in the
Californian citrus industry, and it was feared that severe economic losses would result. However
the vedalia beetle and, subsequently, Cryptochaetum iceryae, a parasitoid fly, were introduced to
control the pest. Within a few years the cottony cushion scale was controlled and the citrus
industry suffered little financial loss.[citation needed]

Salvinia molesta is a major aquatic weed. It covers many waterways causing damage to
water flow and the ecosystem. This weed was incorrectly identified at first. Scientists found
weevils eating this weed. They named this species of weevils C. salviniae. The weevils have
become a great biological control success for all countries.[32]

Prickly pear cacti, Opuntia spp., were introduced into Queensland, Australia as an
ornamental plant. It quickly spread to cover over 25 million hectares of Australia. Two control
agents were used to help control the spread of the plant. These were C. cactorum, a
Lepidopteran species, and Dactylopius spp., a Hemipteran species. [33]

Grower education[edit]
A potential obstacle to the adoption of biological pest control measures is growers sticking to the
familiar use of pesticides, particularly since it has been claimed that many of the pests that are
controlled today using pesticides, actually became pests because pesticide use reduced or
eliminated natural predators.[34] A method of increasing grower adoption of biocontrol involves letting

growers learn by doing, for example showing them simple field experiments, having observations of
live predation of pests, or collections of parasitised pests. In the Philippines, early season sprays
against leaf folder caterpillars were common practice, but growers were asked to follow a 'rule of
thumb' of not spraying against leaf folders for the first 30 days after transplanting; participation in this
resulted in a reduction of insecticide use by 1/3 and a change in grower perception of insecticide
use.[35]

UC IPM Home > Homes, Gardens, Landscapes, and Turf > Biological Control and Natura

How to Manage Pests

Pests in Gardens and Landscapes

Biological Control and Natural Enemies


Revised 12/14
In this Guideline:

Types of natural enemies

Recognizing natural enemies

Conservation: protect your natural enemies

Augmentation

Classical biological control or importation

Adult convergent lady beetle feeding on aphids.

Parasitic wasp larvae visible through the surface of their scale insect host.

Aphid mummies and a parasitic wasp (Lysiphlebus testaceipes).

Biological control is the beneficial action of parasites, pathogens, and predators in mana
organisms, collectively called natural enemies, is especially important for reducing the
biological control of rangeland and wildland weeds (e.g., Klamath weed, St. Johnswort)
have many natural enemies, but this biological control is often harder to recognize, less
augmentation, and classical biological control are tactics for harnessing natural enemies

TYPES OF NATURAL ENEMIES

Parasites, pathogens, and predators are the primary groups used in biological control of
many predators, are highly specialized and attack a limited number of closely related pe
resources such as the Natural Enemies Handbook and the Natural Enemies Gallery.

Parasites

A parasite is an organism that lives and feeds in or on a host. Insect parasites can devel
immature stage of the parasite feeds on the host. However, adult females of certain para
on and kill their hosts, providing an easily overlooked but important source of biological

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