52

Chapter 1

The Structure of Metals

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ashby, M.F., Materials Selection in Mechanical Design,
4th ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, 2010.
Ashby, M.F., and Jones, D.R.H., Engineering Materials, Vol. 1, An Introduction to Properties, Applications, and Microstructure, 4th ed., 2012; Vol. 2:

An Introduction to Microstructures and Processing.

Butterworth-Heinemann, 2012.
Ashby, M., Shercliff, H., and Cebon, D., Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design, 2nd ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2009.

Askeland, D.R., Fulay, P.P., and Wright, W.J., The Science

and Engineering of Materials, 6th ed., CL Engineering,
2010.
Callister, W.D., Jr., and Rethwisch, D.G., Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 8th ed., Wiley,
2010.
Shackelford, J.F., Introduction to Materials Science for
Engineers, 7th ed., Prentice Hall, 2008.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.1 What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?
A molecule and a crystal?
1.2 Describe ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds.
1. 3 Explain the difference between a unit cell and a single
crystal.
1.4 In tables on crystal structures, iron is listed as having
both a bee and an fcc structure. Why?
I.S Define anisotropy. What is its significance?
1.6 What effects does recrystallization have on the properties
of metals?
1.7 What is strain hardening, and what effects does it have
on the properties of metals?
1.8 Explain what is meant by structure-sensitive and
structure-insensitive properties of metals.
1.9 Make a list of each of the major types of imperfection in
the crystal structure of metals, and describe them.
1. I 0 What influence does grain size have on the mechanical
properties of metals?

I . I I What is the relationship between the nucleation rate and

the number of grains per unit volume of a metal?
I. 12 What is a slip system, and what is its significance?
I . 13 Explain the difference between recovery and recrystallization.
1.14 What is hot shortness, and what is its significance?
1. 1S Explain the advantages and limitations of cold, warm,
and hot working, respectively.
1.16 Describe what the orange peel effect is. Explain why
we may have to be concerned with the orange-peel effect on
metal surfaces.
1.1 7 Some metals, such as lead, do not become stronger when
worked at room temperature. Explain the reason.
1. 18 Describe the difference between preferred orientation
and mechanical fibering.
I. 19 Differentiate between stress relaxation and stress
relieving.
1.20 What is twinning? How does it differ from slip?

QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS
1.21 Explain your understanding of why the study of the
crystal structure of metals is important.
1.22 What is the significance of the fact that some metals
undergo allotropism?
1.23 Is it possible for two pieces of the same metal to have
different recrystallization temperatures? Is it possible for
recr"ystallization to take place in some regions of a part before
it does in other regions of the same part? Explain.
1.24 Describe your understanding of why different crystal
structures exhibit different strengths and ductilities.
1.25 A cold-worked piece of metal has been recrystallized.
When tested, it is found to be anisotropic. Explain the
probable reason.
1.26 What materials and structures can you think of (other
than metals) that exhibit anisotropic behavior?

1.27 Two parts have been made of the same material, bu1
one was formed by cold working and the other by hot work
ing. Explain the differences you might observe between the
two.
1.28 Do you think it might be important to know whethet
a raw material to be used in a manufacturing process has
anisotropic properties? What about anisotropy in the finished
product? Explain.
1.29 Explain why the strength of a polycrystalline metal ar
room temperature decreases as its grain size increases.
1.30 Describe the technique you would use to reduce
orange-peel effect on the surface of workpieces.
1.31 What is the significance of the fact that such metals
lead and tin have a recrystallization temperature that is
room temperature?

Quantitative Problems

icience
eering,

1.32 It was stated in this chapter that twinning usually

occurs in hcp materials, but Fig. 1.6b shows twinning in a
rectangular array of atoms. Can you explain the discrepancy?
1.33 It has been noted that the more a metal has been cold
worked, the less it strain hardens. Explain why.

us

53

I .34 Is it possible to cold work a metal at temperatures above

the boiling point of water? Explain.
1.3S Comment on your observations regarding Fig. 1.14.
1.36 Is it possible for a metal to be completely isotropic?
Explain.

Sci' Wiley,
nee for

nrateand
ance?
l recrystal,cance?
old, warm,
xplain why
effect on

~el

rongerwhen

n.
1 orientation
l

and stress

m stip?

e material, but
:r by hot workve between the
> know whether
:ing process has
PY in the finished

rstalline metal al
increases.
:se to reduce tli
,eces.
lat such metals~ t
abot
ature that lS

QUANTITATIVE
PROBLEMS
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.3 7 How many atoms are there in a single repeating cell of
an fcc crystal structure? How many in a repeating cell of an
hcp structure?
1.38 The atomic weight of copper is 63.55, meaning that
6.023 x 1023 atoms weigh 63.55 g. The density of copper
is 8970 kgtm3, and pure copper forms fcc crystals. Estimate
the diameter of a copper atom.
1.39 Plot the data given in Table 1.1 in terms of grainslrnm2
versus grains/mm3, and discuss your observations.
1.40 A strip of metal is reduced from 30 rnm in thickness to
20 mm by cold working; a similar strip is reduced from 40 to
30 mm. Which of these cold-worked strips will recrystallize
at a lower temperature? Why?
1.41 The ball of a ballpoint pen is 1 rnm in diameter and has
an ASTM grain size of 10. How many grains are there in the
ball?
1.42 How many grains are there on the surface of the head
of a pin? Assume that the head of a pin is spherical with a
1-mm diameter and has an ASTM grain size of 12.
1.43 The unit cells shown in Figs. 1.3-1.5 can be represented
by tennis balls arranged in various configurations in a box.
In such an arrangement, the atomic packing factor (APF) is
defined as the ratio of the sum of the volumes of the atoms
to the volume of the unit cell. Show that the APF is 0.68 for
the bee structure and 0.74 for the fcc structure.
1.44 Show that the lattice constant a in Fig. 1.4a is related to
the atomic radius by the formula a = 2-JlR, where R is the
radius of the atom as depicted by the tennis-ball model.

1.45 Show that, for the fcc unit cell, the radius r of the largest
hole is given by r = 0.414 R. Determine the size of the largest
hole for the iron atoms in the fcc structure.
1.46 A technician determines that the grain size of a certain
etched specimen is 8. Upon further checking, it is found that
the magnification used was 125x, instead of the 100x that
is required by the ASTM standards. Determine the correct
grain size.
1.47 If the diameter of the aluminum atom is 0.28 nm, how
many atoms are there in a grain of ASTM grain size 8?
1.48 The following data are obtained in tension tests of brass:

Grain size

Yield stress

(p.m)

(MPa)

15
20
50
75
100

150
140
105
90
75

Does the material follow the Hall-Petch equation? If so, what

is the value of k?
1.49 Assume that you are asked to submit a quantitative
problem for a quiz. Prepare such a question, supplying the
answer.
1.50 The atomic radius of iron is 0.125 nm, while that of a
carbon atom is 0..070 nm. Can a carbon atom fit inside a steel
bee structure wit~out distorting the neighboring atoms?
1.5 I Estimate the atomic radius for the following materials and data: (a) Aluminum (atomic weight:::: 26.98 glmol,
density = 2700 kglm 3); (b) tungsten (atomic weight =
183.85 glmol, density= 19,300 kglm3 ); and (c) magnesium
(atomic weight= 24.31 glmol, density= 1740 kg!m 3 ).
1.52 A simple cubic structure consists of atoms located at
the cube corners that are in contact with each other along the
cube edges. Make a sketch of a simple cubic structure, and
calculate its atomic packing factor.
1.53 Same as Prob. 1.39, but ASTM no. versus grains/mm3.

84

Mechanical Behavior, Testing. and Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Chapter 2

REVIEW QUESTIONS
............................. .. ............................................................................................................................................................
-~

2. I Distinguish between engineering stress and true stress.

2.2 In a stress-strain curve, what is the proportional limit?

2 . 15 Explain what uniform elongation means in tension

Is it different than the yield point?

2.3 Describe the events that take place when a specimen
undergoes a tension test. Sketch a plausible stress-strain
curve, and identify all significant regions and points between
them. Assume that loading continues up to fracture.
2.4 What is ductility, and how is it measured?
2 .5 In the equation a "" KEn, which represents the true
stress-strain curve for a material, what is the significance of
the exponent n?
2 .6 What is strain-rate sensitivity, and how is it measured?
2.7 What test can measure the properties of a material
undergoing shear strain?
2 .8 What testing procedures can be used to measure the
properties of brittle materials, such as ceramics and carbides?
2.9 Describe the differences between brittle and ductile fracture.
2.10 What is hardness? Explain.
2 . 11 Describe the features of a Rockwell hardness test.
2. 12 What is a Leeb test? How is it different from a Rockwell
A test?
2. 13 Differentiate between stress relaxation and creep.
2 . 14 Describe the difference between elastic and plastic
behavior.

2 . 16 Describe the difference between deformation rate and

testing.
strain rate. What unit does each one have?
2.17 Describe the difficulties involved in conducting a compression test.
2 . 18 What is Hooke's law? Young's modulus? Poisson's
ratio?
2 . 19 Describe the difference between transgranular and intergranular fracture.
2.20 Wha1: is the reason that yield strength is generally
defined as a 0.2% offset strength?
2.2 I Why does the fatigue strength of a specimen or part
depend on its surface finish?
2 .22 If striations are observed under microscopic examination of a fracture surface, what do they suggest regarding the
mode of fracture?
2.23 What is an Izod test? Why are Izod tests useful?
2.24 Why does temperature increase during plastic deformation?
2 .25 What is residual stress? How can residual stresses be
removed?

QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS
2 .26 On the same scale for stress, the tensile true stress-true

2.33 Consider an elastomer, such as a rubber band. This

strain curve is higher than the engineering stress-engineering

strain curve. Explain whether this condition also holds for a
compression test.
2.21 What are the similarities and differences between deformation and strain?
2 .28 Can a material have a negative Poisson's ratio? Give a
rationale for your answer.
2 .29 It has been stated that the higher the value of m, the
more diffuse the neck is, and likewise, the lower the value of
m, t):le more localized the neck is. Explain the reason for this
behavior.
2 .30 Explain why materials with high m values, such as hot
glass and Silly Putty, when stretched slowly, undergo large
elongations before failure. Consider events taking place in
the necked region of the specimen.
2 .3 1 With a simple sketch, explain whether it is necessary to
use the offset method to determine the yield stress, Y, of a
material that has been highly cold worked.
2.32 Explain why the difference between engineering strain
and true strain becomes larger as strain increases. Does this
difference occur for both tensile and compressive strains?
Explain.

material can undergo a large elastic deformation before fail

ure, but after fracture it recovers completely to its original
shape. Is this material brittle or ductile? Explain.
2 . 34 If a material (such as aluminum) does not have ar:
endurance limit, how then would you estimate its fatigue life/
2.35 What role, if any, does friction play in a hardness testi
Explain.
2.36 Which hardness tests and scales would you use for vet;
thin strips of metal, such as aluminum foil? Explain.
2.37 Consider the circumstance where a Vickers hardness teiJ
is conducted on a material. Sketch the resulting indentatioP
shape if there is a residual stress on the surface.
2.38 Which of the two tests, tension or compression,
require a higher capacity of testing machine, and why?
2.39 List and explain briefly the conditions that induce
fracture in an otherwise ductile metal.
2 .40 Ust the factors that you would consider in selectinf,
hardness test. Explain why.
2 .41 On the basis of Fig. 2.5, can you calculate the
elongation of the materials listed? Explain.
2.42 If a metal tension-test specimen is rapidly pulled
broken, where would the temperature be highest, and wh'

Quantitative Problems

ension
Lte and
a comoisson's
nd inter~enerally
1

or part

examinaarding the
tul?
c deforma-

2.43 Comment on your observations regarding the contents

of Table 2.2.
2.44 Will the disk test be applicable to a ductile material?
Why or why not?
2.4S What hardness test is suitable for determining the
hardness of a thin ceramic coating on a piece of metal?
2.46 Wire rope consists of many wires that bend and unbend
as the rope is run over a sheave. A wire-rope failure is investigated, and it is found that some of the wires, when examined
under a scanning electron microscope, display cup-and-cone
failure surfaces, while others display transgranular fracture
surfaces. Comment on these observations.
2.47 A statistical sampling of Rockwell C hardness tests
are conducted on a material, and it is determined that the
material is defective because of insufficient hardness. The
supplier claims that the tests are flawed because the diamondcone indenter was probably dull. Is this a valid claim?
Explain.

85

2.48 In a Brinell hardness test, the resulting impression is

found to be elliptical. Give possible explanations for this
result.
2.49 Some coatings are extremely thin-some as thin as a few
nanometers. Explain why even the Knoop test is not able to
give reliable results for such coatings. Recent investigations
have attempted to use highly polished diamonds (with a tip
radius around 5 nm) to indent such coatings in atomic force
microscopes. What concerns would you have regarding the
appropriateness of the test results?
2 .50 Select an appropriate hardness test for each of the
following materials, and justify your answer:
il.

b.
c.

d.
e.

f.

Cubic boron nitride

Lead
Cold-drawn 0.5%C steel
Diamond
Caramel candy
Granite

QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS

stresses be
2.51 A paper dip is made of wire 0.5 mm in diameter. If the
original material from which the wire is made is a rod 25
rrun in diameter, calculate the longitudinal engineering and
true strains that the wire has undergone during processing.
2.52 A 250-mm-long strip of metal is stretched in two steps,

first to 300 mm and then to 400 mm. Show that the total

....................
r band. This

>n before faitto its original

in.
; not have. a~
its fatigue hfet
. hardness test?
rou use for vet)
~xplain.

ers hardneSS te!l

ting indentatlO,

1ee.

wou
1press1on,
. and why?
iliat induce britt.!

true strain is the sum of the true strains in each step; in other
words, the true strains are additive. Show that, in the case of
engineering strains, the strains cannot be added to obtain the
total strain.
2.53 Identify the two materials in Fig. 2.5 that have the

lowest and the highest uniform elongations. Calculate these

quantities as percentages of the original gage lengths.
2.54 Plot the ultimate strength vs. stiffness for the materia!s listed in Table 2.2, and prepare a three-dimensional plot

for these materials where the third axis is their maximum

elongation in 50 mm.
2-55 If you remove the layer of material ad from the part
-h~.wn in Fig. 2.30d (for instance, by machining or grinding),

" tch way will the specimen curve? (Hint: Assume that the
art shown in sketch d in the figure is composed of four horinntal spnngs

held at the ends. Thus, from the top down,

' ~ have compresston,

tenston,
compressiOn,
and tens10n
, r ngs.)

'l~S. P~ove that the true strain at necking equals the strain

' ontng exponent.

2 )J Percent 1
ts
always defined in terms of the
e ongauon
1
.gage length, such as 50 mm. Explain how percent
.to~ would vary as the gage length of the tensile-test
1
11
._ _
tncreases. (Hint: Recall that necking is a local
"'''ll m enon.)

2.58 Make a sketch showing the nature and distribution of

residual stresses in Fig. 2.31a and b, prior to the material's

being cut. (Hint: Assume that the split parts are free from
any stresses; then force these parts back to the shape they
originally had.)
2.59 You are given the K and n values of two different metals. Is this information sufficient to determine which metal is
tougher? If not, what additional information do you need?
2.60 A cable is made of two strands of different materials, A
and B, and cross-sections, as follows:
For material A, K

= 415 MPa, n =0.5,

= 380 mm2 ;

For material B, K

= 210 MPa, n = 0.5, A = 190 mm2 .

A0
0

Calculate the maximum tensile force that this cable can

withstand prior to necking.
2.61 On the basis of the information given in Fig. 2.5, calculate the ultimate tensile strength (engineering) of 304 stainless
steel.
2.62 In a disk test performed on a specimen 25 mm in diameter
and 6 mm thick, the specimen fractures at a stress of 275 MPa.
What was the load on it?
.
2.63 A piece of steel has a hardness of 300 HB. Calculate its
tensile strength, in MPa and in psi.
2.64 A metal has the following properties: UTS = 480 MPa
and n = 0.20. Calculate its strength coefficient, K.
2.65 Using only Fig. 2.5, calculate the maximum load in tension testing of an annealed copper specimen with an original
diameter of 5 mm .
2.66 Estimate the modulus of resilience for a highly cold
worked piece of steel having a hardness of 250 HB, and