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Palaeolithic period 2million years ago till 12000 yrs ago. This period covers
99% of human history.
Paleo means old, lithic means stone.
-Divided into
1).Lower
2).Middle
3).Upper Palaeolithic periods
West
Citadel
East
Lower
Rulers - People who planned the construction of special buildings in the city
Situated near areas where raw materials like semi-precious stones were
easily available
Imp centre for making objects out of stone, shell and metal
The end:
3900 yrs ago ppl stopped living in many cities
- writings, weights, seals no longer used
-Raw materials became rare
-In Mohenjodaro garbage piled up on the streets
-Drainage system broke
-Less elaborate houses
Reasons suggested:
1).Drying up of rivers
2).Deforestation: Fuel was required for smelting Cu ores and baking bricks
3).Destruction of Green cover due to grazing by large herds of cattle
4).Floods in some areas
Megaliths:
-some were buried with more beads, ornaments etc which show some kind of
status difference
-one family had same burial site
-Kshatriyas- rulers
-vaishyas - farmers, herders, traders
-Shudras - had to serve other groups; couldnt perform rituals
-Women and shudras cudnt study vedas
-Varna decided by birth
Janapadas: The land where jana sets its foot and settled down.
Rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now known as rajas of janapadas
rather than janas(vish).
-rajas of janapadas were given gifts by the jana
Some janapadas became more important and were now called as
Mahajanapadas
-They had a capital city, many were fortified.
Rajas now began to maintain armies; soldiers paid regular salaries; some
payments were thru punch marked coins
-Taxes were imposed now to maintain armies and to raise resources to build forts
-Bhaga or a share: tax on crops =1/6th of what was produced;
-Tax on craft persons in form of labour like work for a day
-Herders: animals or animal produce
-Hunters n Gatherers: forest produce
2 major Changes in Agriculture:
1).Growing use of Iron ploughshares which meant more grain as iron plough
could turn the soil over better then wooden ones
2).Transplantation of paddy began: Instead of scattering seeds, saplings were
grown n then planted on fields. It lead to an increased production as many more
plants survived
-dasas or agricultural labourers (Kammakaras) did this work.
Magadha:
-Not one but many rulers' each one individually called as raja
-performed rituals together
-met in assemblies to decide what to do n how
2).Tanha or thirst -we always want more n are never satisfied. It can be removed
by following moderation in everything
3).taught people to be kind
-to respect lives of others incl animals
4).Karma ie the result of our actions affects us in this life n the next
-He taught in Prakrit
5).Encouraged people to think for themselves rather than accepting what he tells
them.
Upanishad:
-means approaching and sitting near
-Later Vedic text
-Contains conversations between teachers n students
-ideas presented thru simple dialogues
-Upanishadic thinkers were rajas and brahmins mostly
-Gargi: famous women thinker and took part in debates held in royal courts
-Though poor ppl seldom took part 'Satyakama Jabala' was an exception
Panini prepared a grammar for Sanskrit
Jainism:
TImeline: 2500yrs ago around same time as buddha
-Kshatriya prince pf Lichchhavis, a group that was part of Vajji sangha
-At 30 he left his home and after 12yrs he attained enlightenment
Teachings of Mahavira:
1).Men n women who wish to know the truth must leave their homes
2).Must follow Ahimsa very strictly
3).Taught in Prakrit
4).Followers of Mahavira known as Jainas(comes from word jina meaning the
conqueror) had to lead simplelives, begging for food.
-had to be absolutely honest, never to steal
-Observe celibacy
-Men had to give up everything including their clothes
Jainism was mainly supported by traders as farmers had to kill insects to save
their crops
-Jainism spread to parts of North India, Gujarat, TN, Karnataka
The sangha:
-Mahavira n Buddha arranged for the ppl who left their homes to stay together in
form of an association ie sangha
-Vinaya Pitaka: Book containing rules made for Buddhist sangha
-all men cud join
-women needs permission of husband
-debitors of creditors
-children of parents
- men n women who joined sanghas were known as Bhikkhus(prakrit for
beggar)n Bhikkhunis.
-Varna system was not followed inside sanghas
Monastries were built as the need for a permanent shelter was felt by nuns and
monks .They were known as Viharas
-They were made of wood earlier n then later on of wood
-Some were in caves in western india
Brahmins developed system of ashramas .It was done at the same time when
buddhism n jainism were becoming famous.
1).Bramhcharya -Brahmin , Kshatriya n Vaishya men lead simple lives , studied
vedas during early years of life
2).Grihastha-marry n live as householders
3).vanaprastha- live in forest and meditate
4).Samnyasa-give up everything and become samnyasins
Women had to follow the ashrama chosen by their husbands
Chapter: 8 Ashoka, the emperor who gave up war
Mauryan Empire -
-Important cities
:Pataliputra
-Taxila
-Ujain
Villages:
-Tamil region: large landowners - Vellalars;
Ordinary ploughmen- uzhavar;
landless labourers including slaves - Kadaisiyar n adimai
Northern region Villages:
-Grama Bhojaka-Village headman (hereditary post)
Sangam Literature:
Called sangam bcz was composed n compiled by assemblies of poets held in city
of madurai
Find out more ?
Many cities that developed from about 2500yrs ago were capitals of
Mahajanapadas.
-Ring wells found in many such cities
punch marked coins used during this period
Mathura:
imp city as it was located at the cross roads of 2 major routes of travel
-from NW to east and from North to South
-Became a capital for kushanas around 2000yrs ago
-Religious centre with monastries, Jaina shrines and krishna worship.
Spread of Buddhism:
Kanishka - an imp Kushana ruler
-organised a buddhist council
-Ashvaghosha -Poet who composed biography of Buddha i.e. budhhacharita
lived in his ocurt.
-Ashvaghosha n other poets now began writing in Sanskrit
- Mahayana Buddhism developed now
:features
-Earlier in sculptures buddha was shown thru signs like by peepal tree but now
his statues were made in mathura n taxila.
-We know about him from a long poem in sanskrit by court poet Harishena 170
yrs ago
-The above inscription is of spl kind known as Prashasti (meaning in praise)
-Prashastis became imp during guptas rule
Harishena describes 4 kinds of rulers and tell us about Samudraguptas policy
towards them
1).Rulers of Aryavarta: 9 rulers here were uprooted n their kingdoms were
made a part of Samudras empire
2).Rulers of Dakshinapatha: 12 rulers were here; surrendered to him after
being defeated n samudra allowed him to rule again
3).Inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, Coastal Bengal,
Nepal n number of gana sanghas in NW brought tributes to his court , followed
his orders n attended his court
4).Rulers of outlying areas: Descendents of kushanas and shakas , ruler of
srilanka submitted to him n offered their daughters for marriage.
Samudras mother belonged to Lichchhavi gana n his father chandragupta was
first ruler of gupta dynasty to adopt the title of Maharaj-adhiraja
Harshavardhana:
ruled 1400yrs ago
Banabhatta his court poet wrote Harshacharita his biography in sanskrit
-Xuan Zang spent time in his court
Harsha took over kanauj n then bengal, magadha but was stopped in his march
towards Deccan by pulakeshin II a ruler of chalukya dynasty
Pallavas n chalukyas ruled during this period in South India
Pallavas:
-Kingdom was spread from capital city of Kanchipuram till kaveri delta
Chalukyas:
-Aihole, the capital of chalukyas, imp trading centre
-Pulakeshin -II , known by prashasti by court poet Ravikirti
His Kingdom centered around Raichur Doab between Krishna n tungbhadra.
-Both dynasties fought with each other n raided capital cities as they were
prosperous
-Imp admin posts were made hereditary like harishena was a mahadanda-nayaka or chief judicial officer like his father
-1 person held many posts
-Imp men had a say in Local administration which include nagarashreshti or chief banker or merchant of the city, sathavaha or
leader of merchant caravans, prathama-kulika or chief craftsman
and the head of kayasthas or scribes