"Pcli Capatam" (The Vow of Draupadi): Images of Ritual and Political Liberation in Tamil

Theatre
Author(s): Richard A. Frasca
Source: TDR (1988-), Vol. 38, No. 2 (Summer, 1994), pp. 89-105
Published by: The MIT Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1146333 .
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Pana liCapatam
(The Vow of Draupadi)
Imagesof Ritualand Political
Liberationin Tamil Theatre

A. Frasca
Richard

In the early I980s, I was in Tamilnadu, the Tamil-speaking area of

the evocative, rituSouth India, conducting researchon the terukku4ttu,
alistic village theatreformof this region. As a result of a lecture I had
given in Madras City focusing on my work, I was fortunateto meet
Mr. V.O.C. Subramaniam, a middle-aged man with a common Tamil
name, but some rather uncommon initials. He was the Tamil language press officer in the local American Consulate. When I asked
about the meaning of the V.O.C., I was surprised to hear that Mr.
Subramaniam was the son of V.O. Chidambaram, one of the great
South Indian heroes of the Independence struggleagainst British colonialism. The subsequent conversation with Subramaniam, who himself
had his leg broken by the colonial police, provided the spark to the
line of inquiry and argumentI am going to make in this article.
V.O. Chidambaram was born in a village in the Tirunelveli districtof
Tamilnadu in the late eighteen hundreds. Spending a formativepart of
his youth in this area, he went on to study law and, like other key figures in the Independence movement, became an importantlawyer by
the turn of the century. His contributionsto the freedom struggle in
South India were momentous and extraordinary,and extremelyvexatious to the British. They range from startingthe firstIndian-managed
steamship company to organizing strikesagainst British textile mills to
fomentinga prison riot. For his activities,V.O. Chidambaram was tried
for sedition and treason and given two life-sentences(see Sivagnanam
1980:185).

Fascinated to be in the presence of the son of such an astounding

personality,I asked Mr. Subramaniam what inspired his fatherto such
courageous acts. Rather than the usual, timeworn answer that it was
due to his exposure to Britishlaw and ideas of justice and equality, his
The Drama Review 38, 2 (TI42),

Summer 1994. Copyright?

I994

New YorkUniversity
and theMassachusetts
Institute
ofTechnology.

89

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9o

RichardA. Frasca

answerpointedin exactlythe opposite direction.He said thatit was

Tamil folklore;thatis, the folkperformances
thathis fatherhad been
to
as
a
that
had
modelsand idealshe
the
exposed
boy
provided primary
had emulated.It was certainimageshe had absorbedfromthese folk
and mostparticularly
the terukkuttu
thathad inspiredhim
performances
to join and helppropelthefreedomstruggle.
Certaincharacteristics
of the folk performances
of the Tirunelveli
to
subregionbegan emergefromthis conversation.First,Tirunelveli
districtis particularly
rich in performances
of thistype. It is an area
wherethevilpattu,
a folkballadtradition,
and the terukkuttu,
a folktheatretradition,
coexist.In mostothersubregionsof the Tamil country,
these traditions are mutually exclusive. Second, during V.O.
Chidambaram's
focusedon the figure
day,manyof theseperformances
of Virapantiya
a
centered
in
this
area centuriesearKattapommaf, king
lier who had resistedthe Britishwhen theyfirstestablishedtheirempirein South India. He was capturedand hanged,but his exploitshave
been preserved,
heroicallyand poeticallyembellishedin both the ballad
and terukkuttu
traditions
of Tirunelveli.His capitalPaicalankuriccihas
in its namefurther
connectionswithKing Pficala, an important
kingly
textforheroic
figurein the Mahabharata,
probablythe mostimportant
in theSouthIndiantradition.
paradigms
This discussionstrucknumerousresonances.One of thesewas that
anothergreatSouth Indian figureof the freedomstrugglealso came
from this area. This was the modern Tamil poet supreme C.
SubramaniaBharati,referredto honorificallyin Tamil as Paratiyar.
is appreciatedfor the beauty and innovationof his poetry,
Paratiyar
which is distinguishedby a unique blendingof traditionalmeters,
themes,and tones with the perspectiveof a modernrevolutionary.
who soughtan upheavalof the
However,he was not a revolutionary
socialorderper se. Ratherhe was an artistwho in a mostintuitiveway
utilizedselected,vitalelementsof thatorderto help underminea colonial systemfromwithinthe heartsand mindsof thosewho readhis poetry.' Examining what he selected and how he dealt with these
selectionsprovidesus withimportant
insightinto the natureand power
of his art.
it is Paratiyar's
selectionsfromthe Mahabharata
tradition
Significantly,
thatare mostinteresting.
His celebratedprojectis his reworkingof an
episodefromthisepic intoa poeticdramathatbecamea lyricalpolitical
vehicleforthefreedomstruggle
in South India.This is his work Paicali
Capatam (The Vow of Draupadi, I912). It focuses on what is probably

the mostwell-knownepisode of the epic in India. In Paratiyar's

drama,
Dharmaraja,the oldest of the fiveheroic Pandava brothers,loses the
Pandavakingdomand theirspouse-in-common,
Draupadi,in a game of
dice to his usurpingKaurava cousins. Duryodhana,the eldest of the
Kauravas,then attemptsto disgraceDraupadi beforean assemblyof
noblesby orderinghis violentbrotherDuhsasanato tearher garments
off.The god KrishnaprotectsDraupadi'schastity
by causingan endless
streamof saristo enshroudher body as Duhsasanaferociously
attempts
to disrobeher.Krishna'smagicdefeatshim and Draupadi'schastity
and
honor are protected.Nevertheless,forthe attemptedoutrage,two of
the Pandavas, Bhima and Arjuna, and Draupadi take individualized
vows to wreakvengeanceon theirvile cousins.
While this episode appears in variations in performanceforms
thatit was chosenby Paratiyar
to convey
India,it is striking
throughout
the message of political freedom.In comparison,Mahatma Gandhi

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TamilTheatre 9I
chose the othergreatepic of India,the Ramayana,to conveyhis heroic
paradigms.To Gandhi,the ultimatepoliticalhero was Rama. He modeled his idea of thefutureof India on Ramrajthe ruleof thisgreatking,
and moraldisciplinewere to be
whose attributes
of strength,
restraint,
the country'sguidingprinciples.While the present-day,
overwrought
Hindu chauvinismthatresultedin the demolishingof the
right-wing
mosque at Ayodhya,Rama's legendarybirthplace,may appearat first
glance to be an outgrowthof this vision, we must rememberthat
Gandhi'spoliticalphilosophywas based on pluralism,not communalism. He most certainlywould have disavowed such violentactions.
and Gandhigive us are overtlyHindu,they
While the modelsPiratiyar
are inclusive,open windowsinto epic worldsthattheyhoped would
them,theseleader-devounifyand inspiretheiraudiences.In presenting
tees were displayingnot prejudicebut personalfamiliarity
withthe sacredmetaphors
thathad shapedtheirlives.
choice of a Mahabharata
but is
Paratiyar's
episode is not fortuitous,
rootedin thevillageritualcontextof theTamil country.Even thougha
Tamil versionof the Ramayanaby Kambanis consideredthe premier
work of Tamil literature,
it appealsprimarily
to an upper-caste,
scholIt is the Mahabharatathathas foundan important
arlycommunity.
place
in villageHinduismin Tamilnadu,as can be evidencedby the important and complex Mahabharataor Paratam cult of northeastern
Tamilnadu.Influencesof thiscult can be foundthroughout
the Tamil
area. I believe this was the primaryelementin Paratiyar'sthematic
choice. It was a choiceguidedby bothaestheticand ritualmotivations.
Whilemuchhas been madeof Paratiyar's
place as thefirsttruemodem
Tamil poet and his unique use of traditional
poeticsin a new context,
littleattention
has been givento specificfolkor villageinfluences
in his
work.A comparisonof his Pancali Capatamas a modernpoetic drama,
withthe parallelepisodeas it is performed
as partof the villageParatam
cult,willgiveus important
insightintothenatureof thisinfluence.
The Paratamcult represents
a fascinating
and important
fusionof the
classicistepic tradition
withlocal, vitalelementsof villageHinduismin
the Tamil area. While it focusesprimarily
on the worshipof Draupadi
as an amman(local villagegoddess)called Tiraupataiyamman,
it also deals
with a complexof epic and local figures.All of theseare worshipped,
propitiated,
appeased,or re-empowered
throughthe ritualre-enactment
of the Paratamin threemodes: templeritual,poetic recitationscalled
and all-night
of theterukkuttu.2
piracankam,
performances
The firstindicationwe have of the link between Paratiyar
and folk
such as those embodiedin the Paratam cult can be disperformances
of the piracankam.
cernedin theperformance
The piracankam
is a musical recitationof a classicalTamil languageepic or Puranicwork. In
the contextof the Paratamcult,a performance
usuallyfocuseson the
Paratam,the most respectedand well-knownversionof the
Villiputtur
Tamil Mahabharata
a
texts,but mayalso drawon the Nallapillai
Paratam,
lesser-known
version.It is not uncommonto see a performer
drawon
both textsin performance.
In a performance
of piracankam,
versesare
chosenfromepic episodesthatare relevantto the ritualre-enactment
of
the epic duringtheeighteen-day
Paratamfestival.
While the selectionof
episodes is subjectto some local variation,theyalmostinvariablyinclude episodes vital to popular, South Indian perceptions of the
Mahabharata
epic, such as The Marriage
ofDraupadi,The DefeatofKama,
and The VowofDraupadi.
Penance,
Arjuna's
In piracankam,
the versesconstituting
an episode are sungto various

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92

RichardA. Frasca

presettunesthatare lyricalenoughto bringout the beautyof the poetrybut simpleenoughto maintainfocuson the movementand power
of the narrative.
There is usuallyno musicalimprovisation
and no acother
than
a
drone
an
assistant.
The
companiment
playedby
performanceis definitively
staticwiththemainsingerand his assistant
seated
somewherewithin the sacred contextsof the festival.There is no
movementotherthanoccasionalsimplemudras(conventionalized
hand
and
facial
main
the
While
the
gestures)
expressionsby
singer.
lyrical
combinationof musicwith classicalepic poetrymay appearto be the
aestheticfocus of the performance,
the truekey to a performance
of
lies in its elucidativenature.Each verseor seriesof verses
piracankam
thatis sungis immediately
paraphrased,
explained,and broughtforward
to the audience in an improvisedprose commentarythatdraws not
and poonlyon the performer's
knowledgeof classicalTamil literature
withmore local, popular,and
etry,but also on an intimatefamiliarity
oral and writtensources.It is the abilityof a performer
contemporary
to creativelyand artistically
meld these local, contemporary
sources
with the more classicistepic textthatmakesa performance
of Tamil
and entertaining.
Mahabharata
piracankam
compelling,
insightful,
An examinationof Paratiyar's
lifeand work makesit clearthatvery
early on he identified more with the role of the performerof
piracankamthanwiththe role of courtpoet, whichhe had been born
into. He saw himselfmore as an artisticcommentator
whose callingit
was to make the ancienttradition
moreaccessibleto thefolkthanas a

i. ThePiratiyar
(performer
ofpiracankam)
chantsand elucidates

verses
fromthe
Paratam
Villiputtir

(Tamil Mahabharata)

andeveryusingcodified
at a
dayhandgestures
Mahabharata
festival,
Irunkal
village,
Tamilnadu,
1980.
A.
(PhotobyRichard
Frasca)

..

......

...

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TamilTheatre93
classicizedartistproducingrarefied
collectionsof high-flown
poetryfor
an elite,traditional
class.
This
is
in
ruling
immediately
apparent the title
which he chose to
given to him when he was veryyoung,Paratiyar,
himselfwiththroughout
his life.This is the primary
titleused
identify
to referto performers
of piracankamthroughout
the Tamil area.3The
of thistitleto thepiracankam
whichhe was
tradition,
specificreference
to
as
a
and
the
honor
that
it carriesin
undoubtedlyexposed
youth,
one as a scholarly
and artistic
commentator
on
venerating
contemporary
the ancientliterary
tradition,
givesus a strongindicationof the role he
saw himselfplaying.In responseto the inevitablechangesin the political and social contextof the period,his artisticinstinctsand impulses
on theliterary
and narrative
produceda body of poetrybased primarily
texts of the ancient Tamil Hindu traditionthat was nevertheless
relevantand contemporary.
wrotePancaliCapatam
Paratiyar
scintillatingly
duringhis ten yearsof politicalexile fromBritishIndia in the Frenchruledcolony of Pondicherry.
His politicalfacultiesand awarenesshad
been sharpenedby theBritishauthorities'
to controlhim.This
attempts
poetryhad such politicalimpactthatit was outlawedby theBritish.As
Mr. Sivasubramaniam,
headmasterat the Teacher TrainingCollege in
Cuddaloreinformed
me, it nonethelessfoundits audiencein hand-copied versionsof his workthatwere surreptitiously
circulatedby college
studentsof the period.This audiencewas compelledand fascinated
by
his poeticvision(Sivasubramaniam
I97I).
An examinationof Paratiyar's
PancaliCapatamprovidesimportant
insightinto how and why thisdramahad such impact.Firstof all, there
are strongindicationsthatit is based on one of the mostpowerfuland
vitalepisodesof the ritualfolktheatretraditionof the terukkuttu.
This
episode is known in the terukkuttu
by severaltitles,most commonly
of Draupadi'sGarments),
TiraupataiVastirapaharanam
(The Tearing-Off
but also PaiicaliCapatam.The linksbetweenthe terukkuttu
episodeand
work can be seen in severalareas, notablyritualstructure,
Paratiyar's
and sacredmotifs.The remainderof thisarticleshows
epic storyline,
theinterplay
betweenthesetwo popularand powerfulperformative
perspectiveson thisepisode: one a rural-based,
premodernformof ritual
theatre,the othera modernpoetic expressionof a periodof greatpoliticaland culturalchange.
The most immediateparallelismin structure
is the framingof both
dramasin an evocativeritualinitiationand an auspiciousending.Both
performances
begin with what are identifiedin Tamil as tuti(derived
fromthe SanskritStuti),songs of praiseaddressedto deitiesor figures
of particular
to the composersor performers.
In a transcripimportance
tion I made of an all-nightterukkuttu
of thisepisode by
performance
the Perunkattur
PonnusvamiTerukkuttuTroupe,4the performance
is
initiatedwitha long seriesof tutisfocusingon Krishna,a deityof importancethroughoutIndia; Ganesh,the elephant-headed
god of auspicious beginnings;
Sarasvati,the goddessof artand learning;and a deity
of greatsignificance
to the Tamils, the hunterwarriorgod Murugan.
in
this
thetutito Krishnaprecedes
Interestingly,
particular
performance,
the tutito Ganesh,the deitynormallypropitiatedfirstbecause of his
obstacle-removingqualities. PerunkatturRajagopal, head of the
PerunkattirPonnusvamiTerukkuttuTroupe, noted thatthiswas for
reasons personal as well as epic. Since he carried Krishna's name
in
(Rajagopalis anothernameforKrishna)and was the mainperformer
the groupas well as thisepisode,he believedit appropriate
fortheper-

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94

RichardA. Frasca

2. Preceding
theperfor-

manceofPaicali
Capatam,the
(jester/
Kattiyankaran
herald/guard),
playedby
E. Dakshinamurti,
apAround
pliesmakeup.
himareterukktttu
crowns
andweapons
that
willbe usedbykingly
in a peforcharacters
mancebythePerunkattur
Ponnusvami
Terukkuttu
Troupe,Kanchipuram,
Tamilnadu,2 May
I98I. (Photoby Richard

A. Frasca)

formance to begin with a piece addressed to Krishna. Moreover,

Krishna is a deity of supreme importance in the Mahabharataepic as
well as in this episode and is thereforethe more powerful remover of
obstacles to a successfulperformance.5
Paratiyar'sdrama initiates the episode with two tutis, the firstaddressed to Brahman and the second to Sarasvati. The firstpiece is definitively Vedantist in its tone and approach, noting the author's
meditationon "the pure Being known only as Brahman." The second,
however, shows significantoverlap with the terukkuttututi praising
Sarasvati. The combination of these two initiatorypieces I believe is
symbolic of the appeal and power of this poetic drama. It coalesces an
all-India Vedantist perspective with a more localized, distinctlyTamil
devotional perspective.
It is instructiveto note the overlap between the Sarasvatituti of the
moment terukkuttu and that of Paratiyar. My translation of the terukkuttu
3. A humorous
Sarasvatituti acknowledges the artisticand devotional insightSarasvati,
ofimprovised
bawdy
humorin theterukkittu the goddess of learning,has bestowed on the composers.
ofPanicli
performance
Praise to the glorious goddess
Capatam by the
Ponnusviumi
Perunkattiur
Who resides on the tongue of the greatBrahma.
Terukkfttu
Praise to Sarasvati,
Troupe,
Who broughtus the good fortune
Perunkattiur
village,
Of being able to read and performthe ancient stories
Tamilnadu,3I October
Of which the Mahabharatais the first.
I981. Like a typical
SouthIndian child,
Praise to the mother
Duhsasana, playedby
Perunkattur
Of all the greatworlds.
Rajagopal,
on
his
mother's
to the beloved motherSarasvati. (Rajagopal I98I)
Praise
jumps up
(Queen Gandhari)hip.
(Photoby RichardA.
My translationof the final stanza of the Sarasvati tuti from Paratiyar's
version of this episode speaks of Sarasvatiin parallelterms:
Frasca)

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96

RichardA. Frasca

4. Duhsasana
Rajagopal)
(Perunkattur
dragsDraupadi
(Ponnuswami)by her
hairin theperformance
by thePerunkattur
PonnusvimiTerukkuttu
Troupe,Perunkattur
village,Tamilnadu,3I
October1981. Since
Draupadi is worshipped
as a villagegoddess,no
is allowedto
performer
touchthemale
physically
performer
playingher.
The cordDuhsasana is
pullingon symbolizesher
tresses.(Photoby Richard A. Frasca)

Sarasvatiis my refuge.
I am certainshe will bestow
Gracefulwords upon me.
Penances have broughtme her nourishment.
She is one whose name is
As immeasurableas the greatearth.
May the ornamentedgoddess of art
Bless me that I may recreate
In glorious Tamil song and drama
The great storyof Draupadi,
The queen of the five Pandavas. (1976:314)
Note the concluding emphasis of the song denoting Paratiyar's conscious effortto retell an ancient story in terms that are freshand relevant.
The strategyboth versions of the episode employ to achieve an auspicious ending also establishesan importantidentitybetween them. In the
terukkittu,Draupadi takes a vow to wreak vengeance on Duhsasana and
Duryodhana in response to theirattemptto dishonorher. This is a narrative landmarkthat could end the performance.Yet, it goes on to enactin improvised narrativeprose-a quickly telescoped presentationof the
Pandava's victoryover their enemies and the installationof the oldest of
the five heroic brothers,Dharmaraja, as ruling king. Inquiries among
terukkuttumastersas to why events relevantto later episodes in the epic
are used to end this performancebrought an importantanswer. As P.
Rajagopal, head teacher of the PerunkatturPonnuswami Terukkittu
Troupe indicated, the impurityand inauspiciousness of the concluding
events of Pancali Capatam needed to be followed by the auspiciousness
of her restorationto purityand of Dharmaraja's coronation in order to

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TamilTheatre97
returnthe performance
space and the audienceto a properritualstate
(Rajagopal I980).

It is significantthatthe most importantpublishedversion of this

terukkfttu
episodeproducedby RatnaNayakarand Sons of Madrasalso
concludeswiththistelescopingof the finalportionsof the Mahbhdrata.
The telescopingis even more drasticthanin the performedversion,
probablysince it is part of a nonperformancemanifestationof the
I have translated
terukkuttu.
it as follows:
The greatPandavas,havinggone to theforestin theproperorder,
Spenttwelveyearsin exile and one yearin disguise.
Afterdoingbattleand killingDuryodhanaand his troops,
Dharmaraja,
accompaniedby Draupadi,was coronated.(Kavirayar
I977:102)

It is strikingthatwe see this same narrativestrategyemployedby

to concludehis drama.While thetelescopingis even morenoParatiyar
battleand the return
ticeable,the symbolicsoundsof a dharma-driven
of Dharmarajato kingshipare unmistakable,
as can be seen in the concludinglines of the drama.These are the versesimmediately
following
Draupadi'svow of vengeance:
The earthshookand a whirlwind
filledtheskywithdust.
The fiveelementsborewitnessthat
Dharmais the sole Lordof theearth.
We have finishedour story:
May all the earthprosperin happiness.(Paratiyar
1976:394)
focuson theoutrageto Draupadi,Paratiyar's
Despitethedramatic
drama,
as in the terukkfttu,
ends withDharmaraja'sauspiciousascendanceto
kingship.
In transforming
the terukkfttu
episode into a modernpoliticalstatement,however,Paratiyardoes make some verytellingchanges.The
terukkfttuemploysa traditionalperformative
rhythmconsistingof
versesof high,complex,classicizedpoetryalternating
withshortersimplersongs,followedby elucidative,improvisedeverydayprose. This is
a contemporizing
strategy
designedto makethe occasionallyhigh-flown
and archaiclanguageof the epic narrative
moreaccessibleto a presentday,yettraditional,
nonscholarly
villageaudience.It operatesin numerous ways,primarily
tone,idioms
utilizingparaphrase,
languagerhythms,
and slang,and local, modern-day
abandons
pointsof reference.
Paratiyar
thisperformative
in favorof a work thatis entirelyin meter.
rhythm
his versionof PancaliCapatamincorporates
the contempoNevertheless,
of the terukkuttu
in the languageand metersit employs.
rizingstrategy
The language is distinctlycontemporaryand the meterssimple and
modern,resultingin poetrythatis immediately
intelligibleand accessibleto itsaudience.
We get some clearclues to the essenceof Paratiyar's
artistic
intention
in the followingexcerptfromhis prefaceto PadcaliCapatam.In it he
states:
Simplephrases,simplestyle,easilyreceivedprosody,the rhythms
likedby thecommonman:he who createsan epic withthese
attributes
givesour mothertongue,Tamil,a freshlease of life.It
shouldbe writtenin such a way thatall the Tamilswitheven a

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98

RichardA. Frasca

5. & 6. Duhsasana
(Perunkattir
Rajagopal)
dragsDraupadi
(Ponnuswami)by her
hair,spinningand twistingher. This sceneis

specifically
choreographed
to embodythesemove-

one
ments,
symbolizing

of
stepin thedisgracing
Draupadi. This perfor-

mancewasbythe
Perunkattiir
Ponnusviimi
TerukkittuTroupe,
Perunkattir
village,
Tamilnadu,3' October
i98i. (Photosby Richard A. Frasca)

smatteringof literarytrainingand knowledge could grasp the

meaning,and at the same time the writingmust not degenerate
fromthe level of poetry. (Nandakumar 1977:39)

In a mostinteresting
way,Paratiyar
appearsto conceiveof his dramatic
poeticwritingin the same mode as the musicalrecitativepiracankam

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Tamil Theatre 99

formdiscussedearlier,as a combinationof poetryand commonprose.

As a performer
of piracankam
reshapesancientpoetryby elucidatingit
of thought,so
usingprose,present-day
language,and familiar
rhythms
the
traditional
theatre
does Paratiyar
ritual
reshape
episodeinto a modem poetic,politicaldrama.His use of thelanguagehad such successful
resonancesthatit recreatedthe contemporary,
contemporary
producing
a new literary
and politicalidiom,the stronginfluenceof whichis still
felttoday(Ludden I973:268). In thisvein,we mustrememberthatin
the WesterndramatictraditionShakespeareincorporatedthe rhythms
and rhetoricof spokenEnglishand the Englishchurchsermonin his
use of blankverse,influencing
the developmentof Englishliterature.6
The elementsof the spokenlanguageand oral religiousdiscourseare
in Paratiyar's
also clearlytherootsof thevitality
poetry.
The poet's reference
to his re-creating
the epic also has a directrelevanceto variouslevelsof the terukkittu
tradition.
First,duringvillage
are conceivedas ritualreMa'habharata
terukkuttu
festivals,
performances
enactmentsthatrevitalizeand re-createthe epic anew each time an
is conducted.Second,theparticular
festival
terukkuttu
eighteen-day
episode of PancaliCapatam,because of its centralityto the distinctive
of theentire
Tamil epic perspective,
can be consideredan encapsulation
epic. This can be seen in severalversionsof the episode I have docuin the dramaand in
mentedon bothaudiotapeand videotape.Paratiyar
his preface,also exhibitsa view of the epic in its entirety,
ratherthan
an
one
As
Mahabharata
festival
just
eighteen-day
rituallycomepisode.
see his dramadrivingthroughto
pletesthe epic cycle,so does Paratiyar
the epic conclusionof a freeIndia.
he employsto make his contemporary
The poetic strategy
political
is mostinteresting.
references
of theMahabharata,
Throughtheperspective
he uses selectivephrasesand symbolsthathave ritualand politicalovertonesto referto the colonialoppressionof India.7As we can see in the
followingexcerpt,the victimizedDraupadiis the symbolof India and
Duryodhanaand his brothersthe symbolof theircolonial oppressors.
Duryodhanais summoning
Draupadito his courtaftershe has been lost
to himin thefateful
gameof dice:

~
. . ..

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7. TheBeginning
ofthe
Duhsasana
Disgracing:
(played
byPerunkattur
to
begins
Rajagopal)
to
attempt stripDraupadi
(played
byPonnuswami)
nakedin hisolderbrother
court
in
Duryodhana's
the3I October
1981
performance,
symbolizing
thetearing
ofhersari
fromherbody.(Photoby
A. Frasca)
Richard

A. Frasca
Ioo Richard
Duryodhanasaid:
come here!
"Hey, Charioteer,
Go to thePandavaqueen and
Tell herthattheEmperorof India
Commandsherto come at once
To thegreathallof the rulerof theearth.
Bringherherewithyou immediately."
The charioteer
sped to Draupadi'sabode.
In a voice quiveringwithsadness,
The charioteer
said:
"Praiseto you, O Goddess!
You are theprotector
of morality.
I bow down to you.
As a resultof cruelfate
Dharmarajaplayedthedice gameof delusionwithUncle Sakuni
He bet and losthis kingdom,
His wealth,his brothers,
and his freedom.
dear
he
Mother, wageredeven you.
Finally,
dares
not utterthe result.
My tongue
He lost.(1976:378;translated
by R. Frasca)
Another area where Paratiyar'sPaicali Capatam ties in with the
tradition
is in his identification
terukkuttu
of thefigureof Draupadias a
manifestation
of the cult of the goddess.He refersto her throughout
the work as Tevi Tiraupati(Goddess Draupadi). Most specifically,
he
calls her amman,the termused to referdefinitively
to a Tamil village
relatesherpoeticallywithParSakti,
thesugoddess.He also consistently
Sakti-the
of
the
Hindu
tradition.
His
coalespreme
all-powerful
goddess
cence of the epic and goddess traditionsis richlyevident in the
followingstrikingpassage describingthe ritualchaos unleashed by
Duryodhana'ssummoningDraupadito his courtaftershe has been lost
to himin thedice game:
Dharmais destroyed
and the truthbecomeslies.
The greatness
of austerities
becomesdegraded.
Fireflaresup in thestomachsof thegods on highand
and becomedeluded.
Holymenfallout of theirmeditations
The Vedas,our ancientholybooks,become emptywordswithout
meaningand
Music becomesdissonantand cacophonous.
thecelestialmusicians,lose theirbeautyand
Gandharvas,
The Siddhasand otheroccupantsof the heavensbecomemadmen.
Brahmabecomesspeechlessand Sarasvatiloses herdiscrimination.
The raincloud-colored
Vishnufallsfromhis sleepof perception
To thedullnessof ordinary
slumberand
The faceof Lakshmi,thebeautifulgoddessof wealth,
Changesfromgold to black.
Siva'syogictrancebecomesa swirlof delusionShe who is theyoungSakti,Umadevi,Mahakalthegoddessof
Victory,
The originalMahasaktiwho holdsa trident
in herhand,
She willbecometheMahamaya,thematernalprinciple,
that
all illusion.
destroys
She will revelin ghosts,killing,and heapsof corpses.
Ridingon a lion,she will destroytheworldthroughherlaughter.

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Tamil Theatre

I01

8. & 9. Duhsasana
(playedby Perunkattir
Rajagopal)tearsanother
Ridingon a lion,she will laughand preserveit.
sarifromDraupadi's
Her attendants
are sickness,murder,
and other
death,exhaustion,
afflictions.
bodyas she doesa puja
unspeakable
Withthedark-colored
God of Death on his buffalodoingher
ritual)
(devotional
Lord
onstagerequesting
bidding,
Krishna'said. Krishna
She is theshiningMaharani.
She is surrounded
wealth,longevity, magically
replacesevery
by a retinueof auspiciousness,
sari tornaway by
fame,and greatlearning.
Duhsasana in the31
She is thecreator,she is thedestroyer.
Octoberi98i production.
She is thenewnessemanating
fromthefluxof theuniverse,
To changeand change,evercreatingand re-creating.
(Photoby RichardA.
This is heressence,thisis AdiparasaktiFrasca)

Her heartgrowingviolentas darknessspreads

Acrosstheblazingfaceof Surya,theSun-God.(1976:375;translated
by R. Frasca)

At this point, one need note that this graphic descriptiongreatlyintensifies the portents found in this episode in Sanskrit versions of the
Mahdbhlrataepic. More importantly,however, it ties in directlywith
the motifsof violated chastityand ritual chaos George Hart focused on
in his studies of the Sangam works of the firstto third centuries, the
oldest collections of poetry extantin the Tamil tradition(I975:99-I06).
These works precede a strongSanskritepic influencein the Tamil area
and vividly describe rituals and beliefs around which the core of later
Tamil village goddess cults appear to have developed.
All of these elements show distinct ties with the Draupadi cult of
northeasternTamilnadu. As noted above, this is a village goddess cult
unique to this area thatis centered on the worship of Tiraupataiyamman,
Draupadi worshipped in the form of a village goddess, an amman. My
work on the terukkuttu
has shown that this village ritualtheatreformis
the primaryperformativemode in the ritual re-creation and re-enactment of a village Mahibharatathat restoresDraupadi-the-ammanto purityand Dharmaraja to just kingship, revitalizingthem as benevolent
Paicali Capatam has
protectorsof a village. The clear ties that Paratiyar's
with these ritualisticperceptions of Draupadi proves furtherthat the
poet based his drama on the terukkuttu and the related village
Mahabhirata.
As if to confirm this identity between Paratiyar's drama and the
terukkfttu
episode of Paicali Capatam, Paratiyar'swork was successfully
in Madras in the I980s. I documented this prostaged as a terukkuttu
duction and was struckby how effortlessly
the modern work was trans-

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Tamil Theatre I03

ferredto the traditional

theatrical
form.8There was no adaptationnecesin
the
real
sense
of
the
word.
The poetryof Paratiyar-his
words,
sary
meters,and motifs-flowedinstantaneouslywith the melodies and
of the terukkuttu
and musiciansworkingwith the
rhythms
performers
text.The disjuncture
betweenthe modem and the traditional
thatI had
There was clearlyan underlying
dramatic
expectednevermaterialized.
and PIratiyar's
terukkfttu
unitybetweentheritualistic
poetic,politicalvision. The productionwas so successfulthatit was awardedmajorprizes
and performed
India.
by theTamilnadugovernment
throughout
It is important
to look at the imagesthatParatiyar's
worktakesfrom
the terukkuttu
to achieve its dramaticand politicalimpact.These revolve aroundthe issue of ritualpurity.The dramatriggers
symbolsof
and
to
evoke
of
impurity purity
images politicaloppressionand liberation. As the villagegoddessDraupadi is restoredto a pure,revitalized
so is Draupadi as the image of
powerfulstatethroughthe terukkfttu,
MotherIndia in Paratiyar's
dramarestoredto a place of pristinepower.
An unmistakable
linkbetweenPiratiyar's
dramaand the terukkuttu
is the
motifof the outragedDraupadi's vowing to dress her hair with the
blood of her defeatedvictimizers.
Since it is not foundso definitively
was undoubtedlyParatiyar's
source.9
elsewhere,the terukkuttu
portrayed
This disturbing
scene of blood and liberationis brilliantly
encapsulated
in thefinalverseof his Paincali
Capatam:
GoddessDraupadisaid:
I takethisvow.
"Om, Parasakti,
I will not comb and braidmyhairagain
Untiltheredblood of thatwretchDuhsasana
Flows together
withthebubblingblood of base Duryodhanaand
I smearthismixtureintomyhairand
Wash it awaywiththepurestghee."
"Om" chantedthegods.
The heavensrumbledwiththesacredsyllables"Om, Om."
The earthshookand a whirlwindfilledtheskywithdust.
The fiveelementsbore witnessthat
Dharmais thesole Lord of the earth.
We have finished
our story.
May all theearthprosperin happiness.(1976:394;translated
by R.
Frasca)
It is significant
thatwhat is primarily
rememberedabout Paratiyar
is
not his fiery,politicaljournalismor prose writings,which one would
expect to be readilyaccessibleto a modernaudience, but his poetic
of a
play PancaliCapatam.This is a modern political transformation
ritualfolk dramadrawnfromthe Hindu epic tradition.Paratiyar
recreatesand retellsthe storyin politicaltermsthatcommunicateon a
deeperritualand sacredlevel. The play unpacksthe imageof the god- io. Withthehelpofthe
dess Draupadirevitalizedto conveyits powerfulmessageof the neces- Kattiyankaran
(jester/
an all-IndiaVedantist herald/guard)
sityto freeIndia. Moreover,it subtlyinterweaves
(playedby
perspectivewithmore local, devotionalelementsto reachan audience E. Dakshinamurti),
that overlaps the urban and the village, the scholarlyand the un- Duhsasana(playedby
schooled.It was thisworkthatfounda deep and continuingaccessibil- Perunkattur
Rajagopal)
audience.It confirms
close and begins
tocomeoutof
ityto the heartsand mindsof Paratiyar's
and resonancesbetween mythicand ritual possession
in the31
long-standing
relationships
paradigmsand modem politicalphenomenaand has important
198I production.
implica- October
tionsforthoselookingfora theatrethatdepictsand definesthe essence (PhotobyRichard
A.
of modem,contemporary
India.
Frasca)

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104 RichardA. Frasca

ii. In theDefeatof
Duryodhanawithinthe
Notes
ofPificli
performance
Bhima
i. His poetic vision did not discardor reject traditionbut placed it in a new set(K.
Capatam,
the
tingto probe the consciousnessof his Tamil audience and bringthema spiritof
Murugesan)begins
renewaland liberation.
ofDuryodhana
crippling
and the Paratamritualcon2. Two works thatdiscussin detail these performances
Ekambaram
Mestri)
(C.
PerTerukkuttu
textare RichardArmandoFrasca's The TheateroftheMahabharata:
on thebattlefield
of
in South India (1990) and Alf Hiltebeital's The Cult of Draupadi:
formances
Kurukshetra
whilethe
FromGingeeto Kuruksetra
(1988).
Mythologies:
Kattiyankaran(jester/
of piracankamin
thisuse of the titleParatiyar
forperformers
3. AlfHiltebeitalconfirms
comments
herald/guard)
thisregionin his Cult ofDraupadi(1988:135-46).
took place on 2 May 1981 at a small,local templein the city
upontheaction.The
4. This performance
is by
of Kanchipuram in Tamilnadu. The transcriptionwas made in August 1981
production
was
Ponnusvami
Perunkattur
froman audiotape recordingof the entireperformance.The transcription
done by Perunkattir
Terukkuttu
Troupe, undermy suRajagopal, the head of the Perunkattur
Troupein
pervision.
Kanchipuram,
obtainedfromPerunkattir
5. This was information
Rajagopal in Tamilnadu in 1981
Tamilnadu,2 May
of
this
our
I98I).
(Rajagopal
during
transcribing
performance
i98i. (Photoby Richard
6. This aspect of Shakespeare'suse of language was made by ProfessorRobert K.
A. Frasca)
of California at Davis
of Dramatic Art,
Sarlos of the

University
Department
(1987).
7. M.L. Varadpandein his recentbook The Mahabhlratain Performance
(I990:II5in otherregionsof In18) documentssimilarstrategiesemployedby playwrights
dia at various points during the 20th century.These writersalso transformed
epic traditioninto powerfulpoliticalcommentary
episodes fromthe Mahabharata
in the formof dramasin theirnativelanguages.
8. This productionwas developed by the Raghava ThambiranTerukkuttu
Troupe
of Purisaivillagenear Kanchipuram.One of its initialstagingswas at the Madras
Museum Theatrein 1981.
9. Hiltebeitalalso notes thatthis motifis most clearlydelineatedin the terukkuttu
tradition(see Hiltebeital1988:237).

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Tamil Theatre

References
Frasca,RichardArmando
in SouthIndia.
The Theaterof theMahabharata:Terukkuttu
1990
Performances
Honolulu: Universityof Hawaii Press.
Hart, George L.
The PoemsofAncientTamil: TheirMilieuand TheirSanskritCounterparts.
1975
Berkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPress.
Hiltebeital,Alf
FromGingeeto Kuruksetra.
The Cult of Draupadi: Mythologies:
1988
Chicago:
Universityof Chicago Press.
Iramaccantira
Kavirayar,
Sri MakaparataVilacamCutu Tukilurital
1977
(The Dicegame and the Disrobing). Madras: B. Ratna Nayakarand Sons.
Ludden, David
in
and Revolution
"The Songs and Revolution of Bharati." In Imperialism
1973
SouthAsia, edited by Kathleen Gough and Hari P. Sharma, 267-90.
New York: MonthlyReview Press.
Nandakumar,Prema
PoemsofSubramaniaBharati.New Delhi: SahityaAkademi.
1977
Pratiyar(C. SubramaniBharati)
Pdicali Capatam (The Vow of Draupadi). In ParatiyarKavitaikal(The
I976
Poetryof Bharati),3I4-94. Madras: PumpukarPress.
Rajagopal, Perunkattur
Personalcommunicationwith author.
1980
n.p. [1981] Transcriptionof Pa3caliCapatamperformancein Kanchipuram,2 May.
Sarlos, Robert K.
n.p. [1987] Lectureat the Universityof Californiaat Davis.
Sivagnanam,M.P.
The HistoryoftheGrowthof TamilDuringtheIndian WarofIndependence,
1980
translated
by K. Chellappan. Madras: Universityof Madras Press.
Sivasubramaniam
Personalcommunicationwith author.
1971
Varadpande,M.L.
The Mahabhratain Performance.
New Delhi: Clarion Books.
1990

in theReligious
StudiesDepartRichard A. Frasca is currently
Professor
his PhD in South
mentat SaintXavierUniversity,
Chicago.He completed
at Berkeley,
on HinduAsian Studiesat theUniversity
of California
focusing
andsacreddramaand dance.His bookThe Theaterof the
ism,Buddhism,
in South India waspublished
Performances
Terukkittu
Mahabharata:
bythe
ofHawaii Pressin I990.
University

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o05