Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru (/neru, nru/;[5] Hindustani:

[darlal neru] ( ); 14 November 1889 27
May 1964) was the rst Prime Minister of India and
a central gure in Indian politics for much of the 20th
century. He emerged as the paramount leader of the
Indian independence movement under the tutelage of
Mahatma Gandhi and ruled India from its establishment
as an independent nation in 1947 until his death in oce
in 1964. Nehru is considered to be the architect of
the modern Indian nation-state: a sovereign, socialist,
secular, and democratic republic.

when Gandhi acknowledged Nehru as his political heir

and successor. As Prime Minister, Nehru set out to realise his vision of India. The Constitution of India was
enacted in 1950, after which he embarked on an ambitious program of economic, social and political reforms.
Chiey, he oversaw Indias transition from a monarchy to
a republic, while nurturing a plural, multi-party democracy. In foreign policy, Nehru took a leading role in NonAlignment while projecting India as a regional hegemon
in South Asia.
Under Nehrus leadership, the Congress emerged as a
catch-all party, dominating national and state-level politics and winning consecutive elections in 1951, 1957, and
1962. He remained popular with the people of India in
spite of political troubles in his nal years and failure of
leadership during the 1962 Sino-Indian War. In India, his
birthday is celebrated as Childrens Day.

The son of Motilal Nehru, a prominent lawyer and nationalist statesman and Swaroop Rani, Nehru was a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge and the Inner Temple, where he trained to be a barrister. Upon his return
to India, he enrolled at the Allahabad High Court, and
took an interest in national politics, which eventually replaced his legal practice. A committed nationalist since
his teenage years, Nehru became a rising gure in Indian
politics during the upheavals of the 1910s. He became the
prominent leader of the left-wing factions of the Indian
National Congress during the 1920s, and eventually of
the entire Congress, with the tacit approval of his mentor,
Gandhi. As Congress President in 1929, Nehru called
for complete independence from the British Raj and instigated the Congresss decisive shift towards the left.

1 Early life and career (18891912)

Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889 in
Allahabad in British India. His father, Motilal Nehru
(18611931), a wealthy barrister who belonged to the
Kashmiri Pandit community,[6] served twice as President
of the Indian National Congress during the Independence
Struggle. His mother, Swaruprani Thussu (18681938),
who came from a well-known Kashmiri Brahmin family settled in Lahore,[7] was Motilals second wife, the
rst having died in child birth. Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children, two of whom were girls.[8] The
elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the rst female president of the United Nations General Assembly.[9] The youngest sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became
a noted writer and authored several books on her brother.

Nehru and the Congress dominated Indian politics during

the 1930s as the country moved towards independence.
His idea of a secular nation-state was seemingly validated
when the Congress, under his leadership, swept the 1937
provincial elections and formed the government in several provinces; on the other hand, the separatist Muslim
League fared much poorer. But these achievements were
seriously compromised in the aftermath of the Quit India Movement in 1942, which saw the British eectively
crush the Congress as a political organisation. Nehru,
who had reluctantly heeded Gandhis call for immediate
independence, for he had desired to support the Allied
war eort during the Second World War, came out of
a lengthy prison term to a much altered political landscape. The Muslim League under his old Congress colleague and now bte noire, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, had
come to dominate Muslim politics in India. Negotiations
between Nehru and Jinnah for power sharing failed and
gave way to the independence and bloody partition of India in 1947.

Nehru described his childhood as a sheltered and uneventful one. He grew up in an atmosphere of privilege at
wealthy homes including a large palatial estate called the
Anand Bhawan. His father had him educated at home by
private governesses and tutors.[10] Under the inuence of
a tutor, Ferdinand T. Brooks, Nehru became interested in
science and theosophy.[11] Nehru was subsequently initiated into the Theosophical Society at age thirteen by family friend Annie Besant. However, his interest in theosophy did not prove to be enduring and he left the sociNehru was elected by the Congress to assume oce as in- ety shortly after Brooks departed as his tutor.[12] Nehru
dependent Indias rst Prime Minister, although the ques- wrote: for nearly three years [Brooks] was with me and
tion of leadership had been settled as far back as 1941, in many ways he inuenced me greatly.[11]
1

1 EARLY LIFE AND CAREER (18891912)

The Nehru family ca. 1890s

sions of similar deeds in India came before, of [my] gallant ght for [Indian] freedom and in my mind India and
Italy got strangely mixed together.[11]

Nehru in khaki uniform as a member of Seva Dal.

Nehrus theosophical interests had induced him to the

study of the Buddhist and Hindu scriptures.[13] According to B.R. Nanda, these scriptures were Nehrus rst
introduction to the religious and cultural heritage of
[India]....[they] provided Nehru the initial impulse for
[his] long intellectual quest which culminated...in the
Discovery of India.[13]
Nehru became an ardent nationalist during his youth. The
Boer War and the Russo-Japanese War intensied his
feelings. About the latter he wrote, "[The] Japanese victories [had] stirred up my enthusiasm ... Nationalistic
ideas lled my mind ... I mused of Indian freedom and
Asiatic freedom from the thraldom of Europe.[11] Later
when Nehru had begun his institutional schooling in 1905
at Harrow, a leading school in England, he was greatly
inuenced by G.M. Trevelyan's Garibaldi books, which
he had received as prizes for academic merit.[14] Nehru
viewed Garibaldi as a revolutionary hero. He wrote: Vi- Nehru dressed in cadet uniform at Harrow School in England

3
Nehru went to Trinity College, Cambridge in October 1907 and graduated with an honours degree in
natural science in 1910.[15] During this period, Nehru
also studied politics, economics, history and literature
desultorily. Writings of Bernard Shaw, H.G Wells,
J.M. Keynes, Bertrand Russell, Lowes Dickinson and
Meredith Townsend moulded much of his political and
economic thinking.[11]

2 Struggle for Indian Independence (191247)

Nehru had developed an interest in Indian politics during his time in Britain.[17] Within months of his return
to India in 1912 he had attended an annual session of
the Indian National Congress in Patna.[18] Nehru was disconcerted with what he saw as a very much an Englishknowing upper class aair.[19] The Congress in 1912
had been the party of moderates and elites.[18] Nehru
harboured doubts regarding the ineectualness of the
Congress but agreed to work for the party in support
of the Indian civil rights movement in South Africa.[20]
He collected funds for the civil rights campaigners led
by Mohandas Gandhi in 1913.[18] Later, he campaigned
against the indentured labour and other such discriminations faced by Indians in the British colonies.[21]
When the First World War broke out in August 1914,
sympathy in India was divided. Although educated Indians by and large took a vicarious pleasure in seeing
the British rulers humbled, the ruling upper classes sided
with the Allies. Nehru confessed that he viewed the war
with mixed feelings. Frank Moraes wrote: If [Nehrus]
sympathy was with any country it was with France, whose
culture he greatly admired.[22] During the war, Nehru
volunteered for the St John Ambulance and worked as
one of the provincial secretaries of the organisation in
Allahabad.[18] Nehru also spoke out against the censorship acts passed by the British government in India.[23]

Nehru at the Allahabad High Court

After completing his degree in 1910, Nehru went to London and stayed there for two years for law studies at the
Inns of Court School of Law (Inner Temple).[16] During
this time, he continued to study the scholars of the Fabian
Society including Beatrice Webb.[11] Nehru passed his
bar examinations in 1912 and was admitted to the English bar.[16]
After returning to India in August 1912, Nehru enrolled
himself as an advocate of the Allahabad High Court and
tried to settle down as a barrister. But, unlike his father,
he had only a desultory interest in his profession and did
not relish either the practice of law or the company of
lawyers. Nehru wrote: Decidedly the atmosphere was
not intellectually stimulating and a sense of the utter insipidity of life grew upon me.[11] His involvement in nationalist politics would gradually replace his legal practice
Nehru in 1918 with wife Kamala and daughter Indira
in the coming years.[11]

2 STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (191247)

Nehru emerged from the war years as a leader whose

political views were considered radical. Although the
political discourse had been dominated at this time by
Gopal Krishna Gokhale,[20] a moderate who said that it
was madness to think of independence,[18] Nehru had
spoken openly of the politics of non-cooperation, of
the need of resigning from honorary positions under the
government and of not continuing the futile politics of
representation.[24] Nehru ridiculed the Indian Civil Service (ICS) for its support of British policies. He noted
that someone had once dened the Indian Civil Service,
with which we are unfortunately still aicted in this
country, as neither Indian, nor civil, nor a service.[25]
Motilal Nehru, a prominent moderate leader, acknowledged the limits of constitutional agitation, but counselled
his son that there was no other practical alternative to
it. Nehru, however, was not satised with the pace of the
national movement. He became involved with aggressive
nationalists leaders who were demanding Home Rule for
Indians.[26]

signicant concessions after a period of intense protests.

2.2 Non-cooperation
The rst big national involvement of Nehru came at
the onset of the non-co-operation movement in 1920.
He led the movement in the United Provinces (now
Uttar Pradesh). Nehru was arrested on charges of antigovernmental activities in 1921, and was released a few
months later. In the rift that formed within the Congress
following the sudden closure of the non-co-operation
movement after the Chauri Chaura incident, Nehru remained loyal to Gandhi and did not join the Swaraj Party
formed by his father Motilal Nehru and CR Das.

2.3 Internationalising the struggle

The inuence of the moderates on Congress politics

began to wane after Gokhale died in 1915.[18] Antimoderate leaders such as Annie Beasant and Lokmanya
Tilak took the opportunity to call for a national movement
for Home Rule. But, in 1915, the proposal was rejected
due to the reluctance of the moderates to commit to such
a radical course of action. Besant nevertheless formed a
league for advocating Home Rule in 1916; and Tilak, on
his release from a prison term, had in April 1916 formed
his own league.[18] Nehru joined both leagues but worked
especially for the former.[27] He remarked later: "[Besant] had a very powerful inuence on me in my childhood... even later when I entered political life her inuence continued.[27] Another development which brought
about a radical change in Indian politics was the espousal
of Hindu-Muslim unity with the Lucknow pact at the annual meeting of the Congress in December 1916. The
pact had been initiated earlier in the year at Allahabad
at a meeting of the All-India Congress Committee which
was held at the Nehru residence at Anand Bhawan. Nehru
welcomed and encouraged the rapprochement between
the two Indian communities.[27]
Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajiv Gandhi and Sanjay
Gandhi

2.1

Home rule movement

Nehru played a leading role in the development of the internationalist outlook of the Indian independence struggle. He sought foreign allies for India and forged links
with movements for independence and democracy all
over the world. In 1927, his eorts paid o and the
Congress was invited to attend the congress of oppressed
nationalities in Brussels in Belgium. The meeting was
called to co-ordinate and plan a common struggle against
imperialism. Nehru represented India and was elected to
the Executive Council of the League against Imperialism
that was born at this meeting.[29]

Several nationalist leaders banded together in 1916 under the leadership of Annie Besant to voice a demand for self-government, and to obtain the status of a
Dominion within the British Empire as enjoyed by Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Newfoundland at the time. Nehru joined the movement and
rose to become secretary of Besants All India Home
Rule League.[27][28] In June 1917 Besant was arrested and
interned by the British government. The Congress and
various other Indian organisation threatened to launch
protests if she were not set free. The British govern- During the mid-1930s, Nehru was much concerned with
ment was subsequently forced to release Besant and make developments in Europe, which seemed to be drifting to-

2.5

Declaration of Independence

5
helping Indian leaders Vallabhbhai Patel and V.P. Menon
(to whom Nehru had delegated the task of integrating
the princely states into India) negotiate with hundreds of
princes.

Nehru and his daughter Indira in Britain, 1930s

ward another world war. He was in Europe in early 1936,

visiting his ailing wife, shortly before she died in a sanitarium in Switzerland. Even at this time, he emphasised
that, in the event of war, Indias place was alongside the
democracies, though he insisted that India could only ght
in support of Great Britain and France as a free country.
Nehru closely worked with Subhash Bose in developing good relations with governments of free countries
all over the world. However, the two split in the late
1930s, when Bose agreed to seek the help of fascists
in driving the British out of India. At the same time,
Nehru had supported the Republicans who were ghting against Francisco Franco's forces in the Spanish Civil
War. Nehru along with his aide V.K. Krishna Menon
visited Spain and declared support for the Republicans.
Nehru refused to meet Benito Mussolini, the dictator
of Italy when the latter expressed his desire to meet
him.[30][31]

In July 1946, Nehru pointedly observed that no princely

state could prevail militarily against the army of independent India.[32] In January 1947, Nehru said that independent India would not accept the Divine Right of Kings,[33]
and in May 1947, he declared that any princely state
which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would
be treated as an enemy state. During the drafting of the
Indian constitution, many Indian leaders (except Nehru)
of that time were in favour of allowing each Princely
state or Covenanting State to be independent as a federal
state along the lines suggested originally by the Government of India act (1935). But as the drafting of the constitution progressed and the idea of forming a republic
took concrete shape (due to the eorts of Nehru), it was
decided that all the Princely states/Covenanting States
would merge with the Indian republic. Nehrus daughter, Indira Gandhi, de-recognized all the rulers by a presidential order in 1969. But this was struck down by the
Supreme Court of India. Eventually, the government by
the 26th Amendment to the constitution was successful
in abolishing the Princely states of India. The process
began by Nehru was nally completed by his daughter by
the end of 1971.

2.5 Declaration of Independence

Nehru was one of the rst leaders to demand that the
Congress Party should resolve to make a complete and
explicit break from all ties with the British Empire. He
introduced a resolution demanding complete national
independence in 1927, which was rejected because of
Gandhis opposition.[34]

In 1928, Gandhi agreed to Nehrus demands and proposed a resolution that called for the British to grant dominion status to India within two years. If the British
failed to meet the deadline, the Congress would call upon
2.4 Republicanism
all Indians to ght for complete independence. Nehru was
one of the leaders who objected to the time given to the
Nehru was one of the rst nationalist leaders to realise British he pressed Gandhi to demand immediate actions
the suerings of the people in the states ruled by Indian from the British. Gandhi brokered a further compromise
Princes. He suered imprisonment in Nabha, a princely by reducing the time given from two years to one. Nehru
state, when he went there to see the struggle that was be- agreed to vote for the new resolution.
ing waged by the Sikhs against the corrupt Mahants. The
Demands for dominion status was rejected by the British
nationalist movement had been conned to the territories
in 1929. Nehru assumed the presidency of the Congress
under direct British rule. Nehru helped to make the strugparty during the Lahore session on 29 December 1929
gle of the people in the princely states a part of the nationand introduced a successful resolution calling for comalist movement for independence. The All India states
plete independence.
peoples conference was formed in 1927. Nehru who had
been supporting the cause of the people of the princely Nehru drafted the Indian declaration of independence,
states for many years was made the President of the con- which stated:
ference in 1935. He opened up its ranks to membership
We believe that it is the inalienable right
from across the political spectrum. The body would play
of the Indian people, as of any other people,
an important role during the political integration of India,

2 STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (191247)

to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their
toil and have the necessities of life, so that they
may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish
it. The British government in India has not
only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of
the masses, and has ruined India economically,
politically, culturally and spiritually. We believe
therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence. [35]

The Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention

of the world. Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of the claims by
the Congress party for independence. Nehru considered
the salt satyagraha the high-water mark of his association
with Gandhi,[37] and felt that its lasting importance was
in changing the attitudes of Indians:

At midnight on New Years Eve 1929, Nehru hoisted the

tricolour ag of India upon the banks of the Ravi in Lahore. A pledge of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold taxes. The massive gathering of public attending the ceremony was asked if they
agreed with it, and the vast majority of people were witnessed to raise their hands in approval. 172 Indian members of central and provincial legislatures resigned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian pub2.7
lic sentiment. The Congress asked the people of India
to observe 26 January as Independence Day. The ag of
India was hoisted publicly across India by Congress volunteers, nationalists and the public. Plans for a mass civil
disobedience were also underway.

"Of course these movements exercised

tremendous pressure on the British Government
and shook the government machinery. But the
real importance, to my mind, lay in the eect
they had on our own people, and especially the
village masses....Non-cooperation dragged them
out of the mire and gave them self-respect and
self-reliance....They acted courageously and did
not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their
outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole....It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhis leadership, must have the credit
for it."[38]

Architect of India

After the Lahore session of the Congress in 1929, Nehru

gradually emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian
independence movement. Gandhi stepped back into a
more spiritual role. Although Gandhi did not ocially
designate Nehru his political heir until 1942, the country as early as the mid-1930s saw in Nehru the natural
successor to Gandhi.

2.6

Civil disobedience

Nehru and most of the Congress leaders were initially ambivalent about Gandhis plan to begin civil disobedience
with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax. After the
protest gathered steam, they realised the power of salt
as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented
popular response, it seemed as though a spring had been
suddenly released.[36] Nehru was arrested on 14 April
1930 while entraining from Allahabad for Raipur. He
had earlier, after addressing a huge meeting and leading a
vast procession, ceremoniously manufactured some contraband salt. He was charged with breach of the salt law,
tried summarily behind prison walls and sentenced to six
months of imprisonment. Nehru nominated Gandhi to
succeed him as Congress President during his absence in
jail, but Gandhi declined, and Nehru then nominated his
father as his successor. With Nehrus arrest the civil disobedience acquired a new tempo, and arrests, ring on
crowds and lathi charges grew to be ordinary occurrences.

Gandhi and Nehru in 1942

Nehru elaborated the policies of the Congress and a future Indian nation under his leadership in 1929. He declared that the aims of the congress were freedom of religion, right to form associations, freedom of expression of
thought, equality before law for every individual without
distinction of caste, colour, creed or religion, protection
to regional languages and cultures, safeguarding the interests of the peasants and labour, abolition of untouchability, introduction of adult franchise, imposition of prohibition, nationalisation of industries, socialism, and establishment of a secular India. All these aims formed the

2.9

World War II and Quit India movement

core of the Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy

resolution drafted by Nehru in 192931 and were ratied by the All India Congress Committee under Gandhis
leadership.[39] However, some Congress leaders objected
to the resolution and decided to oppose Nehru.
The espousal of socialism as the Congress goal was most
dicult to achieve. Nehru was opposed in this by the
right-wing Congressmen Sardar Patel, Dr. Rajendra
Prasad and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari. Nehru had
the support of the left-wing Congressmen Maulana Azad
and Subhas Chandra Bose. The trio combined to oust
Dr. Prasad as Congress President in 1936. Nehru was
elected in his place and held the presidency for two years
(193637).[40] Nehru was then succeeded by his socialist colleagues Bose (193839) and Azad (194046). After the fall of Bose from the mainstream of Indian politics (due to his support of violence in driving the British
out of India), the power struggle between the socialists
and conservatives balanced out. However, Sardar Patel
died in 1950, leaving Nehru as the sole remaining iconic
national leader, and soon the situation became such that
Nehru was able to implement many of his basic policies
without hindrance. The conservative right-wing of the
Congress (composed of Indias upper class elites) would
continue opposing the socialists until the great schism in
1969. Nehrus daughter, Indira Gandhi, was able to fulll her fathers dream by the 42nd amendment (1976) of
the Indian constitution by which India ocially became
socialist and secular.[41]
During Nehrus second term as general secretary of the
Congress, he proposed certain resolutions concerning the
foreign policy of India.[42] From that time onwards, he
was given carte blanche in framing the foreign policy of
any future Indian nation. Nehru developed good relations
with governments all over the world. He rmly placed India on the side of democracy and freedom during a time
when the world was under the threat of fascism.[31] Nehru
was also given the responsibility of planning the economy
of a future India. He appointed the National Planning
Commission in 1938 to help in framing such policies.[43]
However, many of the plans framed by Nehru and his
colleagues would come undone with the unexpected partition of India in 1947.

Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore

When the Congress party under Nehru chose to contest

elections and accept power under the Federation scheme,
Gandhi resigned from party membership. Gandhi did
not disagree with Nehrus move, but felt that if he resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stie
the partys membership. When the elections following
the introduction of provincial autonomy (under the government of India act 1935) brought the Congress party to
power in a majority of the provinces, Nehrus popularity and power was unmatched. The Muslim League under Mohammed Ali Jinnah (who was to become the creator of Pakistan) had fared badly at the polls. Nehru declared that the only two parties that mattered in India were
the British Raj and Congress. Jinnah statements that the
Muslim League was the third and equal partner within
Indian politics was widely rejected. Nehru had hoped to
elevate Maulana Azad as the pre-eminent leaders of Indian Muslims, but in this, he was undermined by Gandhi,
who continued to treat Jinnah as the voice of Indian Muslims.

2.9 World War II and Quit India movement

When World war II started, Viceroy Linlithgow had unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of the
Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives. Nehru hurried back from a visit to China, announcing that, in a conict between democracy and Fascism,
our sympathies must inevitably be on the side of democ2.8 Electoral politics
racy.... I should like India to play its full part and throw
Nehru visit to Europe in 1936 proved to be the watershed all her resources into the struggle for a new order.
in his political and economic thinking. Nehrus real inter- After much deliberation the Congress under Nehru inest in Marxism and his socialist pattern of thought stem formed the government that it would co-operate with the
from that tour. His subsequent sojourns in prison enabled British but on certain conditions. First, Britain must give
him to study Marxism in more depth. Interested in its an assurance of full independence for India after the war
ideas but repelled by some of its methods, he could never and allow the election of a constituent assembly to frame
bring himself to accept Karl Marxs writings as revealed a new constitution; second, although the Indian armed
scripture. Yet from then on, the yardstick of his economic forces would remain under the British Commander-inthinking remained Marxist, adjusted, where necessary, to Chief, Indians must be included immediately in the cenIndian conditions.
tral government and given a chance to share power and

2 STRUGGLE FOR INDIAN INDEPENDENCE (191247)

responsibility. When Nehru presented Lord Linlithgow

with the demands, he chose to reject them. A deadlock
was reached. The same old game is played again, Nehru
wrote bitterly to Gandhi, the background is the same, the
various epithets are the same and the actors are the same
and the results must be the same.
On 23 October 1939, the Congress condemned the
Viceroys attitude and called upon the Congress ministries in the various provinces to resign in protest. Before this crucial announcement, Nehru urged Jinnah and
the Muslim League to join the protest but the latter declined.
In March 1940 Jinnah passed what would come to be
known as the Pakistan Resolution, declaring Muslims
are a nation according to any denition of a nation, and
they must have their homelands, their territory and their
State. This state was to be known as Pakistan, meaning Land of the Pure. Nehru angrily declared that all
the old problems...pale into insignicance before the latest stand taken by the Muslim League leader in Lahore.
Linlithgow made Nehru an oer on 8 October 1940. It
stated that Dominion status for India was the objective
of the British government. However, it referred neither
to a date nor method of accomplishment. Only Jinnah
got something more precise. The British would not contemplate transferring power to a Congress-dominated national government the authority of which was denied by
large and powerful elements in Indias national life.
Nehru and Jinnah walk together at Simla, 1946
In October 1940, Gandhi and Nehru, abandoning their
original stand of supporting Britain, decided to launch a
limited civil disobedience campaign in which leading adGandhi had stated: Some say Pandit Nehru and I were
vocates of Indian independence were selected to particestranged. It will require much more than dierence of
ipate one by one. Nehru was arrested and sentenced to
opinion to estrange us. We had dierences from the time
four years imprisonment. After spending a little more
we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years
than a year in jail, he was released, along with other
and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my
Congress prisoners, three days before the bombing of
successor.[44]
Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
Gandhi called on the British to leave India; Nehru, though
When the Japanese carried their attack through Burma
reluctant to embarrass the allied war eort, had no al(now Myanmar) to the borders of India in the spring of
ternative but to join Gandhi. Following the Quit India
1942, the British government, faced by this new miliresolution passed by the Congress party in Bombay (now
tary threat, decided to make some overtures to India, as
Mumbai) on 8 August 1942, the entire Congress working
Nehru had originally desired. Prime Minister Winston
committee, including Gandhi and Nehru, was arrested
Churchill dispatched Sir Staord Cripps, a member of
and imprisoned. Nehru emerged from thishis ninth and
the war Cabinet who was known to be politically close to
last detentiononly on 15 June 1945.
Nehru and also knew Jinnah, with proposals for a settlement of the constitutional problem. As soon as he arrived During the period where all of the Congress leadership
he discovered that India was more deeply divided than he were in jail, the Muslim League under Jinnah grew in
had imagined. Nehru, eager for a compromise, was hope- power. In April 1943, the League captured the governful. Gandhi was not. Jinnah had continued opposing the ments of Bengal and, a month later, that of the North
Congress. Pakistan is our only demand, declared the West Frontier Province. In none of these provinces had
Muslim League newspaper Dawn and by God we will the League previously had a majority only the arrest of
Congress members made it possible. With all the Mushave it.
lim dominated provinces except the Punjab under JinCrippss mission failed as Gandhi would accept nothing
nahs control, the articial concept of a separate Musless than independence. Relations between Nehru and
lim State was turning into a reality. However by 1944,
Gandhi cooled over the latters refusal to co-operate with
Jinnahs power and prestige were on the wane. A genCripps but the two later reconcilled. On 15 January 1941
eral sympathy towards the jailed Congress leaders was

9
developing among Muslims, and much of the blame for
the disastrous Bengal famine of 194344 during which
two million died, had been laid on the shoulders of the
provinces Muslim League government. The numbers at
Jinnahs meetings, once counted in thousands soon numbered only a few hundreds. In despair, Jinnah left the
political scene for a stay in Kashmir. His prestige was
restored unwittingly by Gandhi, who had been released
from prison on medical grounds in May 1944 and had met
Jinnah in Bombay in September. There he oered the
Muslim leader a plebiscite in the Muslim areas after the
war to see whether they wanted to separate from the rest
of India. Essentially, it was an acceptance of the principle
of Pakistan but not in so many words. Jinnah demanded
that the exact words be said; Gandhi refused and the talks Teen Murti Bhavan, Nehrus residence as Prime Minister, now a
broke down. Jinnah however had greatly strengthened his museum in his memory.
own position and that of the League. The most inuential
member of Congress had been seen to negotiate with him
redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full meaon equal terms. Other Muslim League leaders, opposed
sure, but very substantially. At the stroke of
both to Jinnah and to the partition of India, lost strength.
the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment
comes, which comes but rarely in history, when
3 Prime Minister of India (1947
we step out from the old to the new, when an
age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long
64)
suppressed, nds utterance. It is tting that at
this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people
and to the still larger cause of humanity.[45]

Lord Mountbatten swears in Jawaharlal Nehru as the rst Prime

Minister of free India at the ceremony held at 8:30 am IST on 15
August 1947

Nehru and his colleagues had been released as the British

Cabinet Mission arrived to propose plans for transfer of
power.
Once elected, Nehru headed an interim government,
which was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence
and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim
League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. After
failed bids to form coalitions, Nehru reluctantly supported the partition of India, according to a plan released
by the British on 3 June 1947. He took oce as the Prime
Minister of India on 15 August, and delivered his inaugural address titled "Tryst with Destiny".
Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall

Nehru with Albert Einstein at Princeton University, 1949

On 30 January 1948, Father of the Nation, Mahatma

Gandhi was shot while he was walking to a platform from
which he was to address a prayer meeting. The assassin, Nathuram Godse, was a Hindu nationalist with links
to the extremist Hindu Mahasabha, who held Gandhi responsible for weakening India by insisting upon a payment to Pakistan. Nehru addressed the nation through
radio:[46]
"Friends and comrades, the light has gone
out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you

10

3
or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as
we called him, the father of the nation, is no
more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have
seen him for these many years, we will not run
to him for advice or seek solace from him, and
that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but
for millions and millions in this country.
Jawaharlal Nehrus address to Gandhi[47]

PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA (194764)

attend to him and became his constant companion in his

travels across India and the world. Indira would virtually
become Nehrus chief of sta.
Nehru had led the Congress to a major victory in the 1957
elections, but his government was facing rising problems
and criticism. Disillusioned by alleged intra-party corruption and bickering, Nehru contemplated resigning but
continued to serve. The election of his daughter Indira as
Congress President in 1959 aroused criticism for alleged
nepotism, although actually Nehru had disapproved of
her election, partly because he considered it smacked of
dynastism"; he said, indeed it was wholly undemocratic
and an undesirable thing, and refused her a position in
his cabinet.[52] Indira herself was at loggerheads with her
father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated
personal deference to the Congress Working Committee
to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party
of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own
objections.[52] Nehru began to be frequently embarrassed
by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition, and was hurt by what he saw as an assertiveness
with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father.[53]

In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory

yet with a diminished majority. Communist and socialist
President Harry Truman and Jawaharlal Nehru, with Nehrus parties were the main beneciaries although some right
sister, Madame Pandit, during Nehrus visit to the United States, wing groups like Bharatiya Jana Sangh also did well.
October 1949

Yasmin Khan argued that Gandhis death and funeral

helped consolidate the authority of the new Indian state
under Nehru and Patel. The Congress tightly controlled
the epic public displays of grief over a two-week period
the funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution of the martyrs ashesas millions participated and hundreds of millions watched. The goal was to assert the power of the
government, legitimise the Congress party's control and
suppress all religious para-military groups. Nehru and
Patel suppressed the RSS, the Muslim National Guards,
and the Khaksars, with some 200,000 arrests. Gandhis
death and funeral linked the distant state with the Indian
people and made more understand the need to suppress
religious parties during the transition to independence for
the Indian people.[48]
In later years there emerged a revisionist school of history which sought to blame Nehru for the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly centralised policies for
an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in
favour of a more decentralised India.[49][50] Such views
has been promoted by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya
Janata Party (BJP), which favours a decentralised central
government in India.[51]

3.1 Assassination attempts and security

There were four known assassination attempts on Nehru.
The rst attempt on his life was during partition in
1947 while he was visiting North-West Frontier Province
(now in Pakistan) in a car.[54] The second one was
by a knife-wielding rickshaw-puller in Maharashtra in
1955.[55][56][57][58] The third one happened in Bombay
(now Maharashtra) in 1956.[59][60][61] The fourth one was
a failed bombing attempt on train tracks in Maharashtra in 1961.[62] Despite threats to his life, Nehru despised
having too much security around him and did not like to
disrupt trac due to his movement.[63]

3.2 Economic policies

Nehru implemented policies based on import substitution
industrialisation and advocated a mixed economy where
the government controlled public sector would co-exist
with the private sector.[64] He believed that the establishment of basic and heavy industry was fundamental to the
development and modernisation of the Indian economy.
The government therefore directed investment primarily
into key public sector industries steel, iron, coal, and
power promoting their development with subsidies and
protectionist policies.[65]

In the years following independence, Nehru frequently

turned to his daughter Indira to look after him and
manage his personal aairs. Under his leadership, the
Congress won an overwhelming majority in the elections
of 1952. Indira moved into Nehrus ocial residence to The policy of non-alignment during the Cold War meant

3.4

Domestic policies

11

ership failed. Attempts to introduce large-scale cooperative farming were frustrated by landowning rural elites,
who formed the core of the powerful right-wing of the
Congress and had considerable political support in opposing the eorts of Nehru. Agricultural production
expanded until the early 1960s, as additional land was
brought under cultivation and some irrigation projects
began to have an eect. The establishment of agricultural universities, modelled after land-grant colleges in
the United States, contributed to the development of the
economy. These universities worked with high-yielding
varieties of wheat and rice, initially developed in Mexico
and the Philippines, that in the 1960s began the Green
Nehru meeting with Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and Deutsche Revolution, an eort to diversify and increase crop proBank chairman Hermann Josef Abs during a state visit to West duction. At the same time a series of failed monsoons
would cause serious food shortages despite the steady
Germany in June 1956.
progress and increase in agricultural production.[77]
that Nehru received nancial and technical support from
both power blocs in building Indias industrial base from 3.4
scratch.[66] Steel mill complexes were built at Bokaro
and Rourkela with assistance from the Soviet Union
and West Germany. There was substantial industrial
development.[66] Industry grew 7.0 per cent annually between 1950 and 1965 almost trebling industrial output
and making India the worlds seventh largest industrial
country.[66] Nehrus critics, however, contended that Indias import substitution industrialisation, which was continued long after the Nehru era, weakened the international competitiveness of its manufacturing industries.[67]
Indias share of world trade fell from 1.4 per cent in 1951
1960 to 0.5 per cent over 19811990.[68] On the other
hand, Indias export performance is argued to have actually showed sustained improvement over the period. The
volume of exports went up at an annual rate of 2.9 per
cent in 19511960 to 7.6 per cent in 19711980.[69]
GDP and GNP grew 3.9 and 4.0 per cent annually between 195051 and 196465.[70][71] It was a radical break
from the British colonial period.[72] But, in comparison
to other industrial powers in Europe and East Asia, the
growth rates were considered anaemic at best.[68][73] India lagged behind the miracle economies (Japan, West
Germany, France, and Italy).[74] State planning, controls,
and regulations were argued to have impaired economic
growth.[75] While Indias economy grew faster than both
the United Kingdom and the United States low initial income and rapid population increase meant that growth
was inadequate for any sort of catch-up with rich income
nations.[73][74][76]

3.3

Agriculture policies

Under Nehrus leadership, the government attempted to

develop India quickly by embarking on agrarian reform
and rapid industrialisation. A successful land reform
was introduced that abolished giant landholdings, but efforts to redistribute land by placing limits on landown-

Domestic policies

Nehrus study in Teen Murti Bhavan.

See also: States Reorganisation Act

The British Indian Empire, which included present-day
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, was divided into two
types of territories: the Provinces of British India, which
were governed directly by British ocials responsible to
the Governor-General of India; and princely states, under the rule of local hereditary rulers who recognised
British suzerainty in return for local autonomy, in most
cases as established by treaty. Between 1947 and about
1950, the territories of the princely states were politically integrated into the Indian Union under Nehru and
Sardar Patel. Most were merged into existing provinces;
others were organised into new provinces, such as Rajputana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, and Vindhya Pradesh, made up of multiple princely states; a few,
including Mysore, Hyderabad, Bhopal, and Bilaspur, became separate provinces. The Government of India Act
1935 remained the constitutional law of India pending

12

PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA (194764)

adoption of a new Constitution.

The new Constitution of India, which came into force on
26 January 1950, made India a sovereign democratic republic. Nehru declared the new republic to be a Union of
States. The constitution of 1950 distinguished between
three main types of states: Part A states, which were the
former governors provinces of British India, were ruled
by an elected governor and state legislature. The Part B
states were former princely states or groups of princely
states, governed by a rajpramukh, who was usually the
ruler of a constituent state, and an elected legislature. The
rajpramukh was appointed by the President of India. The
Part C states included both the former chief commissioners provinces and some princely states, and each was governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President
of India. The sole Part D state was the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, which were administered by a lieutenant
governor appointed by the central government.
In December 1953, Nehru appointed the States Reorganisation Commission to prepare for the creation of states
on linguistic lines. This was headed by Justice Fazal Ali
and the commission itself was also known as the Fazal
Ali Commission. The eorts of this commission were
overseen by Govind Ballabh Pant, who served as Nehrus
Home Minister from December 1954. The commission
created a report in 1955 recommending the reorganisation of Indias states. Under the Seventh Amendment,
the existing distinction between Part A, Part B, Part C,
and Part D states was abolished. The distinction between
Part A and Part B states was removed, becoming known
simply as states. A new type of entity, the union territory, replaced the classication as a Part C or Part D
state. Nehru stressed commonality among Indians and
promoted pan-Indianism. He refused to reorganise states
on either religious or ethnic lines. Western scholars have
mostly praised Nehru for the integration of the states into
a modern republic but the act was not accepted universally in India.

Nehru with schoolchildren at the Durgapur Steel Plant. Durgapur along with Rourkela and Bhilai were the three integrated
steel plants set up under Indias Second Five-Year Plan in the late
1950s.

Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many

changes to Hindu law to criminalise caste discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms
of women.[78][79][80][81] A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages
faced by peoples of the scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious
harmony, increasing the representation of minorities in
government.

Nehru specically wrote Article 44 of the Indian constitution under the Directive Principles of State Policy
which states : 'The State shall endeavour to secure for
the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory
of India.' The article has formed the basis of secularism
in India.[82] However, Nehru has been criticised for the
inconsistent application of the law. Most notably, Nehru
allowed Muslims to keep their personal law in matters relating to marriage and inheritance. Also in the small state
of Goa, a civil code based on the old Portuguese Family
Laws was allowed to continue, and Muslim Personal law
3.5 Social policies
was prohibited by Nehru. This was the result of the anJawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education nexation of Goa in 1961 by India, when Nehru promised
for Indias children and youth, believing it essential for the people that their laws would be left intact. This has
Indias future progress. His government oversaw the es- led to accusations of selective secularism.
tablishment of many institutions of higher learning, in- While Nehru exempted Muslim law from legislation and
cluding the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the they remained un-reformed, he did pass the Special MarIndian Institutes of Technology, the Indian Institutes of riage Act in 1954. The idea behind this act was to give
Management and the National Institutes of Technology. everyone in India the ability to marry outside the personal
Nehru also outlined a commitment in his ve-year plans law under a civil marriage. As usual the law applied to all
to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to of India, except Jammu and Kashmir (again leading to
all of Indias children. For this purpose, Nehru over- accusations of selective secularism). In many respects,
saw the creation of mass village enrolment programmes the act was almost identical to the Hindu Marriage Act
and the construction of thousands of schools. Nehru also of 1955, which gives some idea as to how secularised the
launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and law regarding Hindus had become. The Special Marriage
meals to children to ght malnutrition. Adult education Act allowed Muslims to marry under it and thereby retain
centres, vocational and technical schools were also organ- the protections, generally benecial to Muslim women,
ised for adults, especially in the rural areas.
that could not be found in the personal law. Under the

3.6

Foreign policies

act polygamy was illegal, and inheritance and succession

would be governed by the Indian Succession Act, rather
than the respective Muslim Personal Law. Divorce also
would be governed by the secular law, and maintenance
of a divorced wife would be along the lines set down in
the civil law.
Nehru led the faction of the Congress party which promoted Hindi as the ligua-franca of the Indian nation. After an exhaustive and divisive debate with the non-Hindi
speakers, Hindi was adopted as the ocial language of
India in 1950 with English continuing as an associate ofcial language for a period of fteen years, after which
Hindi would become the sole ocial language. Eorts
by the Indian Government to make Hindi the sole ofcial language after 1965 were not acceptable to many
non-Hindi Indian states, who wanted the continued use
of English. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK),
a descendant of Dravidar Kazhagam, led the opposition
to Hindi. To allay their fears, Nehru enacted the Ocial
Languages Act in 1963 to ensure the continuing use of
English beyond 1965. The text of the Act did not satisfy
the DMK and increased their scepticism that his assurances might not be honoured by future administrations.
The issue was resolved during the premiership of Lal Bahadur Shastri, who under great pressure from Nehrus
daughter, Indira Gandhi, was made to give assurances
that English would continue to be used as the ocial language as long the non-Hindi speaking states wanted. The
Ocial Languages Act was eventually amended in 1967
by the Congress Government headed by Indira Gandhi
to guarantee the indenite use of Hindi and English as
ocial languages. This eectively ensured the current
virtual indenite policy of bilingualism of the Indian
Republic.

3.6

Foreign policies

13
make India an ally throughout the Cold War. Nehru also
maintained good relations with the British Empire. Under
the London Declaration, India agreed that, when it became a republic in January 1950, it would join the Commonwealth of Nations and accept the British monarch as
a symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth.
The other nations of the Commonwealth recognised Indias continuing membership of the association. The reaction back home was favourable; only the far-left and the
far-right criticised Nehrus decision.
On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of
pacism and a strong supporter of the United Nations. He
pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded
the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the US and
the USSR. Recognising the Peoples Republic of China
soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc
continued relations with the Republic of China), Nehru
argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused
to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conict
with Korea.[83] He sought to establish warm and friendly
relations with China in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the
communist states and the Western bloc.
Nehru had promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in
Kashmir under the auspices of the UN. Kashmir was a
disputed territory between India and Pakistan, the two
having gone to war with each other over the state in 1948.
However, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution and as Nehru grew increasingly wary of the UN, he declined to hold a plebiscite in
1953. His policies on Kashmir and the integeration of
the state into India was frequently defended in front of
the United Nations by his aide, Krishna Menon, a brilliant diplomat who earned a reputation in India for his
passionate speeches.

Nehru with Otto Grotewohl, the Prime Minister of East Germany

See also: Role of India in Non-Aligned Movement

Nehru receiving US President Dwight D. Eisenhower at Parliament House, 1959

Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964,

during its rst years of independence from British rule. Nehru, while a pacist, was not blind to the political and
Both the United States and the Soviet Union competed to geo-strategic reality of India in 1947. While laying the

14

PRIME MINISTER OF INDIA (194764)

foundation stone of the National Defence Academy (India) in 1949, he stated: We, who for generations had
talked about and attempted in everything a peaceful way
and practised non-violence, should now be, in a sense,
glorifying our army, navy and air force. It means a lot.
Though it is odd, yet it simply reects the oddness of life.
Though life is logical, we have to face all contingencies,
and unless we are prepared to face them, we will go under. There was no greater prince of peace and apostle
of non-violence than Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the
Nation, whom we have lost, but yet, he said it was better to take the sword than to surrender, fail or run away.
We cannot live carefree assuming that we are safe. Human nature is such. We cannot take the risks and risk our
hard-won freedom. We have to be prepared with all modern defence methods and a well-equipped army, navy and
air force.[84][85]

(from the Sanskrit words, panch: ve, sheel: virtues),

a set of principles to govern relations between the two
states. Their rst formal codication in treaty form was
in an agreement between China and India in 1954. They
were enunciated in the preamble to the Agreement (with
exchange of notes) on trade and intercourse between Tibet Region of China and India, which was signed at
Peking on 29 April 1954. Negotiations took place in
Delhi from December 1953 to April 1954 between the
Delegation of the PRC Government and the Delegation
of the Indian Government on the relations between the
two countries with respect to the disputed territories of
Aksai Chin and South Tibet. The treaty was disregarded
in the 1960s, but in the 1970s, the Five Principles again
came to be seen as important in Sino-Indian relations, and
more generally as norms of relations between states. They
became widely recognised and accepted throughout the
and the
Nehru envisioned the developing of nuclear weapons region during the premiership of Indira Gandhi
[89]
3-year
rule
of
the
Janata
Party
(19771980).
and established the Atomic Energy Commission of India (AEC) in 1948.[86] Nehru also called Dr. Homi J. In 1956 Nehru had criticized the joint invasion of the
Bhabha, a nuclear physicist, who was entrusted with com- Suez Canal by the British, French and Israelis. The role
plete authority over all nuclear related aairs and pro- of Nehru, both as Indian Prime Minister and a leader of
grams and answered only to Nehru himself.[86] Indian nu- the Non Aligned Movement was signicant; he tried to
clear policy was set by unwritten personal understanding be even-handed between the two sides, while denouncing
between Nehru and Bhabha.[86] Nehru famously said to Eden and co-sponsors of the invasion vigorously. Nehru
Bhabha, "Professor Bhabha take care of Physics, leave had a powerful ally in the US president Dwight Eiseninternational relation to me".[86] From the outset in 1948, hower who, if relatively silent publicly, went to the extent
Nehru had high ambition to develop this program to stand of using Americas clout in the IMF to make Britain and
against the industrialised states and the basis of this pro- France back down. The episode greatly raised the presgram was to establish an Indian nuclear weapons capabil- tige of Nehru and India amongst the third world nations.
ity as part of Indias regional superiority to other South- During the Suez crisis, Nehrus right-hand man, Menon
Asian states, most particularly Pakistan.[86]
attempted to persuade a recalcitrant Gamal Nasser to
Nehru also told Bhabha, later it was told by Bhabha to compromise with the West, and was instrumental in moving Western powers towards an awareness that Nasser
Raja Rammanna that,
might prove willing to compromise.
"We must have the capability. We should
rst prove ourselves and then talk of Gandhi,
non-violence and a world without nuclear
weapons.[86] "
Nehru was hailed by many for working to defuse global
tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons after the
Korean war (19501953).[87] He commissioned the rst
study of the human eects of nuclear explosions, and
campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of what he called
these frightful engines of destruction. He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearisation, fearing
that a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation
that would be unaordable for developing countries such
as his own.[88]

In 1957, Menon was instructed to deliver an unprecedented eight-hour speech defending Indias stand on
Kashmir; to date, the speech is the longest ever delivered in the United Nations Security Council, covering ve
hours of the 762nd meeting on 23 January, and two hours
and forty-eight minutes on the 24th, reportedly concluding with Menons collapse on the Security Council oor.
During the libuster, Nehru moved swiftly and successfully to consolidate Indian power in Kashmir (then under great unrest). Menons passionate defence of Indian
sovereignty in Kashmir enlarged his base of support in India, and led to the Indian press temporarily dubbing him
the 'Hero of Kashmir'. Nehru was then at the peak of his
popularity in India; the only (minor) criticism came from
the far-right.[90][91]

The USA had hoped to court Nehru after its intervention in favour of Nasser during the Suez crisis. However,
Cold War suspicions and the American distrust of Nehruvian socialism cooled relations between India and the US,
which suspected Nehru of tacitly supporting the Soviet
In 1954 Nehru signed with China the Five Principles of Union. Nehru maintained good relations with Britain
Peaceful Coexistence, known in India as the Panchsheel even after the Suez Crisis. Nehru accepted the arbitraNehru ordered the arrest of the Kashmiri politician
Sheikh Abdullah in 1953, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him.

15
tion of the UK and World Bank, signing the Indus Water
Treaty in 1960 with Pakistani ruler Ayub Khan to resolve
long-standing disputes about sharing the resources of the
major rivers of the Punjab region.

frained, not according to the best choices available, from

using the Indian air force to beat back the Chinese advances. The CIA later revealed that at that time the
Chinese had neither the fuel nor runways long enough
for using their air force eectively in Tibet. Indians in
general became highly sceptical of China and its military. Many Indians view the war as a betrayal of Indias attempts at establishing a long-standing peace with
China and started to question Nehrus usage of the term
Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai (meaning Indians and Chinese
are brothers). The war also put an end to Nehrus earlier
hopes that India and China would form a strong Asian
Axis to counteract the increasing inuence of the Cold
War bloc superpowers.[94]

Although the Pancha Sila (Five Principles of Peaceful

Coexistence) was the basis of the 1954 Sino-Indian border treaty, in later years, Nehrus foreign policy suered
through increasing Chinese assertiveness over border disputes and Nehrus decision to grant political asylum to
the 14th Dalai Lama. After years of failed negotiations,
Nehru authorised the Indian Army to invade Portuguese
controlled Goa in 1961, and then he formally annexed it
to India. It increased his popularity in India, but he was
criticised by the communist opposition in India for the
use of military force. The use of military force against The unpreparedness of the army was blamed on Defence
Portugal earned him goodwill amongst the right-wing and Minister Menon, who resigned his government post to
far-right groups.
allow for someone who might modernise Indias military further. Indias policy of weaponisation via indigenous sources and self-suciency began in earnest under Nehru, completed by his daughter Indira Gandhi,
4 Sino-Indian War of 1962
who later led India to a crushing military victory over
rival Pakistan in 1971. Toward the end of the war InFrom 1959, in a process that accelerated in 1961, Nehru dia had increased her support for Tibetan refugees and
adopted the Forward Policy of setting up military out- revolutionaries, some of them having settled in India, as
posts in disputed areas of the Sino-Indian border, in- they were ghting the same common enemy in the recluding in 43 outposts in territory not previously con- gion. Nehru ordered the raising of an elite Indian-trained
trolled by India.[92] China attacked some of these out- Tibetan Armed Force composed of Tibetan refugees,
posts, and thus the Sino-Indian War began, which In- which served with distinction in future wars against Pakdia lost, and China withdrew to pre-war lines in eastern istan in 1965 and 1971.[95]
zone at Tawang but retained Aksai Chin which was within
British India and was handed over to India after inde- During the conict, Nehru wrote two desperate letters to
pendence. Later, Pakistan handed over some portion of US President John F. Kennedy, requesting 12 squadrons
Kashmir near Siachen controlled by Pakistan since 1948 of ghter jets and a modern radar system. These jets
to China. The war exposed the unpreparedness of Indias were seen as necessary to beef up Indian air strength
military which could send only 14,000 troops to the war so that air to air combat could be initiated safely from
zone in opposition to the many times larger Chinese army, the Indian perspective (bombing troops was seen as unand Nehru was widely criticised for his governments in- wise for fear of Chinese retaliatory action). Nehru also
sucient attention to defence. In response, Nehru sacked asked that these aircraft be manned by American pilots
the defence minister Krishna Menon and sought US mil- until Indian airmen were trained to replace them. These
itary aid. Nehrus improved relations with USA under requests were rejected by the Kennedy Administration
John F. Kennedy proved useful during the war, as in (which was involved in the Cuban Missile Crisis during
1962, President of Pakistan (then closely aligned with the most of the Sino-Indian War), leading to a cool down in
Americans) Ayub Khan was made to guarantee his neu- Indo-US relations. According to former Indian diplotrality in regards to India, who was threatened by com- mat G Parthasarathy, only after we got nothing from
supplies from the Soviet Union to Inmunist aggression from Red China.[93] The Indian rela- the US did arms[96]
dia
commence.
Per Time Magazines 1962 editorial
tionship with the Soviet Union, criticised by right-wing
on
the
war,
however,
this may not have been the case.
groups supporting free-market policies was also seemThe
editorial
states,
'When
Washington nally turned its
ingly validated. Nehru would continue to maintain his
attention
to
India,
it
honoured
the ambassadors pledge,
commitment to the non-aligned movement despite calls
loaded
60
US
planes
with
$5,000,000
worth of automatic
from some to settle down on one permanent ally.
weapons, heavy mortars and land mines. Twelve huge
The aftermath of the war saw sweeping changes in the C-130 Hercules transports, complete with US crews and
Indian military to prepare it for similar conicts in the maintenance teams, took o for New Delhi to y Indian
future, and placed pressure on Nehru, who was seen as troops and equipment to the battle zone. Britain weighed
responsible for failing to anticipate the Chinese attack on in with Bren and Sten guns, and airlifted 150 tons of arms
India. Under American advice (by American envoy John to India. Canada prepared to ship six transport planes.
Kenneth Galbraith who made and ran American policy Australia opened Indian credits for $1,800,000 worth of
on the war as all other top policy makers in USA were munitions.[97]
absorbed in coincident Cuban Missile Crisis) Nehru re-

16

LEGACY

and adapting to modern conditions: No country or people who are slaves to dogma and dogmatic mentality can
progress, and unhappily our country and people have become extraordinarily dogmatic and little-minded.[101]
The spectacle of what is called religion, or
at any rate organised religion, in India and elsewhere, has lled me with horror and I have
frequently condemned it and wished to make
a clean sweep of it. Almost always it seemed
to stand for blind belief and reaction, dogma
and bigotry, superstition, exploitation and the
preservation of vested interests.
Prime Minister Nehru talks with United Nations General Assembly President Romulo (October 1949).

Death

In his autobiography, he has made analysis about

Christianity,[102] Islam[103] and their eects on his country. He wanted to model India as secular country, but
due to various reforms during his period, his secularist
policies remain a subject to debate and criticism.[104][105]

Nehrus health began declining steadily after 1962, and

he spent months recuperating in Kashmir through 1963.
Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his sur- 7 Personal life
prise and chagrin over the Sino-Indian War, which he
perceived as a betrayal of trust.[98] Upon his return from
Dehra Dun on 26 May 1964 he was feeling quite comfortable and went to bed at about 23:30 as usual, he had a restful night till about 06:30 soon after he returned from bathroom, Nehru complained of pain in the back. He spoke
to the doctors who attended on him for a brief while and
almost immediately Nehru collapsed. He remained unconscious until he passed away. His death was announced
to Lok Sabha at 14:00 local time on 27 May 1964 (same
day); cause of death is believed to be heart attack (dissecting aneurysm of the aorta).[99] Draped in the Indian
national Tri-colour ag the body of Jawaharlal Nehru was
placed for public viewing. Raghupati Raghava Rajaram
was chanted as the body was placed on the platform. On
28 May, Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu
rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, Nehru with Edwina Mountbatten
witnessed by many hundreds of thousands of mourners
who had ocked into the streets of Delhi and the crema- Nehru married Kamala Kaul in 1916. Their only daughter Indira was born a year later in 1917. Kamala gave
tion grounds.
birth to a boy in November 1924, but he lived only for a
Nehru, the man and politician made such a powerful im- week.[106]
print on India that his death on 27 May 1964, left India
with no clear political heir to his leadership (although his Nehru was alleged to have had relationships with Padmaja
[107]
Edwinas daughter
daughter was widely expected to succeed him before she Naidu and Edwina Mountbatten.
Pamela
acknowledged
Nehrus
platonic
relationship with
turned it down in favour of Shastri). Indian newspapers
[108]
Edwina.
repeated Nehrus own words of the time of Gandhis assassination: The light has gone out of our lives and there
is darkness everywhere.

8 Legacy
6

Religion

As Indias rst Prime minister and external aairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in shaping modDescribed as Hindu Agnostic,[100] Nehru thought that re- ern Indias government and political culture along with
ligious taboos were preventing India from going forward sound foreign policy. He is praised for creating a system

8.1

Commemoration

17

Bust of Nehru at Aldwych, London

tired in 1958 he would be remembered as not just Indias

best prime minister, but as one of the great statesmen of
the modern world.[114] Nehru, thus, left behind a disputed legacy, being either adored or reviled for Indias
progress or lack of it.[115]
Statue of Nehru at Park Street, Kolkata

8.1 Commemoration
providing universal primary education,[109] reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India. Nehrus education policy is also credited for the development of worldclass educational institutions such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences,[110] Indian Institutes of Technology,[111] and the Indian Institutes of Management.
In addition, Nehrus stance as an unfailing nationalist
led him to also implement policies which stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional
diversities. This proved particularly important as postIndependence dierences surfaced since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders
to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary. While dierences of culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National
Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which
promoted the translation of regional literatures between
languages and also organised the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unied India, Nehru
warned, Integrate or perish.[113]

Nehru distributes sweets among children at Nongpoh, Meghalaya

In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status

in India and was widely admired across the world for his
idealism and statesmanship. His birthday, 14 November
is celebrated in India as Bal Divas ("Childrens Day") in
recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfare, education and development of children and young
people. Children across India remember him as Chacha
Historian Ramachandra Guha writes, "[had] Nehru re- Nehru (Uncle Nehru). Nehru remains a popular sym-

18

11

SEE ALSO

at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved

to commemorate Nehru and his familys legacy.

8.2 In popular culture

Many documentaries about Nehrus life have been produced. He has also been portrayed in ctionalised lms.
The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan
Seth, who played him three times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 lm Gandhi, Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series Bharat Ek Khoj, based on Nehrus The Discovery of India, and in a 2007 TV lm entitled The Last Days
of the Raj.[117] In Ketan Mehta's lm Sardar, Nehru was
portrayed by Benjamin Gilani. Girish Karnad's historical play, Tughlaq (1962) is an allegory about the Nehruvian era. It was staged by Ebrahim Alkazi with National
School of Drama Repertory at Purana Qila, Delhi in
the 1970s and later at the Festival of India, London in
1982.[118][119]

9 Writings
Jawaharlal Nehru on a 1989 USSR commemorative stamp

bol of the Congress Party which frequently celebrates his

memory. Congress leaders and activists often emulate
his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi cap and the
"Nehru Jacket", and his mannerisms. Nehrus ideals and
policies continue to shape the Congress Party's manifesto
and core political philosophy. An emotional attachment
to his legacy was instrumental in the rise of his daughter
Indira to leadership of the Congress Party and the national government.

Nehru was a prolic writer in English and wrote a number of books, such as The Discovery of India, Glimpses of
World History, and his autobiography, Toward Freedom.
He had written 30 letters to his daughter Indira Gandhi,
when she was 10 years old and was in a boarding school
in Mussoorie, teaching about natural history and the story
of civilisations. The collection of these letters was later
published as a book Letters from a Father to His Daughter.[120]

10 Awards

Nehrus personal preference for the sherwani ensured that

it continues to be considered formal wear in North India
awarded Bharat Ratna, Indias highest
today; aside from lending his name to a kind of cap, the In 1955 Nehru was
[121]
civilian
honour.
Nehru jacket is named in his honour due to his preference
for that style.
Numerous public institutions and memorials across India
are dedicated to Nehrus memory. The Jawaharlal Nehru
University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the
city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to
handle a huge cargo and trac load. Nehrus residence
in Delhi is preserved as the Teen Murti House now has
Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, and one of ve
Nehru Planetariums that were set in Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Allahabad and Pune. The complex also houses the
oces of the 'Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund', established in 1964 under the Chairmanship of Dr S. Radhakrishnan, then President of India. The foundation also gives
away the prestigious 'Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fellowship', established in 1968.[116] The Nehru family homes

11 See also
List of political families
Nehru jacket
Scientic temper, a system of scientic thinking introduced by Nehru
Tryst with destiny, the historic speech made by
Jawaharlal Nehru, considered in modern India to be
a landmark oration about the Indian independence
movement.

19

12

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where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence. I would rather have India
resort to arms in order to defend her honour than that she
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21

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[100] Sarvepalii Gopal. Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Volume 3; Volumes 1956-1964. p. 17.

Frank Moraes (2008). Jawaharlal Nehru. Jaico

Publishing House. ISBN 978-8179926956.

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Sankar Ghose (1993). Jawaharlal Nehru. Allied

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[102] A. A. Parvathy (1994). Secularism and Hindutva, a Discursive Study. p. 42.

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22

14

15

Further reading

A Tryst With Destiny historic speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru on 14 August 1947
Nehru: The Invention of India by Shashi Tharoor
(November 2003) Arcade Books ISBN 1-55970697-X
Jawaharlal Nehru (Edited by S. Gopal and Uma
Iyengar) (July 2003) The Essential Writings of Jawaharlal Nehru Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19565324-6
Autobiography:Toward freedom, Oxford University
Press
Jawaharlal Nehru: Life and work by M. Chalapathi
Rau, National Book Club (1 January 1966)
Jawaharlal Nehru by M. Chalapathi Rau. [New
Delhi] Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India [1973]
Letters from a father to his daughter by Jawaharlal
Nehru, Childrens Book Trust
Nehru: A Political Biography by Michael Brecher
(1959). London:Oxford University Press.
After Nehru, Who by Welles Hangen (1963). London: Rupert Hart-Davis.
Nehru: The Years of Power by Georey Tyson
(1966). London: Pall Mall Press.
Independence and After: A collection of the more important speeches of Jawaharlal Nehru from September 1946 to May 1949 (1949). Delhi: The Publications Division, Government of India.
Joseph Stanislaw and Daniel A. Yergin (1988).
Commanding Heights. New York: Simon &
Schuster, Inc.
The Challenge to Indian Nationalism. by Selig S.
Harrison Foreign Aairs vol. 34, no. 2 (1956): 620
636.
Nehru, Jawaharlal. by Ainslie T. Embree, ed., and
the Asia Society. Encyclopedia of Asian History.
Vol. 3. Charles Scribners Sons. New York. (1988):
98100.

15

External links

India Todays prole of Nehru

Nehrus legacy to India
Nehru on Communalism
Jawaharlal Nehru materials in the South Asian
American Digital Archive (SAADA)

EXTERNAL LINKS

23

16
16.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Jawaharlal Nehru Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal%20Nehru?oldid=645391611 Contributors: Mav, DanKeshet, Jagged,

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File:1931_Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/1931_Flag_of_India.svg License: Public

domain Contributors: http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/in-hist.html Original artist: Nicholas (Nichalp)
File:1989_CPA_6121.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/1989_CPA_6121.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Personal collection Original artist: Scanned and processed by Mariluna
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:Bharat_Ratna.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Bharat_Ratna.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Hekerui using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Kumar Rajendran
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-61849-0001,_Indien,_Otto_Grotewohl_bei_Ministerprsident_Nehru.jpg
Source:
http:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-61849-0001%2C_Indien%2C_Otto_Grotewohl_bei_
Ministerpr%C3%A4sident_Nehru.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the
German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic
representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image
Archive. Original artist: Heilig, Walter
File:Carlos_Nehru.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Carlos_Nehru.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/photographs/search.php?access=selectbyname&nameid=1921 Original artist: SunKing at en.wikipedia
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Emblem_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Emblem_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in Original artist: Dened by the Indian government as national emblem
File:Example.of.complex.text.rendering.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Example.of.complex.text.
rendering.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_the_Indian_National_Congress.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_the_
Indian_National_Congress.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image drawn by me, Nichalp using Inkscape. Original artist: Own
work
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Gandhi_and_Nehru_1942.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Gandhi_and_Nehru_1942.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://img27.fansshare.com/pic105/w/timeline-of-indian-history/1200/26947_timeline_of_indian_
history.jpg (image) Original artist: Photo by Dave Davis, Acme Newspictures Inc., correspondent [1]
File:Hermann_Josef_Abs_-_mit_Adenauer_und_Nehru_1956.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/
Hermann_Josef_Abs_-_mit_Adenauer_und_Nehru_1956.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Deutsche Bank AG, Kultur und
Gesellschaft Historisches Institut, Frankfurt am Main Original artist: Unknown
File:Indo_US.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Indo_US.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http:
//www.flickr.com/photos/usembassynewdelhi/5078232890/in/set-72157625030494241 Original artist: US EMBASSY NEW DELHI
File:Jawaharlal_Nehru_Khaki_Shorts.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Jawaharlal_Nehru_Khaki_
Shorts.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This le was derived from: Seva_Dal.jpg <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Seva_Dal.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Seva Dal.jpg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Seva_Dal.jpg/
50px-Seva_Dal.jpg' width='50' height='31' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Seva_Dal.jpg/75px-Seva_
Dal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Seva_Dal.jpg/100px-Seva_Dal.jpg 2x' data-le-width='733' datale-height='459' /></a>
Original artist: Seva_Dal.jpg: Linguisticgeek

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File:Jawaharlal_Nehru_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Jawaharlal_Nehru_Signature.

svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://www.havelshouseofhistory.com/
Nehru,%20Jawaharlal%20signature.jpg Original artist: Connormah, Jawaharlal Nehru
File:Jawaharlal_Nehru_and_his_family_in_1918.jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/
Jawaharlal_Nehru_and_his_family_in_1918.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
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rare-photographs-of-pandit-nehru.html Original artist: Vinayak Razdan scanned the picture
File:Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_a_young_child_with_his_parents.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/
Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_a_young_child_with_his_parents.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.searchkashmir.org/2010/
05/rare-photographs-of-pandit-nehru.html Original artist: Vinayak Razdan scanned the picture
File:Jawaharlal_Nehru_statue_in_Aldwych_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Jawaharlal_Nehru_
statue_in_Aldwych_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Jawaharlal_Nehru_with_school_children_at_Durgapur_copy.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/23/
Jawaharlal_Nehru_with_school_children_at_Durgapur_copy.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:
Source: Pic taken by the Public Relations department of Durgapur Steel Plant. No copyright on this photograph. The PR department
supplies and allows photographs to be published.
Original artist:
Pic courtesy DSP PR
File:Jstatue.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Jstatue.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Royroydeb
File:Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15,_1947.jpg
Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Lord_Mountbatten_swears_in_Jawaharlal_Nehru_as_the_first_Prime_
Minister_of_free_India_on_Aug_15%2C_1947.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://photodivision.gov.in/waterMarkdetails.
asp?id=777.jpg Original artist: photodivision.gov.in
File:Marche_sel.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Marche_sel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned by Yann (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Yann' title='User talk:Yann'>talk</a>). Original artist: Yann
(<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Yann' title='User talk:Yann'>talk</a>)
File:NehEin.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/NehEin.jpg License:
Anonymous Original artist: Royroydeb

Public domain Contributors:

File:NehGan.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/NehGan.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

Anonymous Original artist: Royroydeb
File:NehruEd.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/NehruEd.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Press Association Original artist: Royroydeb
File:NehruTagore.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/NehruTagore.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Anonymous Original artist: Royroydeb
File:Nehru_and_Indira.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Nehru_and_Indira.png License: Public domain Contributors: Indira Gandhi: Political Leader in India Original artist: Cliniic
File:Nehru_at_Harrow.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Nehru_at_Harrow.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.searchkashmir.org/2010/05/rare-photographs-of-pandit-nehru.html Original artist: Vinayak Razdan
scanned the picture
File:Nehru_barrister.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Nehru_barrister.png License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.searchkashmir.org/2010/05/rare-photographs-of-pandit-nehru.html Original artist: Vinayak Razdan scanned the
picture
File:Nehru_sweets_oratarians_Nongpoh.jpg
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oratarians_Nongpoh.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Nehru_sweets_oratarians_Nongpoh Original
artist: ktravasso
File:Nehrujinnah.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Nehrujinnah.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Library, originally from the India Oce (see description) Original artist: Press Information Bureau (British)
File:Photograph_of_President_Truman_and_Indian_Prime_Minister_Jawaharlal_Nehru,_with_Nehru{}s_sister,_Madame_
Pandit,_waving..._-_NARA_-_200154.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Photograph_of_President_
Truman_and_Indian_Prime_Minister_Jawaharlal_Nehru%2C_with_Nehru%27s_sister%2C_Madame_Pandit%2C_waving..._-_
NARA_-_200154.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Abbie
Rowe, 1905-1967, Photographer (NARA record: 8451352)
File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:TMstudy.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/TMstudy.png License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: 3552inside Jawaharlal Nehru Museum Delhi Original artist: David Lisbona from Haifa, Israel
File:Teen_Murti_Bhavan_in_New_Delhi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Teen_Murti_Bhavan_
in_New_Delhi.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: theen murthi bavan Original artist: Satish Somasundaram from Trivandrum, India
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.

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File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain

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Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
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on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

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