Tourism Management 35 (2013) 198e208

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Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

The relationship between travel constraints and destination image:

A case study of Brunei
Huei-Ju Chen a, *, Po-Ju Chen b,1, Fevzi Okumus b,1
a
b

Leisure and Recreation Management Department, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism, No. 1, Sung-Ho Rd., Shiao-Kang, Kaohsiung 700, Taiwan, ROC
Hospitality Services Department, Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA

h i g h l i g h t s
< Assessed the relationship between travel constraints and destination image of Brunei from the young travelers perspective.
< Findings contribute to four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensions of perceived destination image.
< Conrmed the signicant relationship between travel constraints and destination during the early decision-making process.
< Concluded travel constraints impact the formation of destination image during the early decision-making process.

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 4 January 2012
Accepted 16 July 2012

This study evaluated the relationship between travel constraints and destination image of young travelers to Brunei. This study found a signicant relationship between destination image and travel
constraints during the early decision-making process. This study concluded travel constraints impact on
the formation of destination image during the early decision-making process. Study results contribute to
the body of knowledge in two areas. First, four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensions of
perceived destination image were identied. In addition to the 3-dimension hierarchal constraints
(structural, intrapersonal, and interpersonal), a new constraint dimension (unfamiliar cultural
constraints) was revealed. Second, this study conrmed the relationship between travel constraints and
destination image. Relatively few studies address the role of travel constraints to the formation of
destination image. This is the rst study providing empirical evidence demonstrating Bruneis destination image and travel constraints impact young travelers during the early decision-making process.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Travel constraints
Destination image
Muslim destination
Unfamiliar culture
Youth travelers
Brunei

1. Introduction
The youth tourism market is considered to have great appeal for
many destinations. Previous studies found young, well-educated
travelers are more likely to travel to destinations with different
cultures (Deforges, 2000; Jang, Bai, & Hong, 2004). Young travelers
not only represent a signicant segment of the travel market, but
also possess signicant spending power. Previous studies indicate
young tourists usually travel longer and more frequently than
members of other market segments (Richards & Wilson, 2003,
2006). As Chen and Kerstetter (1999, p. 256) reported, educated
travelers (e.g., college students including graduate students) usually

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 886 7 8060505x2951; fax: 886 7 8060587.

E-mail addresses: hjuchen@mail.nkuht.edu.tw (H.-J. Chen), Po-Ju.Chen@ucf.edu
(P.-J. Chen), Fevzi.Okumus@ucf.edu (F. Okumus).
1
Tel.: 1 407 903 8029; fax: 1 407 903 8105.
0261-5177/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07.004

appreciate change in their environments and are more willing to

take chances and explore new things. In addition, youth have
a greater amount of disposable time, a relative absence of responsibility, and, typically, a lack of mental and physical constraints
(Josiam, Clements, & Hobson 1994). Warnick, Bojanic, and
Siriangkul (2005) state young, educated travelers represent about
20% of international tourists and this gure has been steadily
increasing over the past few decades.
The youth travel market has recently gained more attention from
researchers. For example, Kim, Oh, and Jogaratnam (2007) identied seven unique push motivations for international and U.S.
college student travelers. Richards and Wilson (2003, 2006)
surveyed 2300 young people and students from Canada, the Czech
Republic, Hong Kong, Mexico, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden, and
the UK, and concluded destination selection can be an important
factor when examining youth travel market behaviors. Other
studies indicated perceived benets and constraints signicantly
inuence the decision-making process related to travel (Carneiro &

H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management 35 (2013) 198e208

Crompton, 2010; Chen, Kerstetter, & Caldwell, 2001; Nyaupane &

Andereck, 2008). However, constraint factors are also likely to be
deterministic rather than attributes of benets (Um & Crompton,
1999). Constraints are the factors that restrict development of
tourism market and limit the potential of tourism destination
development. Because understanding these constraints is critical to
tourism planning and marketing, tourism destinations should
develop and implement strategies to overcome perceived
constraints. Once perceived constraints are removed, individuals
are more likely to consider the destination in their travel decisionmaking process and ultimately travel to that destination. Strategies designed to remove perceived constraints would enhance the
competitiveness of tourism destinations. Furthermore, deciding
where to travel might depend heavily on the image of the destination (Cronch, 2011; Stepchenkova & Eales, 2011; Tasci & Gartner,
2007). This is because destination image inuences several
aspects of the decision-making process of tourists, including
information search, evaluation of alternatives, and travel destination selection. Shani, Chen, Wang, and Hua (2010, p. 385) found
the relationship between past travel experience and intention to
travel mediates the destination image of young, well-educated
American travelers.
Despite the importance of these issues, few studies have focused
on well-educated, young traveler destination image perceptions and
travel constraints. Even fewer studies have focused on constraints
and future intentions of young, well-educated travelers to exotic/
unfamiliar destinations. In the context of this paper, exotic refers to
destinations where major cultural and religious differences exist
between the travelers home country and the destination. Given the
signicant impact of behavior on selecting destinations, further
investigation of destination perceptions and related constructs
(e.g., constraints) of young, well-educated travelers is warranted.
Thus, the objectives of this study are to: (1) investigate perceptions
and perceived travel constraints of young travelers from Taiwan to
Brunei Darussalam (hereafter referred to simply as Brunei), and (2)
examine the relationships between travel constraints and perceived
destination images. Brunei was chosen for this study as a destination
because of the distinct cultural and religious differences compared to
Taiwan. Taiwan was selected because of their relatively high
numbers of young, well-educated travelers. Taiwan has approximately ve million citizens under the age of 30, and over 600,000
young Taiwanese citizens traveled internationally in 2010 (National
Statistics, 2011).
2. Literature review
2.1. Travel constraints
Past research has shown participation in leisure activity,
including travel, might be inhibited by constraints (Jackson, 1988,
1991). Leisure constraints and the benets of leisure are the two
basic factors that inuence the travel decision-making process. The
major constraints affecting travel are social, political, physical,
nancial, time, health, family stage, lack of interest, fear and safety,
lack of transportation, companionship, overcrowding, distance, and
limited information about potential destinations (Carneiro &
Crompton, 2010; Jackson, 1988). As such, leisure constraints have
been shown to prohibit participation in tourism activities (Um &
Crompton, 1999).
Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991) proposed a hierarchical
constraints model, which includes three categories of constraints:
structural constraints (family life-cycle stage, nancial resources,
season, climate, work scheduling, etc.), intrapersonal constraints
(stress, depression, anxiety, etc.), and interpersonal constraints
(e.g., nding a suitable traveling partner). They argued these

199

constraints occur hierarchically. According to their proposed model,

an individual is heavily dependent on negotiating through an alignment of multiple factors, arranged sequentially, that must be overcome to maintain an individuals impetus through these systemic
levels (Crawford et al., 1991, p. 314). In this model, constraints are
encountered hierarchically in the sense that potential tourists rst
encounter intrapersonal barriers, then interpersonal barriers, and
nally structural barriers. This proposed model was empirically tested
by Raymore, Godbey, Crawford, and von Eye (1993), and again later by
Hawkins, Peng, Hsieh, and Eklund (1999). Both studies veried that
the constraint categories can be replicated and extended with subtle
distinctions (Chen et al., 2001, p. 90). The most commonly used
conceptual constraints are internal (attributes of the individual) and
external (characteristics of the physical and social environments)
(Jackson, 1988). However, Chen et al. (2001) surveyed 1378 visitors
and found, The most constraining factors are structural in nature.
Intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints were the least constraining (p. 92). According to Kerstetter, Zinn, Graefe, and Chen
(2002, p. 62) researchers did not recognize that leisure participation may be dependent on individuals ability to negotiate through
constraints . nor did they recognize that constraints may be
addressed in a hierarchical fashion.
Other studies have shown individuals can overcome (negotiate)
some travel constraints, such as costs, if the desire to visit the
destination is strong enough. Still other research indicates people
with high levels of certain constraints (e.g., poor health) continue to
participate in leisure activities through successful constraint
negotiations (Um & Crompton, 1999). Constraint negotiation has
been referred to as the successful navigation of those obstacles
and the majority of research on leisure constraints portrays
constraint negotiation as the navigation of static obstacles
(Samdahl, Hutchinson, & Jacobson, 1999, p. 1). In other words, the
nal decision regarding travel destination might not be based on
the absence of constraints, but rather on the successful negotiation
of most perceived or real constraints (Crawford et al., 1991; Um &
Crompton, 1999).
In recent years, considering all constraint and image attributes,
safety and security have become one of the most perceived
inhibitors preventing potential tourists from traveling to their
preferred destinations (Kim & Chalip, 2004; Pizam, 1999). For
example, tourist arrival statistics in the Peoples Republic of China
showed a dramatic drop after the 1989 Tiananmen Square incident (Gartner & Shen, 1992). Events such as the September 1972
Munich, Germany, massacre, the September 11, 2001 World Trade
Center destruction by terrorists, and the November 26, 2008
terrorist attack on Indias nancial capital, Mumbai, all signicantly inhibited travel (cf. Toohey & Taylor, 2008). Past travel
experiences also affect tourists risk and safety concerns, as well as
their intention to revisit (Kim & Chalip, 2004). For example,
Snmez and Graefe (1998, p. 171) noted past travel experience to
specic regions both increases the intention to travel there again
and decreases the intention to avoid areas, particularly risky
areas.
Cultural and racial factors also have become prevalent in travel
constraint studies (e.g., Ng, Lee, & Soutar, 2007). Oh, Oh, and
Caldwell (2002) found similarities in perceived leisure constraints
among people from different cultural backgrounds. Shinew, Floyd,
and Parry (2004) examined leisure constraints and preferences of
African-Americans and Caucasians. Their ndings indicate AfricanAmericans are not as constrained as Caucasians, supporting the
view that these two racial groups have distinct leisure preferences.
Previous constraint-related studies have demonstrated leisure and
travel constraints operate differently in different cultural contexts.
For example, Chick and Dong (2003) found people with different
cultural backgrounds perceived constraints differently from

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North Americans and suggest leisure constraint categories must be

rened. Shinew et al. (2004) stated further examination of racial
and ethnic populations would contribute to better understandings
of constraints. Moreover, these studies indicated understanding the
relationship between race and leisure constraints is necessary for
understanding the complex relationship between culture and
constraints.
The role of travel constraints to the decision-making process
was rarely addressed in the tourism literature. Tasci and Gartner
(2007) identied critical factors related to the formation of destination image on the travel supply and demand sides. Among those,
they indicated various situational or external factors could be
perceived as constraints that inuence the travel decision-making
process in the pre-trip stage.
2.2. Destination image
Destination and image formation are complex concepts that
play an important role in tourists decisions; consequently, they
have been examined extensively in the tourism literature (Pike,
2002; 2010). Cronch (2011) indicated it is critical to identify key
attributes of a destination such as destination image and reputation
in the tourism market in terms of enhancing its competitiveness.
Previous studies have shown that holistic destination images and
specic destination attributes inuence consumer behavior variables before, during, and after visiting a destination (Chen & Hsu,
2000; Chen & Kerstetter, 1999; Court & Lupton, 1997; Ross, 1993;
Schroeder, 1996) (cited in Tasci & Gartner, 2007, p. 413). For the
past three decades, destination image studies have been an
important topic in the eld of travel and tourism. Scholars, using
various approaches, have attempted to develop a conceptual
framework of the image formation process to examine this
construct (e.g., Beerli & Martin, 2004; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993,
2003; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993; Gunn, 1972; Pike,
2002; 2010; Stepchenkova & Mills, 2010; Tasci, Gartner, &
Cavusgil, 2007).
Destination images and associated specic destination attributes are the most inuential factors in travelers decision-making
and, therefore, affect tourists behavior (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003;
Elliot, Papadopoulos, & Kim, 2011). According to Echtner and
Ritchies (1993) conceptualization, a destination image consists of
attribute-based and holistic-based components. Each of these
components contains tangible functional and abstract psychological characteristics. Furthermore, the image varies from
common functional and psychological characteristics to unique
holistic features.
Three formation processes produce destination images: organic
image, induced image, and complex image. An organic image is
formed by daily exposure to mass media (e.g., television). Exposure
to promotional materials, such as advertisements, can transform an
organic image into an induced image. The induced image may or
may not be the same as the organic image (Gunn, 1972). In the
absence of actual visitation, destination images are formed through
induced agents. Goodrich (1978) argues that induced images are
a secondary source formed by information received from external
sources. After an individual visits a destination, the induced images
(perceived image) become complex images (Fakeye & Crompton,
1991). However, Gartner (1989, p. 16) suggested vacation travel
to a distant destination will usually be undertaken only after an
extensive information search conditioned by nancial and time
limits.
Destination images have also been classied using three hierarchically interrelated components. According to Gartner (1993),
these three hierarchical and distinct components are cognitive,
affective, and conative. Individuals knowledge and beliefs about

a destination are the cognitive components. Individuals emotional

responses toward destination attributes are the affective components. The evolved cognitive and affective components of the
image are the conative components and are behavioral in nature.
These three types of image components are formed hierarchically:
rst the cognitive components, then the affective components, and
last the conative components. Furthermore, past travel experiences
inuence the cognitive component of destination images;
travelers motivations inuence the affective components of
destination images; and the individuals socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., young, well-educated travelers) inuence the
cognitive and affective assessment of image (Beerli & Martin, 2004;
Gartner, 1993).
Weaver and McCleary (1984) found age was a signicant variable in interpretation of travel advertisements. More specically,
people with different motives may assess a destination in similar
ways if its perception satises their needs (Dadgostar & Isotalo,
1992, p. 662). During the travel decision-making process, individuals evaluate both positive and negative destination images
(Echtner & Ritchie, 2003). When the positive image exceeds the
weight of the negative image, the potential travelers will then
make the destination choice decision (McLellan & Foushee, 1983)
(Chen & Kerstetter, 1999, p. 257). However it is important to note
that images tend to be stable over time. In fact, as Fakeye and
Crompton (1991) suggested that an image may continue long
after the factors that shaped it have changed. Images may have
stability over time even if there are dramatic changes in destination
attributes.
Additionally, Stabler (1988) divided factors inuencing
formation of a consumers destination image into supply and
demand. Demand factors are similar to push factors such as
motivation, perception, and individual characteristics; whereas,
supply factors are similar to pull factors corresponding to induced
image formation (Gunn, 1972). Since Stablers contribution,
inuence factors have been re-characterized as external and
internal factors such as stimulus factors and personal factors
(Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). External stimulus factors are typically
dened as the physical object and previous experience; whereas
personal factors consist of the internal social and psychological
characteristics of the perceiver. Baloglu and McCleary further
argued information sources and personal factors would affect
destination image formation. Based on contributions from
Baloglu and McCleary (1999), Beerli and Martin (2004) developed
a model explaining the different factors forming a destinations
post-visit image.
Relatively few studies examined the relationship between
destination image and Islamic culture. Islam is one of the most
widely practiced monotheistic religions in the world, with adherents called Muslims. Despite geo-political tensions resulting from
religious extremism over the last few decades, Islam itself is not
hostile toward tourism (Aziz, 1995). Some extremists perceive
tourism as a threat to their religion and culture, and believe tourism
represents unequal socio-economic development, as well as
inviting habits and practices viewed as an affront to Islamic traditions and beliefs (e.g., consumption of alcohol and pork, gambling,
prostitution, immodest dress codes and behavior, etc.) (Aziz, 1995).
These perceptions have led to a degree of xenophobia by some of
the more reverent, which has resulted in a sense of some type of
hostility toward non-Muslims. Moreover, tourists are perceived as
tangible representatives of the wealthy have societies which
challenge the moral, religious, and social values of the want
society (Aziz, 1995). These views may conict with the views that
tourism represents a powerful force for improved relations
among people and nations that tourism emphasizes a sharing and
appreciation of cultures rather than a lack of trust and isolation

H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management 35 (2013) 198e208

(DAmore, 1988). As a result of perceived social, political, and religious differences, several middle-Eastern countries have shunned
Western-style international tourism, deemed the differences to be
incompatible with Islam (Burton, 1995). Brunei is an interesting
example of this strategy as a reluctant tourist destination with no
real economic incentive to encourage international tourism,
thereby protects citizens from the worst excesses (Baum & Conlin,
1997, p. 91) (cited in Henderson, 2003, p. 449).
During the last three decades, tourism development in Islamic
countries such as Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Morocco, and
Turkey, has offered international tourists unique multi-ethnic
oriented cultural experiences (Battour, Ismail, & Battor, 2011; Din,
1989; Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010). Even though the
tourism industry in these countries has grown slowly during the
last few decades and is still in its infancy phase, tourism is considered one of the major contributors to the economies of these
countries (Akhtar, 2011; Manseld & Winckler, 2008). For example,
tourism has been an important contributor to employment generation in Egypt (11%) and Tunisia (15%) in 2010 (Akhtar, 2011), and is
projected to contribute to a 6.7% increase in 2011 for Malaysia
(WTTC, 2011). Despite the economic benets, Islam has a potentially difcult relationship with international tourism and has
become a sensitive issue for the industry due to wider political
developments (Henderson, 2008, p. 135). For example, in many
countries where Islam is the main religion or one of the dominant
religions, host behaviors are always guided by Islamic doctrine .
such doctrine is often subject to cultural or political interpretations
and different societies adhere to religious doctrine to varying
degrees (Snmez, 2001, p. 128). The contemporary image of
destinations in countries where Islam is the main religion is still
closely associated with differences between traditional Islamic
behavioral norms and those of Western society (Henderson, 2006;
Tasci, Meydan, & Cavusgil, 2006), as demonstrated by Manseld and
Wincklers (2008) case study of Bahrain, an Islamic tourism destination. Their study concluded that potential tourists might perceive
these destinations negatively due to religious behavior and strict
Islamic codes of conduct. While international tourists harbor
concerns about Islamic traditions (Henderson, 2006, 2008), tourism
in such countries continues to grow (Akhtar, 2011; Loganathan &
Ibrahim, 2010; WTTC, 2011).
2.3. Brunei
Brunei is located in South Asia on the Island of Borneo,
bordering Indonesia and Malaysia. Due to its proximity to the
booming tourist attractions of China, Japan, and Taiwan, Brunei has
the potential to attract more Asian tourists than many other
neighboring destinations. Culture is often considered the main
tourism attraction of Brunei. Brunei differs from other Islamic
countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Yemen, wherein tourism is
likely to be in the form of escorted tours which demand trained
personnel in the form of guides and couriers (Burns & Cooper,
1997, p. 560). Although Islamic norms and values have been
rmly rooted in Brunei since the 16th century, and while most of
Bruneis cultural practices and customs are intrinsically linked with
Islam, the country is open to other faiths and cultures (Brunei
Tourism, 2011), and includes a mix of Asiatic people and culture.
Many tourists are attracted to Brunei by its unique attractions and
cultural sites, often noted by tourists seeking novelty and exclusivity. For example, Brunei attractions include the Istana Nurul
Iman Palace (Palace of the Light of Faith) and Kampong Ayer
(the Water Village). Istana Nurul Iman Palace is the largest residential palace in the world (larger than Buckingham Palace and the
Royal Palace of Madrid). Kampong Ayer, estimated to be over 1000
years old, was characterized as the Venice of the East by Antonio

201

Pigafetta in 1521. Often described as reecting the nations quaint

Asian charm, this water village is the largest of its kind in the world
with over 30,000 residents and over 100,000 feet of linked foot
bridges, boardwalks, houses, shops, and hospitals, all built on stilts
over a lagoon.
Despite these cultural attractions, Bruneis economy is heavily
dependent on the oil and natural gas industry. Since 1929, crude oil
and natural gas have been the major contributors to the nations
gross domestic product (GDP) estimated to be roughly 7 billion USD
(Prime Ministers Ofce, 2009). Despite the prosperity natural gas
and oil have brought to this island nation, Brunei is implementing
an economic diversication strategy as they anticipate the inevitable depletion of their fossil fuel resources in future decades
(Loganathan & Ibrahim, 2010; Minnis, 2000). This diversication
strategy envisions Brunei becoming a major tourist destination in
Asia, especially in the niche markets of ecotourism and Islamic
culture (Government of Brunei, 1996). Tourism has been heavily
promoted by the Brunei Economic Council established under the
chairmanship of the Deputy Sultan (head of state) with the goal of
overseeing economic reforms intended to ensure economic
sustainability over the long term. Bruneis government designated
2001 as Visit Brunei Year, hoping a year-long focus on the country
would boost tourism (Anaman & Looi, 2000).
The World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) and Oxford
Economic Forecasting (OEF) reported visitor exports grew by 5.9%
per annum from 2001 through 2006. A majority of visitors to Brunei
are Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members with
almost 50% of tourists originating from Malaysia, followed by 10%
from the United Kingdom. As Brunei expects travel-and-tourismrelated employment to increase to 16.1% of total employment by
2016 (Prime Ministers Ofce, 2009), it is clear that tourism is
rapidly becoming a major part of Bruneis economy.
Although Brunei is considered a wealthy country with more than
27% of Bruneis population consists of migrant workers. However, as
many as 4.9% of Brunei nationals have been unemployed (Tasie,
2009). As such, promotion of tourism is becoming an important
long term strategy. In January 2010, tourism ministers from Brunei,
Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines launched the 29th ASEAN
Tourism Forum (ATF). The forum announced Equator Asia as
a single tourism destination emphasizing ecological preservation
and promoting the heritage and diversity of the Indo-Malay race.
This integrated region tourism approach could be an effective
strategy to ease the perceived unfamiliar cultural constraints
of international travelers and promote the long term growth of
Bruneis tourism industry.
3. Methodology
3.1. Study instrument
The study instrument used in this study was constructed in
three phases. The rst phase consisted of an in-depth literature
review of both destination image and travel constraints. The indepth literature review resulted in a list of attributes of destination image and travel constraints. The list was further rened based
on most recent literature (Beerli & Martin, 2004; Henderson, 2008;
Nyaupane & Andereck, 2008; Shani et al., 2010; Tasci & Gartner,
2007; Tasci et al., 2006). The second phase consisted of conducting four focus groups to verify the rened lists and to identify
additional attributes. Each focus group consisted of eight to eleven
young Taiwanese travelers. Some of the focus group participants
had previously traveled to other destinations in Asia (e.g., Indonesia
and Malaysia) and Africa (e.g., Egypt and Morocco). Each of the four
focus group meetings ranged from one to 2 h in duration. Discussions focused on the image and constraint attributes contained in

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the master list and participant perceptions and preferences; both

generically, as they apply to certain Asian destination images or
Islamic countries images and travel constraints, and specically, as
they apply to Brunei. These focus group meetings were used to
nalize attributes through modication and elimination, and
resulted in a nal list containing 19 destination image and 20 travel
constrain attributes that specically apply to Brunei as a destination. All attributes were measured using a 7-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
In the third phase, the survey questionnaire was developed
using the three-phase cross translation process. The questionnaire,
containing destination image, travel constraints, international
travel experience, and other related socio-demographic variables,
was rst developed in English, and then translated into Mandarin
by three Taiwanese international students who were studying in
the United States. The Mandarin version was further veried by
a tourism scholar from Taiwan. To ensure accuracy of the translation, the Mandarin version was translated back to English by ve
other international students from Taiwan. These reverse translations were also reviewed by two tourism scholars uent in both
English and Mandarin. Once the validity of the study instrument
was established, it was used to collect data from representative
samples of young Taiwanese travelers.
As there is no single internationally accepted denition of
young international traveler, the following institutional criteria
were reviewed and considered for this study: (1) those possessing
International Student Identity Cards (ISIC), issued by the International Student Travel Confederation (ISTC), who are actively
engaged in academic studies; (2) those possessing an International
Youth Travel Card (IYTC) issued to travelers under 26 year old; (3)
those who met the Intrepid Connections Adventure community
(Connections Adventures, 2011; Intrepid Connections was honored
at the 2009 Qantas Australian Tourism Awards) denition of young
travelers under 35 years old; (4) those under 35 years old who
traveled internationally and fell within the Contiki community (a
youth travelers online forums to reconnect/block with fellow young
travelers and share travel experiences) traveler denition (Contiki
vacations for 18e35, 2011).
3.2. Data collection
The intent of this study was to examine the perceived travel
constraints and destination image of an unfamiliar destination in
the early travel decision-making process. Thus, this study adopted
a soft denition formed by combining overlapping criteria from
several denitions to consider young travelers within the research
target of age 18e35 (i.e., students less than 18 years of age were
excluded as 18 is typically considered the age when an individual
becomes an adult and can travel independent of parental
consent).
3.3. Data analysis
As one objective of this study was to identify the perceived
destination image and travel constraints of Brunei, the sample
frame was restricted to young travelers with travel experience. The
criteria sampling method was applied to recruit young travelers
consisting of students 18e35 years old who had not previously
traveled to Brunei and were at the early stage of the travel decisionmaking process. Using this sampling criterion, 450 young individuals from a university in Taiwan were invited to participate in this
study. Of those invited, 328 usable samples were returned (an 88%
of response rate) and were deemed acceptable for this study.
Among those, 82% were female with average age of 21. Majority of
the respondents had never traveled to Brunei.

4. Results
4.1. Travel constraints to Brunei
The objectives of this study were to investigate perceived travel
constraints and perceived image of Brunei as a travel destination.
Frequency analysis was performed to identify the salient aspects
of travel constraints to Brunei as well as destination image as
perceived by study participants. Exploratory factor analysis with
Varimax rotation was then applied. All variables were examined to
ensure the basic assumptions of normal distribution, homoscedasticity, and no multicollinearity. All bivariate correlation coefcients were less than .7; VIF < 2. Q-Q box plot of each variable and
the skewness and Kurtosis were examined and concluded that the
normal distribution assumptions were not violet. Thus, the
variables identied met assumptions for the procedure. Before
indicating the factors of both destination image and travel
constraints by using factor analysis, two tests were employed to
ensure assumption were met. They are the KaisereMeyereOlkin
(KMO) measure of sample adequacy and the Bartletts Test of
Sphericity were performed. These two sets of indicators ensure that
both sets of variables meet the assumption of carrying out the
exploratory factor analysis for both destination image and travel
constraints. The underlying dimensions of destination image and
travel constraints to Brunei were then identied.
Principal Component Factor Analysis with Varimax rotation was
used to identify the 20 attributes of travel constraints. The procedure
resulted in four dimensions of travel constraints to Brunei
(KMO .89; the Bartletts Test of Sphericity chi-square
3329.729***, df 171, signicant at .001 level; 61.46% variance
explained). They are: unfamiliar cultural constraints, interpersonal
travel constraints, structural travel constraints, and intrapersonal travel
constraints. Cronbach alpha, used to measure the internal consistency of each of these four dimensions, ranged from .72 to .91 and
was deemed appropriate. Unfamiliar cultural constraints included
attributes such as, The extreme culture makes me feel not interested in visiting this destination, and I feel uncomfortable due to
the religion. Interpersonal travel constraints consisted of items
including, My family and friends discourage me from traveling to
this type of destination, and My family and friends do not want to
travel to this type of destination. Structural travel constraints
referred to those items such as, I do not have enough money to
travel to this type of destination, and Language is a major problem
for me to have a vacation to this destination. Intrapersonal travel
constraints included, My health is a concern for traveling to this type
of destination and My work and family obligation keep me from
visiting this destination. The ndings showed young travelers
perceived travel constraints on two dimensions: structural travel
constraints (mean 3.54; SD 1.05) and intrapersonal travel
constraints (mean 3.8; SD 1.05). However, young travelers disagreed with unfamiliar cultural constraints (mean 2.88; SD 1.28)
and interpersonal travel constraints (mean 3.17; SD 1.25).
The ndings are shown in Table 1.
4.2. Brunei destination image
Among the 19 attributes describing Bruneis destination image,
variety of unique cultural attractions, unique heritage, and
diverse and unique ethnic groups and culture were ranked highly.
However, modern, appealing local food and beverage,
and high-tech destination image attributes ranked lower. This
process revealed a three-dimension destination image of Brunei
(KMO .904; the Bartletts Test of Sphericity chi-square
3430.053***, df 191, signicant at .001 level; 59.86% of variance
explained by the solution). The three dimensions of Brunei

H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management 35 (2013) 198e208

203

Table 1
Factor analysis of travel constraints to Brunei.
Factors

Factor loading

Factor 1: unfamiliar cultural constraints (a .91)

The extreme culture make me feel not interested in visiting this destination
I feel uncomfortable due to the religion
Unwelcome atmosphere due to the religion.
The extreme culture makes me feel uncomfortable to travel to this destination.
I am not interested in visiting this destination.

.852
.823
.811
.779
.591

Factor 2: interpersonal travel constraints (a .87)

My family and friends discourage me from traveling to this type of destination.
My family and friends do not want to travel to this type of destination.
My family and friends are not interested in visiting this destination.
My family and friends do not want to travel with me to this type of destination.
It is not safe to travel to this destination.

.767
.763
.754
.746
.578

Factor 3: structural travel constraints (a .72)

I do not have enough money to travel to this type of destination.
Language is a major problem for me to have a vacation to this destination.
It is too far away.
It looks expensive to travel to this destination.
I dont have time to visit this destination.
I do not know much about this destination for vacation.
It is not fun to travel to this destination by myself.

.790
.702
.614
.521
.490
.458
.434

Factor 4: intrapersonal travel constraints (a .76)

My health is a concern for traveling to this type of destination.
This destination is a muslin country
My work and family obligation keep me from visiting this destination.

.919
.887
.886

Composite mean (SDa)

Eigen value

Explained variance (%)

2.88 (1.28)

7.61

38.07%

3.17 (1.25)

2.09

10.47%

3.54 (1.05)

1.33

6.62%

3.80 (1.27)

1.26

6.31%

Total variance explained: 61.46%

Note: values are the mean of reported scores on a 7-point scale (1 strongly disagree, 7 strongly agree).
a
Standard deviation.

destination image are: tourism infrastructure (Cronbach a .90;

mean 4.27; SD .97), hospitality atmosphere (Cronbach a .85;
mean 4.91; SD 1.06), and unique cultural attraction (Cronbach
a .82; mean 5.47; SD .91) (see Table 2). Destination image
attributes in the tourism infrastructure included attributes such as

high-tech and adequate tourism infrastructure. Hospitality

atmosphere included attributes such as friendly local people and
refreshing/relaxing atmosphere. Destination image attributes
related to unique cultural attraction included variety of cultural
attraction and unique heritage. The Cronbach alpha of each of

Table 2
Factor analysis of Islamic country destination image.
Factors

Factor loading

Factor 1: tourism infrastructure (a .90)

High-tech
Adequate tourism infrastructure (airport, highway, hotels, shopping, etc.)
Safe
Appealing local food and beverage
Various recreational opportunities
Socially and politically stable
Modern
Suitable accommodations (hotels, resorts, etc.)
Good value for money
Advanced tourism industry
Inexpensive travel

.732
.714
.643
.634
.619
.603
.574
.537
.498
.493
.405

Factor 2: hospitality atmosphere (a .85)

Friendly local people
Pleasant weather
Refreshing/relaxing atmosphere
Open and welcoming

.812
.744
.708
.657

Factor 3: unique cultural attraction (a .82)

Variety of unique cultural attractions
Unique heritage
Diverse and unique ethnic groups and cultures
Unique natural attractions

.859
.772
.762
.619

Composite mean (SDa)

Eigen value

Explained variance (%)

4.27 (.97)

8.00

42.11%

4.91 (1.06)

2.09

10.98%

5.47 (.91)

1.29

6.78%

Total variance explained: 59.86%

Note: values are the mean of reported scores on a 7-point scale (1 strongly disagree, 7 strongly agree).
a
Standard deviation.

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H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management 35 (2013) 198e208

these three dimensions was .90, .85, and .82, respectively, which are
deemed as excellent to good.
4.3. Travel constraints and destination image relationships
The second objective of this study was to identify the relationship, if any, between travel constraints and destination image.
Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) procedures were performed
to empirically test the nature and magnitude of the relationship.
The relationship test model is depicted in Fig. 1.
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version
14.0) MANOVA procedure was utilized for the canonical analysis.
The study revealed only one canonical correlation was signicant at
the .001 level. Table 3 lists the p-value as .006, which indicates
a possible canonical relationship exists between travel constraints
and destination image. Multivariate test statistics including
Wilks lambda (Wilks lambda .912, p < .001) also supported the
conclusion that this function solution was appropriate.
A Canonical Redundancy Index measures the ability of a set of
left-hand side variables (e.g. travel constraints) to account for variation in a set of right-hand side variables (e.g. destination image). It
is important to interpret the canonical function that explains a large
portion of the right-hand side variables (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, &
Black, 2006). The Canonical Redundancy Index analysis is shown
in Table 3. The resulting total redundancy was .03 (meaning 3 per
cent of the variance in the image set was explained). More specically, the rst canonical function, which explained 47 per cent of the
total redundancy, contributed the most to the total redundancy. The
results based on both the redundancy analysis and the statistical
signicance tests implied that the rst canonical function (e.g.,
variate) should be interpreted as the sole solution.
In order to determine the most important variables in a given
pair of canonical variants, the correlation between each variable
and canonical variate (standardized canonical coefcients and/or
canonical loadings) are used. According to Hair et al. (2006) the
canonical loadings could be used, in most cases, to interpret the
meanings of the canonical variate. Furthermore, canonical loadings
are used to discern the relationship between pairs of variates in
order to avoid multicollinearity problems. According to Hair et al.

(2006), correlations with positively correlated loadings greater

than .45 should be included in the interpretation. Canonical loadings between individual variables and their corresponding canonical functions are presented in Table 4. These results indicate the
destination image of Brunei held by young travelers is statistically
signicant and negatively related to travel constraints. Thus, the
correlation function (correlations with loadings greater than .45)
revealed that unfamiliar culture, interpersonal travel constraints,
and intrapersonal travel constraints signicantly and positively
correlated with travel constraints. Moreover, young travelers
perceived Bruneis tourism infrastructure, culture attraction,
and hospitality atmosphere have a signicant negative correlation with Bruneis destination image. Additionally, the young
travelers perceived signicant travel constraints to Brunei in four
aspects: unfamiliar cultural, interpersonal, structural, and intrapersonal travel constraints. Theoretically, these ndings might imply
perceived travel constraints and destination image have a signicant relationship.
5. Discussion and conclusions
This study contributes to the body of knowledge in two areas.
First, four dimensions of travel constraints and three dimensions
of destination image induced by the Brunei tourism promotion
information perceived by young travelers were identied. A new
constraint dimension (unfamiliar cultural constraints) was revealed.
Second, this study conrmed the relationship between travel
constraints and destination image. Relatively few studies address
the role of travel constraints to the formation of destination image
(Botha, Crompton, & Kim, 1999; Tasci & Gartner, 2007). This study
found a signicant relationship between destination image and
travel constraints during the early decision-making process. Study
results also support the conceptual model presented by Tasci and
Gartner (2007), which indicated travel constraints affect pre-trip
decision. This study concluded travel constraints impact the
formation of destination image at the early decision-making
process.
The four underlying travel constraints to Brunei are: unfamiliar
cultural constraints, interpersonal travel constraints, structural travel

Fig. 1. Canonical correlation of perceived travel constraints and destination image model.

H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management 35 (2013) 198e208

205

Table 3
Overall results of canonical correlation analysis.
Canonical correlation
function (variate)

Eigen value

Canonical
coefcient (r)

Wilks lambda

Chi-sq

df

Sig.

Variance extracted
in image

Canonical R2

Redundancy
index

% of
Redundancy

1
2
3

.080
.013
.003

.272
.111
.051

.912
.985
.997

27.591
4.515
.769

12
6
2

.006**
.607
.681

.370
.262
.121

.0739
.0123
.0026

.027
.003
.000

47%
5%
0%

Note: **correlation is signicant at the .01 level.

(1) Redundancy index was calculated as variance extracted  canonical R2.
(2) Redundancy index means variance of the image set explained by the constraint set.

constraints, and intrapersonal travel constraints. Among those, the

study ndings show that structural and intrapersonal travel
constraints were salient at the early stage of the decision-making
process. The destination image dimensions are tourism infrastructure, unique cultural attraction, and hospitality atmosphere.
This study revealed a new dimension of travel constraints:
unfamiliar cultural constraints. This provides an additional facet not
previously identied by researchers such as Crawford et al. (1991)
who proposed a leisure constraints model with three dimensions
of hierarchal constraints: structural, intrapersonal, and interpersonal constraints. In addition to the empirical investigation and
verication of their leisure constraints model by Raymore et al.
(1993), and Hawkins et al. (1999), this study conrmed Crawford
et al.s (1991) model also applies to travel and tourism. Furthermore, this study also identied unfamiliar cultural constraints as
a previously overlooked fourth dimension. Contrary to Chick and
Dong (2003) who discovered that both intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints were subordinate to culture, this study suggests
culture is a stand-alone constraint construct in a travel context.
Of these four constraints dimensions, unfamiliar cultural
constraints had the highest absolute value of standardized canonical coefcients. That is, unfamiliar cultural constraints could be the
most signicant construct explaining travel constraints. Unfamiliar
cultural constraints might be formed by a lack of knowledge and
experience with Bruneis cultural heritage and religion (Islam). This
may be the result of unfamiliar culture, a lack of interactions with
Muslims, limited knowledge of Islam and/or other destinations
where Islam is the main religion or one of the dominant religions,
and limited understanding of geo-political situations (e.g., implications resulting from the September 11 terrorist attacks in the
United States). In other words, cultural unfamiliarity might not
create barriers to travel. The unfamiliar cultural constraints
construct analysis (mean 2.88; standard deviation 1.28)
showed that young Taiwanese travelers do not agree that Brunei
culture, an unfamiliar religion, and heritage are major travel
constraints. This implies young Taiwanese travelers are relatively

Table 4
Canonical loadings for travel constraints and destination image.
Variables
Travel constraints
Unfamiliar cultural constraints
Interpersonal constraints
Structural constraints
Intrapersonal constraints
Destination image
Tourism infrastructure
Unique cultural attraction
Hospitality atmosphere

Standardized canonical Canonical correlation

coefcients
loadings
.071*
.862*
.431*
.479*

.572*
.857*
.018
.645*

1.042*
.104
.164

.992*
.566*
.567*

Note: *The absolute value of standardized canonical coefcients is greater than 0.5.
*The absolute value of canonical correlation loading is greater than 0.5.

insensitive to the concerns of other segments of the travel market

(such as Westerners, elderly travelers, etc.).
In this study, the culture attraction image dimension had the
lowest canonical loading correlation with destination image. This
may imply that, from the perspective of Taiwanese youth, unfamiliar culture and religion may have a pull effect, thus enhancing
Bruneis destination image. However, improvements in tourism
infrastructure, unique cultural attraction, and hospitality atmosphere attributes would lead to less negative destination images.
This nding differs from previous image construct research
(e.g., Pike, 2010) in that the culture attraction construct was used
to further understand the interrelated inuences of image and
constraint.
Many countries where Islam is the main religion or one of the
dominant religions promote tourism development because of
the potential economic contribution (Henderson, 2001, 2003;
Loganathan & Ibrahim, 2010). Therefore, recognizing the signicance of unfamiliar cultural constraints is a critical factor when
developing youth travel market strategies e particularly for destinations possessing signicant cultural and religious differences
compared to their potential target markets. This can be a signicant
challenge for countries where Islam is the dominant religion or one
of the main religions (cf. Manseld & Winckler, 2008). Non-Muslim
international tourists might consider some Islamic countries to be
unattractive destinations due to perceived religious stereotypes.
Additionally, some Islamic countries project well-known problems
with religious fundamentalism and conservatism, political conict,
sporadic wars, and terrorism and persistent media reports of
political conict and terrorism in the region, powerful media
images of covered women and often repressed citizens have fueled
an overall negative image (Snmez, 2001, p. 113). Some Islamic
countries also have restrictive and complicated entry requirements
(Henderson, 2003, 2008). These factors deter not just young travelers, but other travelers as well. Furthermore, terrorism and
political instability have added to the fear, particularly among
Western tourists (Hashim, Murphy, & Hashim, 2007). However
these are not as signicant for young Taiwanese travelers who are
less sensitive to these stereotypes and are more culturally curious.
This nding provides an opportunity for Islamic countries to reach
out to this type of travel market.
Furthermore, this study found Brunei destination image attributes such as variety of unique cultural attractions, unique
heritage, and diverse and unique ethnic groups and culture
ranked among the most favored destination image attributes, while
safe, appealing local food and beverage, and modern ranked
among the least favored destination image attributes. Although
many participants expressed great concern about travel safety,
most participants were interested in Bruneis unique cultural
attractions (e.g., unique heritage, diverse and unique ethnic
groups, and culture). The infrastructure dimension of Bruneis
destination image shared the common factors of previous destination image factors, also known as functional characteristics
(cf. Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Milman & Pizam, 1995; Stepchenkova &

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H.-J. Chen et al. / Tourism Management 35 (2013) 198e208

Eales, 2011). Although culture image studies are not new (e.g.,
Ritchie and Zins (1978) described culture attributes in their
study), culture image has been more frequently studied in the U.S.
and Europe (e.g., MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000). Although the Brunei
image attributes of culture and hospitality could be categorized
as the product factor described by Milman and Pizam (1995), or
the environment factor addressed by Chen and Kerstetter (1999),
the Islamic culture image attribute is a unique travel attraction in
South Eastern Asia. Given these ndings, this study suggests that
countries with strong Islamic norms and values can be successfully
promoted as travel destinations to those travelers attracted to
unique culture and hospitality.
This study suggests unfamiliar culture was viewed as both
a salient image as well as an inhibitor. The unfamiliar cultural
constraints dimension is unique in the travel and tourism context,
especially as it applies to the early travel decision-making process.
Therefore, the ndings conrm the travel constraint model is
different from the leisure constraint model. In addition to the three
hierarchical constraints, destination-specic factors (i.e., unfamiliar
culture and religion) were viewed as signicant constraints which
inhibit travel. Local culture, lifestyle, and heritage are important
image attributes which have a pull effect and attract the youth
market. However, this study found unfamiliar culture was not
perceived as an inhibitor from the perspective of young Taiwanese
travelers. This nding suggests destination marketing professionals
must carefully manage culture-related attributes by calibrating
marketing strategies to the target market.
The second major nding of this study is identication of the
relationship between constraints and destination images. Previous
research of destination image and its related constructs is well
established (Pike, 2002, 2010; Stepchenkova & Mills, 2010).
However, the relationship between destination image and travel
constraints has not been signicantly addressed by previous studies.
This study found a signicant relationship between destination
image and travel constraints during the early decision-making
process. Young travelers are more likely to be inuenced by travel
constraints (i.e., structural and intrapersonal constraints) which
often lead to negative destination image at the early stage of the
travel decision-making process. Furthermore, this study also identied favorable destination image could be a pull effect to overcome
travel constraints (i.e., unfamiliar cultural constraints).
This study found young travelers disagreed with unfamiliar
cultural constraints due to positive destination images. That is,
curiosity about unknown destinations (e.g., Brunei) can be positively
inuenced by tourism promotion portraying a positive image, thus
overcoming travel constraints (i.e., unfamiliar cultural constraints).
The contemporary image of many Islamic destinations is closely
associated with behavioral differences from those of Western
society (Henderson, 2006; Manseld & Winckler, 2008; Tasci et al.,
2006). Therefore, it is critical for destinations with strong Islamic
culture to positively inuence young travelers.
Effective marketing campaigns must not only positively inuence youth markets, but must also appeal to related groups and
information sources. For example, families, schools, hostels, travel
agencies, and social networking services can be a means to
disseminate positive information. In addition, since information acts
as a stimulus and image-forming agent that forms destination
perceptions and choices (Hashim et al., 2007), the Internet and
social media such as Facebook, Backpacker, Couchsurng, Twitter
etc. can also be used as an effective means for market promotion. In
recent years, the Internet has provided travelers with key information for international travelers. Websites with multimedia
resources (e.g., quality images and videos) may help travelers
re-shape their negative perceptions about unfamiliar cultures.
One specic example is illustrated by a Malaysian tourism

organization where promotional material avoids controversial areas

such as religion and focuses on multicultural society aspects
(Henderson, 2003). Another example from Malaysia is provided by
a tourism website which includes quotes and videos of tourist
discoveries intended to change potential tourist perceptions of
destinations. These promotional images and short videos are
effective because tourism is experiential, and it is difcult for
tourists to form a clear destination image without actual experience
(Govers & Go, 2003) (cited in Hashim et al., 2007, p. 1088).
Following this type of strategy, Brunei tourism could emphasize that
the country has taken a moderate approach to Islam (i.e., religious
tolerance) similar to other countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia,
and Turkey.
There are limitations associated with this study. This study
focused on travelers in the early stage of the travel decision-making
process. Other stages of the decision-making process should also be
examined to determine if information sources and other personal
factors inuence the negative perceptions found in this study.
Future study might also focus on post-visit evaluations to identify
destination image and travel constraints and their relationships
(if any). Study of post-visit measurements to identify factors which
could be used to overcome initial travel constraints is warranted.
Therefore, arguably, useful information for effective marketing and
management strategies could be identied. Travel experience is
critical in examining the travel image and constraint relationship.
Further analysis assessing the impact of different level of travel
experience to the relationship is recommended. At last, this study
only held on one University in Taiwan. So, additional research will
be needed to test the results with other students and youngsters in
Taiwan to provide more validity of the research result.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2012.07.004.
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Dr. Huei-Ju Chen is currently an Associate Professor at

Leisure and Recreation Management Department, National
Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. She received Ph.D. degree in Management
Science from Ming Chuan University, Taiwan in 2004 and
M.S. of Park & Recreation Resources at Michigan State
University, US in 1993. Her teaching and research interests
are leisure behavior, interpretation for leisure and recreation, leisure and recreation recourses management, and
leisure and recreation programming.

Dr. Po-Ju Chen is currently an Associate Professor at

Hospitality Services Department, Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
FL, USA. She received both her Doctorate and Masters
degrees in Leisure Studies and Hotel, Restaurant and
Institutional Management from Pennsylvania State
University. Dr. Chen joined the University of Central Florida in 2002. Dr. Chen specializes in social psychology, with
an emphasis on generational studies, sustainability and
cross-cultural research in hospitality and tourism. Her
teaching areas include research methodology, hospitality
marketing, human resources management, leadership
and strategic management, fairs and festivals, tourism
management and tourism geography.

Dr. Okumus is the Chair of the Hospitality Services

Department at the Rosen College, University of Central
Florida, Orlando, FL, USA. His teaching areas include strategic management, leadership development, strategic
human resources management, strategic marketing, hotel
management and international hospitality management.
His research focuses on strategy implementation, change
management, competitive advantage, learning organizations, knowledge management, crisis management, crosscultural management, destination marketing and developing countries. Dr. Okumus is the editor of the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management
(IJCHM) which was accepted into the Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) in 2010. He also serves on the editorial
board of 10 international journals.