CHAPTER4

THEF.C.C.METALS:Ni,Cu,Ag,Al,PbANDFe
4.1GeneralFeaturesofMechanicalBehaviorofF.C.C.Metals
4.2 Origins of the Data for the f.c.c. Metals
Nickel
Copper
Silver
Aluminium
Lead
Austenite:iron

References for Chapter 4

THEf.c.c.metals,aboveallothers,aretoughandductile,evenattemperaturescloseto0K.
Whenannealed,theyaresoftandeasilyworked;buttheircapacityforworkhardeningis
sufficientlylargethat,inthecoldworkedstate,theyhaveusefulstrength.Theircapacityfor
alloying, too, is great, leading to ranges of materials, such as the aluminium alloys, the
beryllium coppers, the stainless steels, and the nickelbased superalloys, which have
remarkableyieldandcreepstrengths.Mapsforfivepuref.c.c.metals(Ni,Cu,Ag,AlandPb)
areshowninFigs.4.1to4.20.ThosefornonferrousalloysaregiveninChapter7;thosefor
ironandstainlesssteelsinChapter8.Themapsarebasedondataplottedonthefigures,and
theparameterslistedinTable4.1.

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ALBEHAVIOROFF.C.C.METALS

Themapsfornickel(Figs.4.1to4.4)typifythoseforthef.c.c.metals.Allshowthree
principal fields: lowtemperature plasticity, powerlaw creep and diffusional flow.
Occasionally(aluminiumandleadareexamples)afieldofHarperDorncreepreplacesthat
ofdiffusionalflow,andintwoinstances(copperandaluminium)powerlawbreakdownis
shown.
The f.c.c. metals are remarkable in having an extremely low lattice resistance
(certainlylessthan105);asaresulttheiryieldstrengthisdeterminedbythedensityof
discreteobstaclesordefectstheycontain.*Whenpure,itisthedensityandarrangementof
dislocationsthatdeterminestheflowstress,whichthereforedependsonthestateofwork
hardening of the metal. Most of the maps describe workhardened material, and were
computedbyusingadislocationdensityof6.25x1014/m2(oranobstacleofl=4x108m,
seeChapter2,Table2.1).Thischoicedescribesaheavilydeformedstate,althoughitisstill
well below the highest known densities and is not therefore a saturation or steadystate
density. Annealing lowers the yield strength to abouts / = 10-3for typical commercial
purityf.c.c.metals(correspondingtol 2 x 10-7 m);amapforannealednickelisshownin
Fig.4.4.TheactivationenergyforforestcuttingistakenasF=0.5b3(Table2.1)leading
toaflowstrengthwhichdependsonlyweaklyontemperature.Thisvalueisslightlylarger
than the best estimates (Hirth and Lothe, 1968[1]) but the effect of this difference is
undetectableonthemapsshownhere.

*Therefractoryf.c.c.metalsIrandRhareexceptionalinexhibitingalargelattice
resistance:roughly102atOK.

Fig.4.1.Purenickelofgrainsize1m,workhardened;theobstaclespacinglistaken
as4x108m.

Fig.4.2Purenickelofgrainsize1m,workhardened,asFig.4.1.

Fig.4.3.Purenickelofgrainsize1mm,workhardened,asFig.4.1.

Fig.4.4.Purenickelofgrainsize0.1mm,annealed.Theobstaclespacing,l,istakenas2
x107m.

Aboveabout0.3TM,thef.c.c.metalsstarttocreep.Diffusion(whichisthoughtto
controlcreepinthesemetals)isslowerinthef.c.c.structurethaninthemoreopenb.c.c.
structure;thisisreflectedinlowercreepratesatthesamevaluesofs / andT/TM.Thecreep
fieldissubdivided(Chapter2,eqn.(2.20))intoaregionoflowtemperature,corediffusion
controlledcreepinwhichthestressexponentisaboutn+2,andaregionofhightemperature,
latticediffusioncontrolledcreepinwhichthestressexponentisn.Thepowerlawbreaks
downforallfivemetalsnears / =103,correspondingtoavalueof'ofabout103.Suffi

cientdataareavailablefortwoofthem(CuandAl)toincludethisonthemapswithreal
confidence.
Diffusionalflowappearsathightemperatureandlowstress.Thefieldissubdivided
(Chapter2,eqn.(2.30))intoaregioninwhichboundarydiffusioncontrolsthecreeprateand
oneinwhichlatticediffusioniscontrolling.Whenthegrainsizeislargethisfieldmaybe
replacedbyoneofHarperDorncreep(Chapter2,eqn.(2.23));examplesaregivenbelowin
thesectionsonAlandPb.
TheeffectofgrainsizeonthemapsisillustratedbyFigs.4.1,4.2,1.2and4.3.Taken
inthisorder,theyformasequencebetweeneachofwhichthegrainsizeincreasesbyafactor
of10.Indoingso,thepowerlawcreepfieldexpandsattheexpenseofdiffusionalflow;
latticediffusion becomes dominant, displacing boundary diffusion in the control of
diffusionalflow,and(asmentionedabove)HarperDorncreepmayappear,thoughthereis
nodirectevidenceforitinnickel.
Themoduliofallfivemetalswerecalculatedfromsinglecrystaldatausing

Itisthisvaluewhichenterstheanisotropiccalculationoftheelasticenergyofa
1/2<110>screwdislocation,andthereforeappearsinestimatesoftheforcerequiredtocause
screws to intersect, or in calculations of the force required to bow an edge dislocation
between strong obstacles. We have incorporated a linear temperature dependence a
reasonablyaccurateapproximationforthesemetals.Plasticity,creepanddiffusiondataare
discussedbelow.

4.2ORIGINSOFTHEDATAFORTHEf.c.c.METALS

Nickel(Figs.1.2to1.6and4.1to4.6)

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Nickel(anditsalloys,Chapter7)iscoveredinmoredetailthananyothermaterialin
thisbook.Figs.4.1,1.2,4.2and4.3,show,insequence,mapsforgrainsizesbetween1m
and1mmintheworkhardenedstate.Figs.1.3to1.6showotherwaysofplottingthesame
information.Finally,Fig.4.4showsamapdescribingnickelintheannealedstate.Allare
basedonthedataplottedinFigs.4.5and4.6,andsummarizedinTable4.1.

Fig.4.5.Datafor.nickel,dividedintoblocks.Eachblockisfittedtoarateequation.The
numbersarelog10( ).

Fig.4.6.Creepdatafornickel.DataarelabelledwiththetemperatureinC.

ThehightemperaturecreepparametersarebasedonthemeasurementsofWeertman
andShahinian(1956)[2]ofthecreepof99.75%Niwithn=4.6inthehightemperature
region. It has been shown, however (Dennisonet al.,1966)[3], that small amounts of
impurities(~0.1%)maylowerthecreeprateofnickelbyuptoanorderofmagnitude.We
havethereforeusedavalueofAof3.0x10 6,almostanorderofmagnitudegreaterthan
wouldbederivedfromWeertmanandShahinian(1956)[2].Thisvalueprovidesamuch
closercorrespondencetothepeakflowstressintorsiondataofLutonandSellars(1969)[4],
andothervariousdataneartheH.T.creepL.T.creepboundaryofFig.4.5.
For lowtemperature creep we have used the corediffusion coefficient given by
CanonandStark(1969)[5]foredgedislocationsinasymmetrictiltboundary.Theactivation
energyforthis(Qc=170kJ/mole)matchesthatfoundbyNormanandDuran(1970)[6]for
creep in the L.T. creep regime. In addition, Norman and Duran[6]find n 7.0, which
supportstheexistenceofthelowtemperaturecreepfield.Theirstrainratesaccuratelymatch
thenumericalpredication(usingA=3.0x10 6).WeertmanandShahinian[2]alsofindalow
temperatureincreaseinthestressexponent,althoughtheirstrainratesarelower.Wehavenot

includedpowerlawbreakdownfornickel,though(byanalogywithcopperandaluminium)
eqn.(2.26)with'=1000shouldgiveanapproximatedescription.
Theshadedfieldofdynamicrecrystallizationisbasedontheobservationsreported
andreviewedbyAshbyetal.(1979)[7].

Copper(Figs.4.7to4.9)

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Amapforcopperwitha(typical)grainsizeofl00 m,isshowninFig.4.7;it
includesthebroadtransitionfrompowerlawcreeptoplasticitywhichwecallpowerlaw
breakdown (Chapter 2, eqn.(2.26)). It is based on data shown in Figs. 4.8 and 4.9, and
summarizedinTable4.1.Changeswithgrainsizeresemblethosefornickel.

Fig.4.7.Purecopperwithagrainsizeof0.1mm,includingpowerlawbreakdown.

Fig.4.8.Dataforcopper,dividedintoblocks.Thenumbersarelogl0( ).

Fig.4.9.Creepdataforcopper.DataarelabelledwiththetemperatureinC.

TheprimaryreferencesforthehightemperaturecreepofcopperareFelthamand
Meakin(1959)[8]andBarrettandSherby(1964)[9].Forthelowtemperaturecreepfieldwe
haveusedacorediffusionactivationenergyof117kJ/mole,chosentomatchtheactivation
energyforlowtemperaturecreepfoundbyBarrettandSherby(1964)[9];theredoesnot
appeartobeanyexperimentaldeterminationofcoreorboundarydiffusioncoefficientsfor
copper.Powerlawbreakdowniscalculatedusingeqn.(2.26)with'=7.94x102,chosento
matchthedynamiccompressiondataofAlderandPhillips(1954)[10]andSamanta(1969,
1971)[11,12].
The field of dynamic recrystallization is based on observations of Flecket
al.(1970)[13]andofRuckweid(1972)[14].


Silver(Figs.4.10to4.12)

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Fig.4.10showsamapforsilverwithalargegrainsize:1mm.Itcloselyresembles
thoseforcopperandfornickel(whichshowedhowgrainsizeinfluencesthemaps).Itis
basedondataplottedinFigs.4.11and4.12,andsummarizedinTable4.1.
Therehasbeenlessworkonthecreepofsilverthanonothercommonf.c.cmetals.
ThehightemperaturecreepparametersarebasedonLeverantetal.(1966)[15].Forthelow
temperaturecreepfield,theaveragedislocationcorediffusioncoefficientgivenbyTurnbull
andHoffman(1954)[16]hasbeenused.Thisgivesgoodagreementwiththecreepdataof
CarrekerandGuard(1955)[17]andofSchroderetal.(1968)[18].
The field of dynamic recrystallization is based on observations of Ashbyet
al.(1979)[7].

Fig.4.10.Puresilveringrainsize1mm.

Fig.4.11.Dataforsilver,dividedintoblocks.Thenumbersarelog10( ).

Fig.4.12.Creepdataforsilver.DataarelabelledwiththetemperatureinC.

Aluminium(Figs.4.13to4.16)

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Twomaps,Figs.4.13and4.14,aregivenforaluminiumtoshowhowHarperDorn
(eqn.(2.23))creepdisplacesdiffusionalflowatlargegrainsizes.Bothincludepowerlaw
breakdown(eqn.(2.26)).ThemapsarebasedonthedataplottedinFigs.4.15and4.16,and
summarizedinTable4.1.

Fig.4.13.Purealuminiumofgrainsize10m,includingpowerlawbreakdown.

Fig.4.14.Purealuminiumofgrainsize1mm.HarperDorncreephasdisplaced
diffusionalflow.

Fig.4.15.Dataforaluminium,dividedintoblocks.Thenumbersarelog10( ).

Fig.4.16.Creepdataforaluminium.DataarelabelledwiththetemperatureinC.

The hightemperature creep parameters for aluminium are based on Weertman

(1956)[19]andServiandGrant(1951)[20].Athightemperatures,thesestudiesshowan
activation energy in agreement with the diffusion coefficient of Lundy and Murdock
(1962)[21]:Q=142kJ/mole.Forlowtemperaturecreepwehaveusedthedislocationcore
diffusioncoefficientcited.byBalluffi(1970)[22]:Qc=82kJ/mole,whichprovidesgood
agreementwithlowtemperaturecreepexperiments.TheHarperDorncreepfieldisbasedon
dataofHarperetal.(1958)[23].ItappearsonFig.4.14ford=1mm,butissuppressedby
diffusionalflowatd=10m,asshowninFig.4.13.
The power law breakdown region of aluminium has been extensively studied;
experimentaldatahavebeenfittedtoahyperbolicsineequation(eqn.(2.25))byWongand
Jonas(1968)[24]andSellarsandTegart(1966)[25].Dataforcommercialpurityaluminium,

obtainedfromdynamiccompressiontests(AlderandPhillips,1954[10];Samanta,1969,
1971[11,12];andHockett,1967[26])andextrusiontests(WongandJonas,1968)[24]show
muchlowerstrainratesthandatafromhighpurityaluminiumtestedintorsion(Sellarsand
Tegart,1966)[25]andfromtheextrapolationofcreepdata(ServiandGrant,1951)[20].
Bothsetsofdatacannotbematchedbythesamepowerlawbreakdownparameter.Thevalue
usedforbothmaps('=1x103)providesanintermediateapproximation.Thefieldappears
hereasageneraldemonstration,notasanexactrepresentationofexperiment.
Above0.8TM,rapidgraingrowthoccursinaluminiumduringcreep(ServiandGrant,
1951[20])givingunstablecreep.Theshadedregionreferstothisratherthantruedynamic
recrystallization,whichisrarelyobserved.

Lead(Figs.4.17to4.20)

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Lead,likealuminium,exhibitsHarperDorncreepwhenthegrainsizeislarge.Thisis
illustratedbythetwomaps(Figs.4.17and4.18).TheyarebasedondataplottedinFigs.4.19
and4.20andsummarizedinTable4.1.
OurhightemperaturecreepparametersarebasedonMohamedetal.(1973)[27]:n=
5.0,A=2.5x108.Thesedifferfromthosethatcouldbederivedfromthesinglecrystalcreep
experimentsofWeertman(1960)[28],whichshowaslightlylowernathightemperatures.
We have used a diffusion activation energy of 109 kJ/mole (Resing and Nachtrieb,
1961)[29]whichishigherthanthevaluefoundbyMohamedetal.(1973)[27],andlower
thanthevaluederivedfromWeertman(1960)[28].

Fig.4.17.Pureleadofgrainsize10m.

Lowtemperaturecreepbehaviorisindicatedbyanumberofstudies.Weertman's
(1960)[28]dataatlowtemperaturesshowahigherstressexponentandaloweractivation
energythanathigh.DataofFeltham(1956)[30],againinthelowtemperaturecreepregime,
showanapparentactivationenergyof92kJ/molewithn7(comparedwith109kJ/mole
and5athigh).RoomtemperaturedataofGifkins(1952,1959)[31,32]andNicholsand
McCormick(1970)[33]shown8.Thedislocationcorediffusioncoefficientistakento
matchtheboundarydiffusiondataofOkkerse(1954)[34]:Qc=65kJ/mole.TheHarperDorn
creepfieldisbasedonMohamedetal.(1973)[35].Itappearsford=1mm(Fig.4.18),butis
maskedbydiffusionalflowwhend=10m(Fig.4.17).

Fig.4.18.Pureleadofgrainsize1mm.HarperDorncreephasdisplaceddiffusional
flow.

Fig.4.19.Dataforlead,dividedintoblocks.Thenumbersarelog10( )

Fig.4.20.Creepdataforlead.DataarelabelledwiththetemperatureinC.

Diffusioninlead,atagivenT/TM,isexceptionallyslow.Forthisreasontherateof
diffusionalflowoflead,atagivenhomologoustemperature,isslowerthanthatofotherf.c.c.
metals.
Dynamicrecrystallizationisobservedinleadatabove0.7TMThefieldisbasedonthe
observationsofHansonandWheeler(1931)[36],GreenwoodandWorner(1939)[37]and
Gohnetal.(1946)[38].

Austenite:iron(Figs.8.1to8.3)

ParametersforausteniteareincludedinTable4.1forcomparativepurposes.Themap
foriron,andtheoriginsofthedata,aredescribedindetailinChapter8.


References for Chapter 4

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2.Weertman,J.andP.Shahinian,Trans.AIME,1956.206.
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20.Servi,I.S.andN.J.Grant,Creepandstressrupturebehaviorofaluminiumasa
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