43

Technical Review

Methanol as a fuel for spark ignition engines: a review

and analysis
A Kowalewicz, PhD, DSc
Radom Technical University, Poland
A review and analysis of recent lilerature data on the use of methanol as an alternative fuel for internal combustion engines have been
performed. The properties of methanol have been analysed from the point of view of its application to spark ignition ( S I ) and compression ignition ( C I ) engines. From this analysis it may be concluded that fewer modifications to the engine are expected when melhanol is
used in S1 engines than in CI engines. Neat methanol is the most suitable, because all the positive properties of methanol as a fuel can
be utilized. In the case of SI engines, only minor modijications of the fuel system and/or addition of ignition improver to the fuel are
required. Use of methanol-gasoline blends of up to 15 per cent methanol (by volume) and diesel oil-methanol blends of up to 20 per cent
methanol require only minor engine modifications. However, miscibility of methanol and conventional fuels is poor; in order to avoid
fuel separation, mixtures of these fuels require fuel additives. Methanol engines burn cleaner and more efficiently, but have higher
emissions of aldehydes, which increase with increasing mileage of the vehicle. In the presence of an oxidation catalyst unburned
melhanol can be converted toformaldehyde and simultaneously nitrous oxide to nitrogen dioxide. The advantoge of enginefuelling with
reformed methanol (CO + H,) is shown. The reasons for better eficiency, performance and less emissions (except of aldehydes) of
methanol-fuelled SI engines in comparison with gasoline- and diesel oil-fuelled engines respectively have been analysed. Technical
aspects of using methanol as an automotive fuel that have not yet been satisfactorily solved are pointed out. The feasibility of the
widespread use of methanol QS a transportation fuel for SI engines is discussed from technical, economic and ecological points of view.
The need for further research and development work on problems related to methanol as a fuel for SI engines is also discussed.
1 INTRODUCTION

Interest in methanol as an alternative fuel for internal

combustion (IC) engines started in the early 1970s due
to considerable increase in petroleum fuel prices in the
world markets. Methanol, however, had been recognixed earlier as a high-performance fuel for racing cars,
on account of its high resistance to knocking combustion (1). In the 1980s the interest in alternative fuels
fell due to a surplus of petroleum fuels, but it is now
rising again mainly due to ecological reasons: it burns
cleaner, that is the emission of solid particulates as well
as toxic components is lower in methanol in comparison with petroleum fuels. Moreover, methanol fabricated from crops or waste does not contribute to the
greenhouse effect and, thus, to global warming. In many
countries research and development work on methanol
as a fuel for IC engines is sponsored by their governments and/or UNIDO, including some West European
countries, India and China. Novel control techniques of
IC engines have created better opportunities to utilize
potential features of methanol as a fuel, especially from
thc point of view of reduced environmental pollution.
The objective of this article is to review the main
problems connected with using methanol fuels
(including neat methanol) in 1C engines, in particular:
(a) to compare the properties of methanol and conventional petroleum fuels and mixtures of these fuels
with air from the point of view of application in IC
engines ;
(b) to describe modifications of combustion systems of
conventional SI engines needed to enable the use of
methanol fuels;

(c) to review and analyse the main recent results of

research and development work on application of
methanol fuels to SI engines;
(d) to discuss problems that demand further research
and development work;
(e) to discuss the feasibility of widespread use of methanol as a transportation fuel from technical, economic and ecological points of view.
2 FABRICATION OF METHANOL AND ITS
FEATURES AS A FUEL FOR IC EKGINES

2.1 Fabrication of methanol

The raw materials for methanol production are coal

and remote natural gas; these may all be carbon containing materials, that is residual oil, shale, peat, tar
sands and waste (2). Methanol is produced in two steps.
In the first step synthetic gas (H, + CO) is produced by
reaction of gasified raw material with steam at high
temperature. In the second step methanol is produced
from compressed (50-200 bar) synthetic gas by a catalytic process (copper-based catalyst). The energetic eficiency of methanol production is as follows (3):
(a) from natural gas 60-65 per cent
47-52 per cent
(b) from coal
(c) from biomass
42-52 per cent
and is higher than that of gasoline (MTG process and
Fischer-Tropsch method) and of diesel oil (FischerTropsch method). The costs of methanol (produced
from coal) and gasoline in the United States and
Germany are nearly the same; that of methanol is a
little higher but could be lowered by mass production.
2.2 Properties of methanol as a fuel for IC engines

The MS wus received on 18 July 1991 and was accepted for publication un
18 September 1992.
DO2291 0 IMechE 1993

The chemical content of methanol, gasoline and diesel

oil is given in Table 1. Due to the fact that 50 per cent

0954-4070/93 $3.W

.05

Proc Instn Mech Engrs V d 207

A KOWALEWICZ

44

Table 1 Chemical content of methanol and conventional

fuels
Mass content
Yo

Kind of fuel

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Sulphur

Methanol
Gasoline
Diesel oil

37.5
85.0
87.0

12.5
15.0
12.5

50

0.5

(mass) of methanol content is oxygen, the stoichiometric

amount of air necessary for methanol combustion is
smaller and its calorific value is lower in comparison
with petroleum fuels. The properties of methanol and
conventional fuels are given in Table 2. From these data
the following conclusions regarding methanol as an
automotive fuel may be drawn:
Bene$ts
1. High resistance to knocking combustion (high octane
number), due to which higher compression ratios
may be applied, resulting in higher efficiency
2. Cleaner (soot-free)combustion
3. Lower lean flammability limit, resulting in the possibility of lean mixture application and, consequently,
better economy and lower emissions of NO,, HC
and CO
4. Higher heat of evaporation, resulting in a higher
temperature drop in the Venturi nozzle of the carburettor and therefore higher volumetric efficiency
5. Lower combustion temperature, resulting in lower
NO, emission
6 . Higher volatility, resulting in better distribution
among cylinders of air-fuel ratios and mass of fuel
per cycle of multi-cylinder carburettor engines

Shortcomings
1. Poor self-ignition properties (long ignition delay)
2. Poor miscibility with mineral fuels (especially with
diesel oil) in the presence of water
3. Difficult starting of cold engine
4. Corrosion and chemical degradation of materials
5. Evaporation in fuel lines (vapour locks)
6. Poor lubrication properties resulting from low viscosity
7. Degradation of oil lubrication properties

By analysing the properties of methanol it can be concluded that methanol is a good fuel for IC engines, especially SI engines. Its application to SI engines presents
important problems:
1. The combustion system of conventional engines need
to be modified.
2. Fuel additives are required when neat methanol is
used.
3. Some properties of methanol give it potential advantages as an automotive fuel, that is improved
engine performance.
3 METHANOL FUELENGINE CONCEPTS

3.1 Fuelling with neat methanol

From a technical point of view, neat methanol may be a
very good fuel for SI engines, especially in areas with a
warm climate. However, the engine fuel system needs to
be modified due to the lower calorific value and smaller
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of methanol in comparison
with gasoline. A better engine efficiency may be
expected, mainly due to :
(a) application of a higher compression ratio (CR),
(b) possibility of operation on a leaner mixture,
(c) recovery of the latent heat of evaporation in the
heat balance of the engine (4).
The efficiency of an optimized methanol-fuelled engine
may reach 40 per cent (3).
Concepts of fuel supply systems of an SI engine are
shown in Table 3. A very interesting gas methanol
supply system with heat recovery in an SI engine can be
found in a Mercedes-Benz engine (4). In cold climate
countries it is necessary to improve cold start by providing :
(a) a heating inlet duct and/or
(b) an ignition improver, that is an additive added to
liquid methanol.
The advantages of application of neat methanol to SI
engines are (with the exception of those mentioned
above) better engine efficiency and lower emissions of
CO, HC and NO, (5). However, emission of aldehydes

Table 2 Properties of neat methanol, gasoline and diesel oil

Unit of
measure

ProDertv
Density (20C)
Lower calorific value
Lower calorific value of stoichiometric mixture with air
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio
Heat of vaporization
Boiling temperature
Ignition temperature
Vapour pressure (20C)
Lean boundary air-fuel
equivalence ratio
Viscosity (20C)
Octane number
MON
RON
Cetane number
Maximum flame velocity
Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering

Methanol
79 1
19.5
15.78
3175

kg air/kg fuel
kJ/kg
"C
K
kPa
-

CP

6.4
1104
65
743
37
1.9
0.6
92
110
3
55

Gasoline
740
44.0

32.5
3439

Diesel
oil
840
42.5
35.7
3475

1.16

14.6
250
170-320
493
0.975

0.42

3.3

14.9
330
30-225
773
60-90

84
92
14
40

45-55
-

Q IMechE 1993

METHANOL AS A FUEL FOR SPARK IGNITION ENGINES: A REVIEW A N D ANALYSIS

Table 3 Fuel supply systems for neat methanol

Fuel system

Necessary modification

Carburettor
Injection system
Gas carburettor

Larger cross-sectional area of fuel nozzle

Larger cross-sectional area of injector nozzle
For evaporation of liquid methanol a heating
system and a special fuel supply system
with reductor should be supplied

is higher, but they can be neutralized by a catalytic

process.

3.2 Fuelling with gasoline and methanol

3.2.1 Introduction

According to many authorities [for example see references (3) and (6)], the introduction of methanol as
automotive fuel should take place in two steps. The first
involves the use of methanol together with gasoline, the
second one, neat methanol. The first involves the use of
methanol together with gasoline, the second one, neat
methanol. The first is useful because it enables the
favourable features of methanol to be utilized while
omitting the shortcomings of its application as a
straight fuel. The concepts of SI engines fuelled with
methanol and gasoline and corresponding engine modifications are shown in Table 4.
3.2.2 Fuelling with gasoline-methanol blends (methanol
fuel)
Problems related to fuelling engines with gasolinemethanol blends (methanol fuels) are shown in Table 5.
The most important is the problem of phase separation,
which can be solved with solubility improvers added to
methanol fuel. Many experiments have been performed
in the United States and European countries [for
Table 4 Fuel system and engine modifications for methanol-

45

example see references (3) and (5)] from which the following results may be drawn:

1. No modifications and no additives are required for

mixtures up to 2-3 per cent by volume of methanol

(W.

2. When the content of methanol is higher than 5 per

cent it is necessary to change the materials of some
parts of the fuel system.
3. Fuelling with gasoline-methanol blends of up to 15
per cent methanol (M15)
requires only minor modification of the fuel system (mainly enlargement of the
fuel nozzles).

Many experiments have been carried out on

gasoline-methanol blends (especially M 15) used in SI
engines. The following changes to the engine were performed :
1. Fuel nozzles of the carburettor were enlarged in
order to adjust the air-fuel ratio to the stoichiometric value of the actual blend.
2. The mixture was heated before it entered the engine
at cold start.
3. The carburettor and fuel line were modified in order
to avoid vapour locks and damage to some of the
parts (plastic and rubber, especially) as a result of
corrosion and material degradation.

Ignition improvers were necessary in all cases as coldstarting aids, especially in cold climates. In order to
avoid phase separation of methanol-gasoline blends,
additives were also added.
3.2.3 Dual fuelling

The problem of phase separation of blends does not

apply when gasoline and methanol are added separately. Two separate fuel systems are then required. In
this case, however, CR may be raised, resulting in
higher engine eficiency.

gasoline application
Fuel systems:
Fuelling with blends
(+solubility improver) ---+

Dual fuel system

Carburettor system
or
Injection system
Two separate carburettors
(stratified charge)

Engine modifications:
Tuning of carburettor
Adaptation of cold start-up and warm-up settings
Modification of carburettor fuel system to avoid vapour locks
Changing materials in fuel system

Table 5 Problems related to application of methanolgasoline blends and possible solutions (4)
Problems
Stability of blend
(phase separation)

From a comparison of engines fuelled with neat methanol, methanol blends and neat gasoline, the following
conclusions may be drawn (3, 5, 7). In the case of the
methanol-fuelled engine, in the whole range of speed
and load:

1. The power of the engine is higher (Fig. 1).

2. The overall engine efficiency is higher (Fig. 2).
3. The emission of NO, and HC is lower (Figs 3 and 4
respectively).
4. The emission of CO is comparable (7).
5. The emission of aldehydes is higher (7).

Solutions
Additives preventing phase
separation (solubility improvers)
Dry handling

Insufficient resistance of
structural materials to
methanol corrosion

Anti-corrosive additives

Higher volatility at the

beginning of evaporation

Adaptation of components of
gasoline

Higher fuel mass-flow

intensity

Adaptation of cross-sectional areas

of nozzles of fuel system

8 IMechE 1993

3.3 Engine efficiency and emissions

3.4 Lean mixture operation and turbocharging

When the engine operates with lean methanol-gasoline
blends, peak combustion temperatures are lower than
for a stoichiometric mixture and therc is an increase of
thermal efficiency, due to:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

reduced pumping losses,

reduced cooling losses,
greater specific heat ratio of leaner charge,
reduced dissociation losses.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 207

46

A KOWALEWICZ

0.9

Operation
limit

1.1
1.2
1.3
Air-fuel excess ratio I

1.4

1.0

1.5

Fig. 1 Mean effective pressure (m.e.p.) versus air excess ratio

A for a one-cylinder SI engine fuelled with methanol,
M15 fuel and gasoline (5)

Also NO, emission is reduced due to :

(a) lower maximal temperature of combustion,
(b) a higher mixture air-fuel ratio and a reduction of
the emission of CO and HC due to reduced cooling
losses.
However, the emission of aldehydes (which will be
discussed in the next section) increases considerably
with leaning the mixture. However, the leaner the
mixture, the lower the NO, emission, thus reducing the
need to use NO reduction catalyst by keeping NO, at
the same level as the NO catalyst and the mixture airfuel ratio close to the stoichiometric mixture (A 5 1).

Methanol

# CR = 14.0
* 1 x

0.35

r 0.30

*\

<\

Air-fuel excess ratio A

Fig. 3 NO, emission of a four-cylinder SI engine fuelled with

gasoline, methanol and M15 fuel versus air excess
ratio d (5)

According to reference (S), increasing engine efficiency

by 10-15 per cent is possible with lean combustion
systems without increasing NO, emission over that of
the stoichiometric mixture. The lean limit of the fuel-air
ratio depends on the methanol content in the
methanol-gasoline blend. Yamaguchi and Sasayama (7)
state that this dependence is linear: the higher the methanol content, the leaner the mixture at the flammability
limit. From experiments performed by them it may be
concluded that emissions of engines fuelled with gasoline and with methanol blend are comparable, though
the efficiency of the methanol engine is higher. The best
results may be obtained when the lean-burn engine is
turbocharged. Increasing the inlet pressure results in a
reduction in the shortcomings of the influence of lean
operation on combustion, that is the ignition delay time
and time of combustion decrease, both of which tend to
become elongated with leaning the mixture.
Fundamental research on this problem has been performed by Pannone and Johnson (8). From these
experiments the following results have been obtained:

&

0.2
0.20

0.8

1 .0

1 .2

1.4

Air-fuel excess ratio I

Fig. 2 Overall efficiency of a four-cylinder SI engine fuelled

with methanol or gasoline versus air excess ratio 1 for
different CRs (5)
Part D:Journal of Automobile Engineering

Air-fuel excess ratio A

Fig. 4

HC emission of a four-cylinder SI engine fuelled with

gasoline, methanol and M15 fuel versus air excess
ratio A (5)
@ IMechE 1993

METHANOL AS A FUEL FOR SPARK IGNITION ENGINES: A REVIEW AND ANALYSIS

47

Vehicle miles x 10'

Fig. 5 Engine-out and catalyst-out formaldehyde emission and catalyst efliciency versus vehicle mileage accumulation. Aldehyde emission is
measured according to the Japanese eleven-stage test (12)

1. As air excess of the mixture 1 increases net efficiency

of the engine generally increases, especially with an
increase in inlet pressure at a constant power level.
2. NO, emission reaches a maximum at 1 = 1.05-1.10
and decreases with an increase in 3, at either richer or
leaner mixtures. For 1= constant, NO, increases
with an increase in inlet pressure.
3. CO emission reaches a maximum at 1x 1.0 and then
decreases sharply with an increase in A, reaching a
minimum at 1 % 1.2. For 1 > 1.3, CO decreases with
an increase in inlet pressure.
4. Unburned fuel emission decreases with an increase in
1,reaches a minimum at 1 x 1.1 and then increases.
The higher the inlet pressure at 1 = constant, the
lower the unburnt fuel emission.
5. Aldehyde emission increases with 1and then reaches
a maximum at 1 = 1.5. Beyond 1> 1.5 aldehyde
emission drops with inlet pressure.
From urban driving modes performed on a test-stand
by Bob-Manuel (9) for a turbocharged engine it was
found that the methanol-fuelled engine fulfils the ECE
Regulation 15 standards with better results than the
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)-fuelled engine. Similar
results were obtained in references (10) and (11).

and piston upper surface (originating from the engine

oil). These deposits promote the formation of formaldehyde.
The second phenomenon is caused by methanol oxidation and can be described by the following chemical
reactions in the catalyst:
NO+HOz-+NO,+OH

+ OH .+ CH,OH + H,O
CH,OH + 0, + CHOH + HO,

CH,OH

Not all unburned methanol can be converted to formaldehyde. According to reference (12), at most only about
4 per cent of the feed methanol can be converted to
formaldehyde. However, the peak values of formaldehyde formed during methanol oxidation increase for
deactivated catalyst in comparison with new catalyst.
The highest methanol oxidation activity and lowest
formaldehyde yield are shown by platinum and pallaJapanese 11-mode test

3.5 Aldehyde emission

In comparison with a gasoline-fuelled engine the aldehyde emission from a methanol-fuelled engine is considerably higher. Two interesting phenomena have been
observed (12):
1. Aldehyde emission increases with engine mileage
accumulation (Fig. 5).
2. NO, emission promotes methanol oxidation in the
catalyst, resulting in increasing catalyst-out formaldehyde emission (Fig. 6).
The first phenomenon can be explained as follows. The
higher the mileage accumulation of the engine, the
greater the quantity of deposits on the cylinder head
@ IMechE 1993

5.6

6.0

6.4

6.8

1.2

Engine-out NO,
gitest

Fig. 6 Formaldehyde formation rate measured behind the

catalyst versus engine-out NO, emission according to
the Japanese eleven-stage emission test (12)
Proc Instn Mech Bngrs Vol 207

A KOWALEWICZ

48

Excess air factor 0.86

I0"CA aTDC injection
Fuel temperature T , = 45C

2000 rimin
Fuel temperature 20C
I O T A aTDC fuel injection

Crank angle
I

-40

-20

TDC

20
40
Crank angle
deg

60

80

Fig. 7 Rate of heat release at varied excess air factor and fuel
temperature versus crank angle, at n = 2000 r/min
(13)

dium catalysts for stoichiometric or slightly rich mixtures. The emission of formaldehyde increases for both
rich or lean mixtures.
3.6 Influence of injection timing on combustion and heat
release rate
In the case of a timed injection of methanol, combustion processes may undergo a two-stage combustion
if the injection is sufficiently early before TDC (top dead
centre). In this case Kajitani et al. (13) observed burning
of individual droplets in the engine cylinder. They suggested that this phenomenon was caused by the higher
latent heat of evaporation of methanol in comparison
with gasoline, resulting in a longer period of evaporation and ignition of droplets. Due to two-stage combustion, two spikes of heat release rate were observed
(Fig. 7). In the first stage, reaction kinetics controlled
the combustion: premixed mixture burnt rapidly and a
high heat release rate was observed. In the second stage,
the diffusion process controlled the combustion: the
burning rate was controlled by the evaporation rate of
the methanol droplets. The earlier the injection, the
more time for fuel vaporization, resulting in elimination
of the second stage of the combustion process (13).
Leaning the mixture also eliminated the second stage of
combustion. Analogously, exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) influenced combustion: for rich mixtures an
increase in the EGR ratio could eliminate the second
stage of combustion (Fig. 8). For lean mixtures,
however, there is no second spike and an increase in the
EGR ratio caused only a decrease in the maximum
pressure and flattened the curve of the heat release rate.

3.7 Abnormal combustion

Although methanol is resistant to knocking combustion, due to its high octane number, it is prone to
preignition, due to its relatively low ignition temPart D: Journal of Automobile Engineering

dee

Fig. 8 Rate of heat release with varied EGR content versus

crank angle (13)

perature (470C). The last feature often results in an

observed surface ignition prior to and after the moment
of normal spark discharge (preignition and postignition
respectively). Knocking combustion has not been
observed in a rapid compression machine. Neither cool
flames nor knocking combustion were expected in a
methanol-fuelled engine (14). It is well known that cool
flames precede the appearance of knocking combustion,
as the initial stage of multi-stage ignition (15). Both
kinds of abnormal combustion (that is surface ignition
and cool flames) have been investigated in detail by
Swain et al. (16). They detected the existence of cool
flames (before and after spark ignition) in a methanolfuelled SI engine when burned residuals were added to
methanol-air mixtures. Cool flames can occur at the
beginning of the compression stroke, even at light load
operation. The frequency of early and late cool flames
versus engine speed and load are shown in Figs 9 and
10 respectively. According to Swain's results, cool
flames were detected when the intake temperature
reached approximately 99C and their frequency of production increased until a temperature of 113C was
reached. Neither the deposit level nor the spark plug
heat range affect the frequency of appearance of cool
flames. Cool flames themselves are not dangerous;
however, their intermittent production results in
changes in the composition of gases in the spark plug
gap and combustion space during ignition and produces cycle-by-cycle variations of combustion. It should
also be remembered that, under certain circumstances,
cool flames may lead to knocking combustion, which is
very dangerous for the engine.
In contrast with cool flames, surface ignition is produced by deposits caused by lubrication oil pyrolysing
on the hot surfaces of the engine combustion chamber
(16). The frequency of appearance of preignition and
postignition versus engine speed and load are shown in
Figs 11 and 12 respectively. In the case of high speed
and load, runaway surface ignition combustion is possible. In this kind of abnormal combustion, a cyclic
increase in the rate of pressure rise and an increase of
maximum pressure from cycle to cycle is observed
@ IMechE 1993

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@ IMechE 1993

2a

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8
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METHANOL AS A FUEL FOR SPARK IGNITION ENGINES: A REVIEW AND ANALYSIS

E
m

0
1

.-c;r.oh

r(

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49

Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 207

A KOWALEWICZ

50

SO00
4000

reformer is heated by exhaust gases up to temperatures

not lower than 300C. After that the reformed gas is
cooled in an air cooler, mixed with air and supplied to
the engine. As far as compression ignition (CI) engines
are concerned, a pilot injection of diesel oil is necessary
for ignition. According to experiments (21), maximum
efficiency can be obtained only when 50-65 per cent of
the energy fraction of reformed methanol is supplied,
the remainder being diesel oil.

1000

5 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

-120

-40
0
40
Crankshaft position

-80

80

120

deg

Fig. 13 Cylinder

pressure versus crank angle during

runaway surface ignition during methanol operation
(16)

(Fig. 13). The deposit level on surfaces of the combustion chamber or the spark plug heat range influences
the frequency of surface ignition.
According to Haight and Malte (17), the preignition
temperature depends on the fuel-air equivalence ratio
and spark advance and not on the intake temperature
of fresh gases. Preignition was also observed in an SI
engine fuelled by methanol-gasoline blend (M85) (18).
These results refer to four-stroke engines. However,
abnormal combustion has also been observed in a twostroke SI engine (19).
4 REMARKS ON FUELLING OF IC ENGINES
WITH REFORMED METHANOL

Reforming of methanol can be described by the following chemical (endothermic) reaction :

CH,OH

2H,

+ CO

The calorific value of reformed gas is 23.9 MJ/kg, while

that of liquid methanol is 20.0 MJ/kg. The reformed gas
can be produced on board the vehicle (20) in a reformer
after first being vaporized in a vaporizer (Fig. 14). The

rn
Methanol tank

5.1 Features of methanol engine

5.1.1 Efficiency of methanol engine

The first question that arises is why an engine fuelled

with methanol (or its fraction) is more efficient than one
fuelled with petroleum fuels? According to results of
experiments, the efficiency of a methanol-fuelled engine
is higher than that of gasoline engines. In the opinion of
the present author, this is due to the following reasons :

1. Combustion losses are lower, that is combustion is

more complete and more perfect. This has been
investigated by Trzaskowski and the author (22). In
the opinion of the author this is also the case for C1
engines (with an optimized source of ignition in the
case of the methanol engine).
2. Heat losses due to cooling are smaller, because the
temperature level in the engine cylinder is lower (23,
24).

3. The combustion period of methanol fuel (or methanol fraction in the fuel) is shorter due to greater
flame speed (25) and takes place closer to TDC,
which makes the thermodynamic cycle more similar
to the Otto cycle.
4. The coefficient of molecular conversion of the charge
during combustion for alcohol fuels is higher in comparison with petroleum fuels (due to the presence of
atomic oxygen and the greater amount of hydrogen
in the molecule). As a result of this, the work done by
the expanding gases in the cylinder is greater.
In general, from reviewed work it may be concluded
that under the condition of equal fuel energy consumption (energy supplied to the engine with fuel) the higher
the fraction of methanol in petroleum fuel, the higher
the engine efficiency.
5.1.2 Performance and emission of the methanol engine

Cooler

m T

Methanol

Reformed gas
(2H2 + C O )

Fuel injection

Assuming that the energy consumption is the same,

torque and power of the engine fuelled with methanol
are higher than when the engine is fuelled with petroleum fuels. If the fuel system is not modified to the
greater amount of methanol fuel needed, engine performance as well as vehicle acceleration and maximum
speed are lower. Torque and power of a methanol
engine are higher than a gasoline engine due to
(a) higher thermal efficiency and
(b) higher volumetric efficiency of the engine q v .

Fig. 14 Concept of engine fuelling with reformed gaseous

methanol (20)
Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering

Emission of NO, from a methanol-fuelled engine is generally lower than when petroleum fuel is used because
the maximum temperature of the thermodynamic cycle
is lower. These emissions can be lowered even further,
0 IMechE 1993

METHANOL AS A FUEL FOR SPARK IGNITION ENGINES: A REVIEW A N D ANALYSIS

by leaning the mixture, made especially feasible by

increasing the methanol content in the blend. Emission
of CO and HC is also lower due to more complete and
perfect combustion.
High emissions of aldehydes are an inherent feature
of methanol combustion. Emission of aldehydes from a
methanol-fuelled engine is much higher than when
petroleum fuel is used, therefore making the use of an
oxidation catalyst necessary.
Emission of particulates from a methanol-fuelled
engine is much lower than when petroleum fuel is used,
because methanol is a pure fuel and burns cleaner (due
to the chemical structure of the molecule, which contains atomic oxygen).

51

Table 6 Estimated production costs of gasoline and methanol (2), 1986

Feedstock

Fuel

$/gal

Petroleum
($30/barrel)
Coal

Gasoline

0.80-1.00

Gasoline

1.80-2.60

Natural gas

Methanol

0.50-0.80

Remote natural gas

Methanol

0.40-0.80

Coal

Methanol

0.80-1.30

Wood

Methanol

0.80-1.35

cost
$/million Btu
(million kJ)
7.00-9.00
(6.64-8.53)
15.70-22.60
(14.88-21.42)
9.10-14.50
(8.63-13.74)
7.30-14.50
(6.92-13.74)
14.50-23.60
(13.74-22.37)
14.50-24.50
(1 3.74-23.22)

5.1.3 Engineering aspects of the methanol engine

It may be concluded that methanol is a good fuel for SI
engines because of its physical and chemical properties
(especially its high octane number). However, when
methanol-gasoline blends are used in the engine, additives are needed to prevent blend separation when small
amounts of water are present. This is the greatest disadvantage of methanol as a fuel for S1 engines.
5.2 Feasibility of widespread use of methanol as a
transportation fuel
5.2.1 Arguments for the use of methanol as a
transportationfuel for Si engines

There are two main arguments for introducing methanol to the market as a transportation fuel, especially
for cars :
(a) better utilization of the world energy resources and
(b) environmental protection due to lower emissions of
pollutants.
In the case of production of methanol from biomass or
wood there is additional advantage concerning C O ,
emission: its circulation is closed, that is CO, produced
during the combustion processes and emitted by the
engine to the atmosphere is next absorbed by plants.
Thus the use of biofuels may prevent the greenhouse
effect. For these reason the introduction of methanol to
the field of transportation is worthy of consideration.
However, air pollution from methanol production
should be taken into consideration. Thermochemical
conversion during methanol production from coal and
biomass is a threat to air quality (especially in the case
of coal, when trace metals are emitted). Methanol production from natural gas is the cleanest.
5.2.2 Strategy of market penetration by methanol fuel

The first step in introducing methanol as an automotive

fuel is to introduce a 5 per cent by volume fraction of
methanol to gasoline. No engine modifications would
be needed for this fuel. The next step is to introduce a
higher fraction of methanol, about 15 per cent by
volume. Only minor engine modifications would be
needed. The third step would seem to be the introduction to the market of neat methanol engines. At this
stage three kinds of methanol fuel would be available
on the market for SI engines.
0 IMechE 1993

This strategy would be feasible if both automotive

producers and fuel producers undertook simultaneously
to introduce methanol fuel. This scenario could possibly
be realized in Western and Middle Europe and in
North America. A strategy of fuel production and automotive modification and/or production would have to
be supplemented by the establishment of a widespread
network of filling stations.
The process of introducing new fuel to the market is
very slow for the simple reason that automobiles have a
long life [for example in the United States cars have a
median life of 11 years and trucks about 14 years (2)].
Moreover, fleet buyers and even individual consumers
are conservative. Thus methanol penetration into the
transportation fuel market will not occur in a short
time. The involvement of governments will be necessary
to initiate this process.

5.3 Costs of methanol production

The introduction of methanol fuel to the market will be
impossible if costs of methanol production are too high.
A comparison of American contemporary costs for
producing methanol from different kinds of feedstock
and for producing gasoline are given in Table 6. It can
be seen that the energy cost for methanol produced
from natural gas is about 15-60 per cent higher than
the energy cost for gasoline made from petroleum. The
energy cost for methanol made from other feedstocks
(coal, wood) are more than twice higher.
According to reference (3) production costs of energy
for methanol and gasoline in the United States are comparable; in Germany methanol production is more
expensive than that of gasoline (when available fuel
energy data are compared). Mass production of methanol, however, will reduce the costs, because the larger
the production, the lower the cost.

6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

From this review and analysis the following conclusions

may be drawn:

1. In comparison with a petroleum-fuelled engine:

(a) a methanol-fuelled IC engine is more efficient
and its emission (except aldehydes) is lower;
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 207

A KOWALEWICZ

52

2.

3.

4.

5.

(b) vehicle acceleration and-in general-drivability

with a methanol engine are the same or better,
under the condition that energy supplied to the
engine is the same;
(c) in general, the higher the content of methanol in
the mixture with petroleum fuel, the higher the
efficiency of the engine, under the condition that
in both cases the value of A is the same.
Generally, the higher the content of methanol in the
fuel, the higher the efficiency and the lower the emission of HC, CO and especially NO,. Aldehyde emission, however, increases with an increase in the
methanol fraction.
The cost of energy production for methanol (from
natural gas) is a little higher than the cost of energy
production for gasoline, but mass production of
methanol would lower this cost.
In the case of engine fuelling with fuels containing up
to 15 per cent fraction of methanol, no engine modifications (except some minor material substitutions)
are required. In the case of fuelling with neat methanol, a modification of the fuel system is required.
Further research and development work on methanol application is required to introduce methanol
fuel in practice.

Problems demanding further research and development work are as follows :

1. Application of lean mixtures (stratified charge

engines)
2. Investigation of abnormal combustion, especially
when lean mixtures are applied
3. Application of high-energy spark plugs (plasma
plugs), especially to lean mixture engines
4. Fuelling with gaseous methanol, reformed methanol
and hydrogen-enriched methanol
5. Improving additives to gasoline-methanol blends to
avoid phase separation in the presence of water
6. In the area of catalysts :
(a) Optimization of catalysts, especially for neutralization of aldehydes
(b) Determination of the limit of the quantity of
NO, concentration that may be converted to
formaldehyde
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