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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
CIVIL, CONSTRUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
FINAL YEAR PROJECT PROPOSAL

PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF COARSE


AGGREGATES WITH WASTE GLASS
BY: CALVIN DETE

REG. NO: E25- 0709 /05

PROJECT SUPERVISOR:
MR.NJUKI

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering

DECLARATION
I, Calvin Dete, do declare that this report is my original work and to the best of my knowledge, it has not
been submitted for any degree award in any University or Institution.

Signed______________________________________________ Date ____________


Calvin Dete

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CERTIFICATION
I have read this report and approve it for examination
Signed_______________________________________________Date_____________
Mr. Njuki

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indebted to my lecturers, colleagues and friends who have assisted me in preparation of this project
by giving guidelines, advice and comments. My sincere thanks go to my supervisor Mr. Njuki for his
immense support, encouragement and positive criticism during the project and report writing without
whom this work couldnt have been realized. Also I would like to thank the Civil Engineering staff
members and my colleagues who guided and assisted me in accomplishing this research work.
In addition, I would greatly like to thank my family and friends who stood by my side throughout my
studies, and anyone else whose input facilitated my life throughout college.

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DEDICATION
First, I would like to dedicate this research project to Almighty God who has blessed me and brought me
to this point.
Secondly, I dedicate this research work to my mum and my dad, and all my family members. Their
undying commitment to my education and unwavering support throughout this course has been a true
revelation. May the Lord bless abundantly bless you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Declaration ....ii
Acknowledgement .......iv
Dedication..v
Table of Contents.................................................................................................. vi
List of figures....x
List of tables.xi

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction...........................................................................................................1
1.1 Background....................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem Justification..............................................................................................1
1.3 Problem Statement..2
1.4 Research objectives................................................................................................2
1.4.1 Overall Objectives...............................................................................................2
1.4.2 Specific Objectives....2
1.5 Research hypothesis..............................................................................................3
1.6 Scope of Study..3

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Overview......................................................................................................4
2.1 Literature Review.....................................................................................................4
2.2 Physical Properties of Glass..............................................................................5
2.2.1 Appearance....5
2.2.2 Specific Gravity and Relative Density.............................................................5
2.2.3 Gradation...6
2.2.4 Durability and Workability...6
2.2.5 Shear Strength..7
2.2.6 Compaction..8
2.2.7 Permeability..9
2.2.8 Thermal Conductivity..9
2.2.9 Filtration9
2.2.10 Leachability10

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2.3 Safety and Handling..11

CHAPTER THREE
3.0.0 Research methodology..............................................................................................12
3.1.0 Introduction.............................................................................................................12
3.1.1 Sample Collection and Preparation....12
3.1.2 Sampling of Aggregates..12
3.2.3 Particle Size Distribution...........................................................................................13
3.3.0 Design of concrete mixes14
3.3.1 Principles of design....14
3.3.2 Stages in Mix Design.15
3.4.0 Batching of Concrete Materials15
3.5.0 Testing the Properties of Fresh Concrete.16
3.5.1 Workability16
3.5.2 Slump Test.17
3.6.0 Testing properties of hardened concrete.18
3.6.1 Determination of Compressive strength.18
3.6.1.2 Curing of Cubes....18
3.6.1.3 Compressive Test..18
3.7.0 Flexural tests........................................................................................................19
3.7.1 Objective....19
3.8.0 Indirect Splitting Tensile test................................................................................20
3.8.1 Objective.20

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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0.0 Results and Analysis and Discussion......................................................................21
4.1.0 Particle Size distribution ...................21
4.1.1 Sieve Analysis of Aggregates................21
4.1.1.0 Course Glass Cullet Sieve Analysis.........21-22
4.1.1.1 Course Aggregate Sieve analysis...........23-24
4.1.1.2 Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis.25-26
4.2.0 Slump Test.....27
4.3.0 Compressive Strength Test...............................................................................28-30
4.3.1 Modes of Failure30-34
4.4.0 Tensile Test.................35
4.5.0 Flexural Strength Test ...............36-37
4.5.1 Testing Beams for Flexture.39-39

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1.0 Conclusion and Recommendation...................................................................40
5.1.1 Conclusion...............................................................................................40
5.1.2 Recommendation.....................................................................................40

REFERENCES..41
APPENDIX......42-54

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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1: Sieve arrangement 14
Fig 2: 75% Coarse aggregate replacement mode of failure..........31
Fig 3: 45% Coarse aggregate replacement mode of failure ..32
Fig 4: 15% Coarse aggregate replacement mode of failure ......33
Fig 5: 30% Coarse aggregate replacement mode of failure......34
Fig 6: 30% replacement after flexture ..............................................38
Fig 7: 30% replacement before flexture ..............................................................38
Fig 8: Slump Graph...........................................................................................27
Fig 9: Flextural Strength Graph..........................................................................37
Fig 10: Tensile Strength Graph...35
Fig 11: Coarse Glass Aggregate Analysis Graph..................................................21
Fig 12 Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis Graph..................................................24
Fig 13: Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis Graph.....................................................26

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Coarse Glass Aggregate Analysis ............19
Table 2: Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis..............................................................20
Table 3: Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis...................................................................21
Table 4.Slump Test Results..............................................................................21
Table 5-6: Compressive Strength Results..22
Table 7: Summary of Splitting Tensile Test Result....................................................24
Table 6: Summary of average crushing results..................................................................19
Table 7: Summary of tensile strength results.....................................................................24
Table 8: Summary of flexural test results...........................................................................25
Table 9-20: Summary of Compressive test Results42-54

PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF COARSE AGGREGATE WITH WASTE GLASS IN


CONCRETE BLOCKS
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Glass is a transparent material produced by melting a mixture of materials such as silica, soda ash, and
CaCO3 at high temperature followed by cooling during which solidification occurs without
crystallization. Glass is widely used in our lives through manufactured products such as sheet glass,
bottles, glassware, and vacuum tubing. Glass is an ideal material for recycling. The use of recycled glass
in new container helps save of energy. It helps in brick and ceramic manufacture, and it conserves raw
materials, reduces energy consumption, and the volume of waste sent to landfill.
Waste glass is a major component of the solid waste stream in many countries. It can be found in many
forms, including container glass, flat glass such as windows, bulb glass and cathode ray tube glass. At
present, although a small proportion of the post consumer glass has been recycled and reused, a
significant proportion of waste glass generated in Kenya is sent to landfill.
Glass is a 100% recyclable material with high performances and unique aesthetics properties which
makes it suitable for wide-spread uses. Besides, the current recycling states pose great pressures on glass
recycling and reusing. The use of glass as aggregates in concrete has great potential for future high quality
concrete development. This research will focus on the applicability of waste glass to civil engineering
applications. Glass cullet utilized as an aggregate can incorporate mixed glass that have been crushed and
screened to remove debris and oversized particles. This system provides a use for glass materials not
currently recycled.

1.2 PROBLEM JUSTIFICATION


Demands on building material have increased from time to time due to the increasing population and
urbanization. Among the material demanded is coarse aggregate and in the phase of sustainability in
construction, utilization of waste material has been encouraged because recycling of this material will
help in protecting the environment from land fill disposal of the broken waste and also the granitic
quarrying of the coarse aggregate will be significantly reduced.

From engineering standpoint, broken glass or cullet appears to be an excellent supplement for
replacement for natural aggregate in many construction applications. The study will define the suitability
of waste glass as a construction aggregate in terms of its engineering performance and cost comparability
with natural aggregates.
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The study will aim at evaluating the use of waste glass as a possible replacement of course aggregate in
concrete blocks so as to reduce the amount of waste glass to be land filled and as well as any resulting
risk to human health and also come up with light-weight, low cost concrete blocks of normal concrete .
What is needed is an aggregate comprising material of low commercial value, which can be
complemented with natural aggregate to provide concrete of equivalent, or improved physical properties.
With respect to the construction industry and engineering profession, these new materials may not only be
more economically advantageous than traditional granular materials but may also outperform them.
Hence waste glass aggregates could be considered as a viable alternative. The factors to be considered
will be,
Natural aggregate locally available.
How cullet might supplement or complement the natural aggregate supply,
Supply and quantity of cullet,
Size of cullet demand for given applications; and
Applicable local specifications and environmental regulations.
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
1.4.1 OVERALL OBJECTIVE
To investigate the possibility of either partial or total replacement of conventional coarse aggregates with
waste glass in the manufacture of concrete blocks.
1.4.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
To determine the material properties of waste glass.
The study will
To investigate the availability and economic feasibility of the use for waste glass as
aggregates

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS


This research aims at producing a concrete block which will be of low cost and having the same
engineering properties as conventional concrete. The positive impact on the environment will also be felt
as a large quantity of non-biodegradable waste glass will be recycled for use as opposed to being dumped
in landfills. Thus environmental conservation efforts will move in the right direction.
1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY
The scope of this project will be to evaluate the use of waste glasses as a possible partial or total
replacement of conventional concrete in the manufacture of concrete blocks.

CHAPTER 2
2.0 OVERVIEW
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW.
The opportunity for using glass in construction application stems from the emergence of quantities of
materials remaining from recovery and recycling activities, due to inconsistencies between the quantities
of different colours of glass manufactured and the colour composition of glass waste streams.UK
produces over three million tonnes of waste glass annually, of which 71% comes from waste containers.
There is not much literature on the Kenyan solid waste management (SWM) sector. While poor
management of solid waste is a general problem in Kenya, it is probably worst in Nairobi because of the
lack of consistent data in other parts of the country.
The amount of waste glass has gradually increased over the recent years due to an ever-growing use of
glass products. Most waste glasses have been dumped into landfill sites. The land filling of waste glasses
is undesirable because they are not biodegradable, which makes them environmentally less friendly.
There is huge potential for using waste glass in the concrete construction sector. When waste glasses are
reused in making concrete products, the production cost of concrete will go down. When used in
construction applications, waste glass must be crushed and screened to produce an appropriate design
gradation.
Waste glasses are used as aggregates for concrete. However, the applications are limited due to the
damaging expansion in the concrete caused by ASR between high-alkali pore water in cement paste and
reactive silica in the waste glasses. The chemical reaction between the alkali in Portland cement and the
silica in aggregates forms silica gel that not only causes crack upon expansion, but also weakens the
concrete and shortens its life. Ground waste glass was used as aggregate for mortars and no reaction was
detected with fine particle size, thus indicating the feasibility of the waste glass reuse as fine aggregate in
mortars and concrete. In addition, waste glass seemed to positively contribute to the mortar microstructural properties resulting in an evident improvement of its mechanical performance. Recently, some
studies were carried out to suppress the ASR expansion in concrete and find method to recycle waste
glasses. The concrete containing 20% waste glass reduced the expansion ratio by 40%. Shayan and Xu
reported fine glass powder for incorporation into concrete up to 30% as a pozzolanic material suppressed
the ASR. Topcu and Canbaz reported the waste glass in size of 4-16 mm used as aggregate in the concrete
reduced the compressive strength of concrete. Tuncan showed the addition of waste glass powder (15%)
into concrete increased the compressive strength of concrete as much as 13%. Ksack also reported the
compressive strength of concrete with waste glass decreased 19%. In the study of Park 30% of waste

glass with size of 0-5 mm addition into concrete decreased the compressive strength of concrete as much
as 4%. Park, Topcu and Canbaz, Tuncan and Ksack reported in their studies the addition of waste glass
into concrete in crushed forms decreased the flexural strength. Park, Topcu and Canbaz and Ksack also
reported in their studies the addition of waste glass into concrete in crushed forms decreased the splitting
tensile strength, while Tuncan, reported an increase of 6%. Sangha, investigated the effect on concrete
strength of green glass as an aggregate replacement. They observed that increases in the compressive
strength values at the 10%, 40%, and 60% aggregate replacement by waste glass with 0-10 mm particle
size were 3%, 8% and 5% as compared with control sample without waste glass but decrease in the
compressive strength value was 2% at the 20% replacement.

2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GLASS


The technical feasibility of substituting glass waste or cullet blends for a given soil/aggregate component
should be based on demonstrating the equivalency of the cullet performance to that of the conventional
aggregate component. The use of conventional aggregate materials in civil engineering construction
applications is based on an evaluation of classification and engineering properties. Classification
properties are those properties which help identify a material and engineering properties are those used
for engineering design.

2.2.1 Appearance
The amount of debris in glass cullet can affect its engineering properties. Depending upon the glass
collection and sorting procedures, glass cullet may contain the following types of debris: paper, foil and
plastic labels, plastic and metal caps, cork, paper bags, wood debris, food residue, and grass.
Specifications should place a limit on the percentage of debris allowed in the cullet. Generally, debris
levels should not exceed a maximum of 10 percent and in many applications 5 percent.
The glass cullet particles are mostly angular with a small percentage flat or platy shape. The angular
shape indicates a potential to cut or puncture a synthetic liner (geomembrane) or similar material if placed
against this material. Applications should avoid this direct contact.

2.2.2 Specific Gravity and Relative Density


Specific gravity is a measure of a materials density. This determines the amount of voids in the
aggregate. Specific gravity values for crushed natural aggregate range from 2.60 to 2.83. Based on test
results done by HBR Engineering in the US, the specific gravities for coarse glass cullet ranged from 1.96
to 2.41 and for fine cullet range from 2.49 to 2.52.

ASTM D 653 (1) defines relative density as, " ... the ratio of the difference between the void ratio of a
cohesionless soil in the loosest state and any given void ratio, to the difference between the void ratios in
the loosest and in the densest states. In other words, relative density is a measure of a soils mass density
relative to its possible range of density. Test data shows that the maximum relative densities for 100
percent cullet range from 90.9 to 109.3 pounds per cubic foot. With cullet-aggregate blends, the relative
density increases with decreasing cullet content.
The specific gravity and relative density of glass cullet are important baseline properties. They relate
directly to engineering properties such as compaction and shear strength.

2.2.3 Gradation
ASTM D 653 (1) defines gradation (grain-size distribution) as the ...proportions by mass of a soil or
fragmented rock distributed in specified particle-size ranges. Gradation is a primary criterion for
roadway and engineering fill. It can affect engineering properties such as compaction, permeability,
filtration, and shear strength. The gradation of glass cullet is generally similar to crushed rock and gravely
sand and is controlled by the cullet processing method. Gradation is obtained by sieve analysis.
Specifications will dictate the gradation required for each application.
Gradation test results from Dames & Moore indicate that significant gradation change occurs when 100
percent cullet is subjected to heavy impact compaction. Therefore, fill applications that use this type of
compaction such as fluctuating or heavy stationary loads should not use 100 percent cullet.

2.2.4 Durability and Workability


Durability of a material is based on hardness and toughness. Durability was evaluated by Dames & Moore
from the Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion tests using standard method ASTM C 13 1. Durability is a material
classification property that affects its suitability for roadway base course and fills under fluctuating loads.
Glass cullets resistance to abrasion is lower than that of natural aggregate. The L.A. abrasion test
indicated that the percentage wear of glass cullet was 30 percent for 1/4-inch minus size and 42 percent of
3/4-inch minus size. This is almost two times greater than that of natural aggregate. The Nebraska
Department of Roads (NDOR) specifies limiting values for mineral aggregate used in roadway base
courses and foundation courses at 40 percent, and crushed rock used in base courses at 45 percent.
Workability is the ease with which an aggregate is handled and compacted. Glass cullet is generally
angular in shape, compared to crush rock (subangular) and gravely sand (subround) the inch minus
cullet has some potential to cut, puncture, or wedge into moving parts of construction equipment.
However, favourable compaction characteristics provide good workability of glass cullet and culletaggregate mixture.
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2.2.5 Shear Strength


ASTM D 653 (1) defines shear strength as,.the maximum resistance of a soil or rock to shearing stresses.
Shear strength is a design consideration that affects bearing capacity. This shear strength is expressed by
the angle of internal friction, measured in degrees. Typical granular soil have angle of friction ranging
from 27 degrees (for loose, silty sand) to 55 degrees (for dense, medium size gravel). Limited direct shear
test data on glass cullet indicate a friction angle at 55 degrees. This is slightly higher than the typical
natural aggregate. Dames and Moore suggested that this implied strength of glass cullet may not be
reliable and recommended five types tests to further define cullet shear strength. A summary of
subsequent test results is presented in the table.

The R-value relates indirectly to the strength of the material. The value is commonly used to specify base
or sub-base aggregate. The resilient modulus is a measure of a materials stiffness used in pavement
design. The resilient modulus of natural aggregate is typically about 30 ksi at a bulk stress of 25 psi.
Modulus for cullet does not appreciable change with repeated loading (e.g., repeated traffic loads).
Shear strength is a major design consideration for construction with glass cullet in embankments,
roadway base courses, and engineering fill under foundations. Test results indicate that the strength of
cullet is about the same as natural aggregate. However, for specific applications such as fills under
fluctuating loads and roadways, only cullet mixes up to 30 percent are recommended by Dames & Moore.

2.2.6 Compaction
ASTM D 653 (1) defines compaction as the ...densification of a soil by means of mechanical
manipulation. Compaction is a design consideration that effects density control. Compaction
characteristics include relationship of density and moisture content, effect of compaction method on
density and potential gradation change, and sensitivity of material to weather conditions.
Cullet and cullet-aggregate mixtures have favorable compaction characteristics. Glass cullet aggregate
mixtures generally do not experience appreciable gradation changes with compaction. The maximum
density values obtained from the Modified Proctor compaction and vibratory compaction tests are about
equivalent for cullet-added fill materials. Density slightly increases with decreasing cullet content.
However, heavy field compaction equipment can significantly effect density values for 100 percent cullet
fills because of the gradation changes, The compacted density of cullet is not sensitive to the moisture

content, which means that cullet material can be placed and compacted during wet weather. As a result,
construction downtime may be kept to a minimum.

2.2.7 Permeability
ASTM D 653 (1) defines permeability as, ...the capacity of a rock to conduct liquid or gas. Permeability
is a design consideration in civil drainage applications such as foundations drainage, drainage blankets,
and french drains, and in leachate collection and gas venting layers. For drainage fill material, high
permeability is usually more beneficial than low. Typical granular soils (washed gravel, sand or sandgravel mixtures) have permeabilities ranging from 0.01 to 0.001 cm/sec. The permeability of a granular
material depends on its gradation and density. Data reported on permeability tests of 100 percent glass
cullet have permeabilities ranging from 0.04 to 0.06 cm/sec for fine cullet and 0.18 to 0.26 cm/sec for
coarse cullet. The cullet-aggregate mixtures have permeabilities between 100 percent cullet and granular
soils. In general, permeability will increase with increasing cullet content, cullet size, and debris level but
will decrease with increasing compaction. This is comparable to natural sand and gravel. Therefore,
drainage applications can use 100 percent glass cullet for fill material. Cullet also appears to have
favorable characteristics for use as filtration media in such applications as septic fields, leachate treatment
and water purification. However, further study of the filtration capacity is warranted.

2.2.8 Thermal Conductivity


Thermal conductivity represents the ability of the material to conduct or resist heat flow. Thermal
conductivity is a design consideration that effects bedding and backfill for conduits or other heat sources.
Test data results indicate that glass cullet and cullet-aggregate mixtures have slightly lower thermal
conductivities than natural aggregate. In other words, cullet conducts heat more slowly. This slight
difference still allows cullet materials to be feasible for utility trench backfill.

2.2.9 Filtration
ASTM D 653 (1) defines a filter as, "... a layer or combination of layers of pervious materials designed
and installed in such a manner as to provide drainage, yet prevent the movement of soil particles due to
flowing water. Filtration is a design consideration that effects clogging and plugging between adjacent
layers. The American Water Works Association Standard B 100 was applied to cullet properties
(gradation, specific gravity, shape, and hardness) to determine suitability as a filtering media. Typical
filtering media such as silica sand have required effective sizes ranging from 0.35 mm to 0.65 mm. The
gradation of fine glass cullet (%-inch minus) tested by Dames & Moore ranged from 0.5 mm to 6.5 mm.
With additional sieving, the fine cullet appears to be feasible as an intermediate filtering media. Coarse
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cullet provides high permeability, but is not effective as a graded filter. Dames & Moore recommended
further direct measurement and study of cullet filtration capacity.
Filtration is a major design consideration for all drainage type applications in direct contact with adjacent
soil layers. Filter fabrics may be used to provide the filtration function and prevent plugging and clogging
of the cullet layer. Thick non-woven geotextiles also offer puncture resistance.

2.2.10 Leachability
Glass is a relatively inert material; however, common contaminants from collection methods can
influence the chemical characteristics of glass feedstock. Only limited chemical test data is available for
recycled glass feedstocks. Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) testing for metals, based
on analytical data provided by the Clean Washington Center indicates, ...all metals, except lead,
occurred at concentrations below the regulatory limit. The lead levels in some samples may be
associated with the lead foil wrappers on wine bottles in various cullet feedstocks. TCLP organic
compounds were not detected, suggesting that organic compounds in cullet have a low leachability
potential. The semi-volatile organic analysis indicated the presence of phthalate compounds, a
biodegradation product of plastics. The variability in presence and concentration of lead and phthalates in
cullet samples can be attributed to whether cullet is screened for debris, the color of the cullet, and the
sorting and collection procedure for each cullet source.
Laboratory test results have been conducted for total lead and leachable lead by BFI using EPA Method
3010/6010 and EPA Method 13 11/6010 (8). The test results for all samples showed that total lead
concentrations were undetectable or at low concentrations similar to levels in natural aggregate. Most
cullet source samples showed TCLP lead results below the federal regulatory limit of 5 mg/l or
undetected.
Additional laboratory leaching tests were conducted by Dames & Moore in accordance with ASTM D
4793 to assess the chemical characteristics and the potential for contaminant leaching over time. The test
protocol involved shaking a known weight of sample with water and separating the aqueous phase ten
times over a ten-day period.
In general, metal concentrations in glass cullet were at or below the metal concentrations
typically found in background levels of natural aggregate Contaminant levels of the cullet samples
decreased in concentration over time and are not at concentration of concern.
Leachability is a design consideration for glass cullet applications in contact with ground water or subject
to infiltration into ground water.

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2.3 Safety and Handling


Safety concerns in handling glass cullet during production and construction include: exposure to
respirable particles and potential for skin irritations, cuts, or lacerations. Glass is primarily composed of
amorphous silica. Amorphous silica is not considered to be a significant health hazard. Crystalline silica,
a health hazard known to cause fibrogenic lung disease, is not likely to be found, except in very low
amounts, in the post-consumer glass stream used for cullet. Test results conducted-by Dames & Moore
indicated that cullet samples contained less than one percent crystalline silica which puts glass cullet dust
in the nuisance dust category under OSHA.
Skin irritations and cuts can be avoided through the use of protective clothing similar to that worn when
working with natural aggregates. This includes heavy gloves, long-sleeve shirts, pants, heavy boots, hard
hats, hearing protection and eye protection.

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CHAPTER 3

3.0.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1.0 INTRODUCTION

The project will involve analyzing the effects of partially replacing ballast with glass waste/cullets in a
concrete mix. This will involve laboratory tests and each test will be conducted several times and the
averaged results considered. In this study, concrete mix design will employed and deductions derived
purely from the obtained results. The following test will be done.
3.1.1 SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION
Sample of the waste glass will be collected from the Coca Cola and Beer dealers depot in Nairobi and at
the selected pubs around Juja area. The glass will be inspected to ensure that the debris and other forms of
impurities are removed and then crushed manually to the required size.
3.1.2 SAMPLING OF AGGREGATES
Samples should show the true nature and conditions of the materials which they represent. They should be
drawn from points known to be representative of the probable variations in the material. At the laboratory
the main sample should be reduced to the quantity required for testing. There are two ways of reducing
the size of a sample each essentially dividing it into two similar parts. These are;

a) Riffling
The sample is split into two halves using a riffler (Riffle box). This is a box with a number of parallel
vertical divisions, alternate ones discharging to the left and to the right. The sample is discharged into the
riffle box over its full width and the two halves are collected into the boxes at the bottom of the chutes on
each side. One half is discarded and riffling of the other half is repeated until the sample is reduced to the
desired size.
b) Quartering
The main sample is thoroughly mixed (and in case of fine aggregates, it is damped in order to avoid
segregation). The aggregate is heaped into a cone and then turned over to form a new cone. This is
repeated twice, the material always being deposited at the apex of the cone so that the fall of particles is
evenly distributed round the circumference. The final cone is flattened and divided into quarters. One pair
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of the diagonally opposite quarters is discarded and the remainder forms the sample for testing. If it is still
too large, it can be reduced further by quartering. Care must be taken to include all fine material in the
appropriate quarter.

3.2.3 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION


Introduction
This test consists of dividing up and separating by means of a series of test sieves, a material into several
particle size classifications of decreasing sizes. The mass of the particles retained on the various sieves is
related to the initial mass of the material. The cumulative percentages passing each sieve are reported in
numerical and graphical form.
Objective
(i). To determine the particle size distribution of specified aggregates.
(ii). To draw grading curves for the aggregates specified.
Procedure
1. The test sieves will be arranged from top to bottom in order of decreasing aperture sizes with pan and
lid to form a sieving column.
2. The aggregate sample will then poured into the sieving column and shaken thoroughly manually.
3. The sieves will be removed one by one starting with the largest aperture sizes (top most), and each
sieve shaken manually ensuring no material is lost. All the material which passed each sieve will be
returned into the column before continuing with the operation with that sieve.
4. The retained material will be weighed for the sieve with the largest aperture size and its weight
recorded.
5. The same operation will be carried out for all the sieves in the column and their weights recorded.
6. The screened material that will remain in the pan will weighed and its weight recorded.
Calculations
1) Record the various masses on a test data sheet.
2) Calculate the mass retained on each sieve as a percentage of the original dry mass.
3) Calculate the cumulative percentage of the original dry mass passing each sieve down to the smallest
aperture sieve.

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Fig 1: Sieves

3.3 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIXES


This is the process of selecting the correct proportions of cement, fine and coarse aggregate, water and
sometimes admixtures to produce concrete having the properties specified and desired i.e. workability,
compressive strength, density and durability requirements by means of specifying the minimum or
maximum water/cement ratio.

3.3.1 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN


Strength Margin
Due to variability of concrete strengths, the mix must be designed to have higher mean strengths than the
characteristic strength. The difference between the two is the Margin. The margin is based on the
variability of concrete strengths from previous production data expressed as a standard deviation.
Workability
Two alternative methods were used to determine workability; Slump test which is more appropriate for
higher workability mixes and the compacting factor test which is particularly appropriate for mixes which
are applicable to mixes compacted by vibration.

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Free water
The total water in a concrete mix consists of water absorbed by the aggregate to bring it to saturated
surface dry condition and the free water available for hydration of cement and for the workability of
the fresh concrete. The workability of fresh concrete depends on a large extent on its free water content.
In practice, aggregates are often wet and they contain both absorbed water and free surface water so that
the water added to the mixer is less than the free water content. The strength of concrete is better related
to the free water/cement ratio since on this basis the strength of concrete does not depend on the
absorption characteristics of the aggregates.
Types of aggregates
Two characteristics of aggregates particles that affect the properties of concrete are particle shape and
surface texture. Particle shape affects workability of the concrete and the surface texture affects the bond
between the cement matrix and the aggregates particles and thus the strength of concrete. Two types of
aggregates are considered for design on this basis; Crushed and Uncrushed.
Aggregate grading
The design of mixes will be based on specific grading curves of aggregates. The curves of fine aggregates
must comply with grading zones of BS 882.
Mix parameters
The approach to be adopted for specifying mix parameters will be reference to the weights of materials in
a unit volume of fully compacted concrete. This approach will require the knowledge of expected density
of fresh concrete which depends primarily on the relative density of the aggregate and the water content
of the mix. This method will result in the mix being specified in terms of the weights in kilograms of
different materials required to produce 1m3 of finished concrete.

3.3.2 STAGES IN MIX DESIGN


STAGE 1: Selection of Target Water/Cement (W/C) ratio
STAGE 2: Selection of free water content.
STAGE 3: Determination of cement content
STAGE 4: Determination of total aggregate content
STAGE 5: Selection of fine and coarse aggregate content
STAGE 6: Mix proportioning
3.4 BATCHING OF CONCRETE MATERIALS
Following the mix design process, concrete materials (Cement, Fine and Coarse Aggregates) should be
prepared early enough before the concrete works begins. This allows the smooth running of the project.
Batching of materials will be done by weight. The advantage of weight method is that bulking of
15

aggregates (especially fine aggregates) does not affect the proportioning of materials by weight unlike
batching by volume method. Bulking of sand results in a smaller weight of sand occupying a fixed
volume of the measuring container thus the resulting mix becomes deficient in sand and appears stony
and the concrete may be prone to segregation and honeycombing. Concrete yield may be reduced.
The batch weights of aggregates determined in the mix design process are based on a saturated surface
dry conditions. When working with dry aggregates, the following options may be adopted to achieve
saturated surface dry conditions;
1. The batch weights of fine and coarse dry aggregates required for the trial mix are calculated by
multiplying the batch weights derived from mix design by 100 100+

,where A is the percentage by

weight of the water needed to bring the aggregate to the saturated surface dry condition.
2. The dry aggregates are brought to a saturated surface dry condition before mixing process by addition
of the required amount of water for absorption by the aggregate according to BS 1881 125:1983.
3. Increasing the weight of mixing water to allow for the absorption of some mixing water by the dry
aggregate during mixing process.
Batching of concrete materials by weight may be expressed as follows;
Wt (C) + Wt (CA) + Wt (FA) + Wt (Air) = Wt (CC)
Where;
Wt (C) = Weight of cement.
Wt (CA) = Weight of coarse aggregate.
Wt (FA) = Weight of fine aggregate.
Wt (Air) = Weight of entrained air.
Wt (CC) = Weight of compacted concrete.

3.5.0 TESTING THE PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE.


3.5.1 WORKABILITY
Workability may be described as the consistence of a mix such that the concrete can be transported,
placed and finished sufficiently easily and without segregation. Workability may also be specifically
defined as the amount of useful work necessary to obtain full compaction i.e. the work done to overcome
the internal friction and the surface friction between the individual particles in concrete and also between
the concrete and the surface of the mould or of the reinforcement.
The main factor affecting workability is the water content of the mix expressed in Kilograms per cubic
metre of concrete. If the water content and other mix proportions are fixed, workability is governed by the
maximum size of aggregate, shape and texture.

16

The free water required to produce concrete of a specified slump depends upon the characteristics of the
aggregate. The grading of coarse aggregates, provided it complies with the requirements of BS 882, has
little effect on water requirement of a concrete mix. The grading of fine aggregate has a considerable
effect on the water requirement of the concrete. Changing the grading of sand from a coarse one (e.g.
20% by weight passing the 600m test sieve) to a finer one (e.g. 90% by weight passing 600m test
sieve) can result in an increase of water content of 25Kg/m3 in order to maintain the required workability
of the concrete. Such a change in water content would reduce considerably the compressive strength of
the concrete. The workability can be maintained by reducing the fines content.

3.5.2 SLUMP TEST


Introduction
Slump test has been used extensively in site work to detect variations in the uniformity of mix of given
proportions. It is useful on the site as a check on the variations of materials being fed to the mixer. An
increase in slump may mean that the moisture content of aggregate has increased or a change in grading
of the aggregate, such as the deficiency of fine aggregate. Too much or too low slump gives an immediate
warning and enables the mixer operator to remedy the situation.
The test will be done according to BS 1881 102:1983 which describes the determination of slump of
cohesive concrete of medium to high workability. The slump test is sensitive to the consistency of fresh
concrete. The test is valid if yields a true slump, this being a slump in which the concrete remains
substantially intact and symmetrical.
Objective
To determine slump of fresh concrete mix.
Apparatus
A standard mould which is a frustum of a cone complying with BS 1881 102: 1983.
A standard flat base plate preferably steel.
A standard tamping rod.
Standard graduated steel rule from 0 to 300mm at 5mm intervals.
A scoop approximately 100mm wide.
Procedure
1) The inside surfaces of the mould will be cleaned and oiled to prevent adherence of fresh concrete on
the surfaces.
2) The mould is placed on the base plate and firmly held.
3) The cone will then be filled with fresh concrete in three layer with each layer compacted with 25
strokes of the tamping rod.
17

4) After filling the mould, the top surface will be struck off by means of rolling action of the tamping rod.
5) Immediately after filling, the cone will be slowly and carefully lifted.
6) Immediately after removal of the mould the slump of the unsupported concrete will measured and
recorded.

3.6 TESTING THE PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE


3.6.1 DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH CUBE TEST TO BS EN 12390
2:2000
3.6.1.1 Casting of cubes
The specimens were cast in iron moulds generally 150mm cubes. This conforms to the specifications of
BS 1881 3:1970. The moulds surfaces are first cleaned and oiled on their inside surfaces in order to
prevent development of bond between the mould and the concrete. The moulds are then assembled and
bolts and nuts tightened to prevent leakage of cement paste.
After preparing trial mixes, the moulds are filled with concrete in three layers, each layer being
compacted using a poker vibrator to remove as much entrapped air as possible and to produce full
compaction of concrete without segregation. The moulds are filled to overflowing and excess concrete
removed by sawing action of steel rule. Surface finishing was then done by means of a trowel. The test
specimens are then left in the moulds undisturbed for 24 hours and protected against shock, vibration and
dehydration at a temperature of 20 30C.
3.6.1.2 Curing of cubes
Curing may be defined as the procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a
control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete. The objective of curing
was to keep concrete as nearly saturated as possible, until the originally water filled space in the fresh
cement paste was filled to the desired extent by the products of hydration of cement. The temperature
during curing also controls the rate of progress of the reactions of hydration and consequently affects the
development of strength of concrete. The cubes were placed in a curing pond/tank at a temperature of 20
20C for the specified period of time.
Before placing cubes into a curing tank they must be marked with a water proof marker. Details to be
marked on the cubes are mainly; type of mix, date of casting, duration for curing and crushing day.
3.6.1.3 Compressive Test
After curing the cubes for the specified period, they will be removed and wiped to remove surface
moisture in readiness for compression test. The cubes will then be placed with the cast faces in contact
with the platens of the testing machine that is the position of the cube when tested should be at right

18

angles to that as cast. The load will then be applied at a constant rate of stress of approximately equal to
15 N/mm2 to failure. The readings on the dial gauge will be recorded for each cube
The crushing strength is influenced by a number of factors in addition to the water/cement ratio and
degree of compaction. These are
The type of cement and its quality. Both the rate of strength gain and the ultimate
strength may be affected.
Type and surface of aggregate. Affects the bond strength.
Efficiency of curing. Loss in strength of up to 40% may result from premature drying
out.
Temperature. In general, the initial rate of hardening of concrete is increased by an
increase in temperature but may lead to lower ultimate strength. At lower temperatures,
the crushing strength

3.7.0 FLEXURAL TEST (MODULUS OF RUPTURE)


3.7.1 OBJECTIVE
To measure the strength of concrete by subjecting concrete beams to flexure. The flexural test measures
the force required to bend a beam under three point loading conditions. The data is often used to select
materials for parts that will support loads without flexing. Flexural modulus is used as an indication of a
materials stiffness when flexed. Since the physical properties of many materials (especially
thermoplastics) can vary depending on ambient temperature, it is sometimes appropriate to test materials
at temperatures that simulate the intended end use environment

APPARATUS
Concrete beam specimens
Standard rig for modulus of rupture

PROCEDURE
The beam specimens were removed from their curing positions and placed on the testing machine whilst
still in the wet condition. The surfaces were cleared of any loose material and the beam axis aligned with
the axis of the machine. The load was applied at a rate of 1780 N/min until the specimen failed.

19

3.8.0 INDIRECT SPLITTING (TENSILE) TEST


3.8.1 OBJECTIVE
To determine the tensile strength of concrete specimen.

APPARATUS
Compression Testing Machine
Concrete cylinder specimens

PROCEDURE
A concrete cylinder was placed with its axis horizontal between the platens of a testing machine, and the
load was increased until failure by splitting along the vertical diameter took place.

20

CHAPTER 4
4.0.0 RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.1.0 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION (BS 812:PART1: 1975)
4.1.1 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF AGGREGATES.
The results obtained from sieve analysis of coarse aggregates are shown below. From the tables and
graphs, it can be seen that coarse aggregates particle distribution is reasonably uniform and it is in
agreement with BS 812: 1975.
Table 1
4.1.1.0 Coarse Glass Cullet Sieve Analysis
Sieve sizes Wt. retained Wt. passing % retained

Cumulative % Cumulative %

(mm)

(g)

(g)

retained

passing

40

2500

0.00

0.00

100.00

30

234

2266

9.36

9.36

90.64

25

554.5

1711.5

22.18

31.54

68.46

20

1147.5

564

45.9

77.44

22.56

15

303.5

260.5

12.14

89.58

10.42

10

246.0

14.5

9.84

99.42

0.58

9.7

4.8

0.388

99.81

0.19

<2.36

3.0

0.0

0.12

100.00

0.00

21

Fig 11: Coarse Glass graph

22

Table 2
4.1.1.1 Coarse Aggregate Sieve Analysis.

Sieve sizes Wt. retained Wt. passing % retained

Cumulative % Cumulative %

(mm)

(g)

(g)

retained

passing

40

2500

0.00

0.00

100.00

30

2500

0.00

0.00

100.00

25

77

2423

3.08

3.08

96.92

20

1548.5

874.5

61.94

65.02

34.98

15

439

435.5

17.56

82.58

17.42

10

426

9.5

17.04

99.62

0.38

9.5

0.0

0.38

100.00

0.00

<2.36

0.0

0.00

100.00

0.00

23

Fig 12: Normal Aggregate graph

24

Table 3
4.1.1.2 Fine Aggregate Sieve Analysis.

Sieve sizes Wt. retained Wt. passing % retained

Cumulative % Cumulative %

(mm)

(g)

(g)

retained

passing

2.37

47.5

2452.5

1.90

1.90

98.10

1.2

441

2011.5

17.64

19.54

80.46

0.60

1089.5

922

43.58

63.12

36.88

0.30

671

251

26.84

89.96

10.04

0.15

188

63

7.52

97.48

2.52

0.074

44

19

1.76

99.24

0.76

<0.074

19

0.0

0.76

100.00

0.00

25

Fig 13: Fine aggregate Graph

26

4.2.0 SLUMP TEST


As shown in Table below the slumps are in the BS recommended range of 30-60, indicating that the test
results are valid in this experiment. It can be seen that the workability of glass containing 45% glass had a
higher slump than the rest, this is quite not reasonable since workability is governed by the surface area
and shape of the aggregate.
Table 4: Summary of the slump test results
Coarse aggregate replacement (%)

Slump (mm)

0%

37

15%

31

30%

35

45%

54

60%

39

75%

49

Fig 8: Slump Graph

27

4.3.0 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH


The target compressive strength was 20N/mm since the concrete mix was of class 20.Test results on
compressive strength of the 24 mixtures are summarized in the table 4 and 5.In each series, the
compressive strength decreased with increase of glass content. With the same amount of glass content,
mixtures in series C (15% aggregate replacement had the highest compressive strength at all test ages
Table 4: Summary of Average Crushing Strengths and Densities at 7 days
Coarse aggregate replacement Average Compressive Strength Average Density (Kg/m)
(%)

(N/mm2)

0.0

11.6

2427.6

15.0

9.3

2459.9

30.0

5.4

2329.8

45.0

4.3

2345.0

60.0

2.7

2433.2

75.0

1.6

2477.5

28

Table 5: Summary of Average Crushing Strengths and Densities at 28 days


Percentage Replacement

Average Compressive Strength Average Density (Kg/m)


(N/mm2)

0.0%

21

2432.6

15.0%

15.5

2428.7

30.0%

12.8

2280.6

45.0%

9.83

2457.2

60.0%

5.4

2428.4

75.0%

3.6

2464.9

The 15% replacement concrete had a compressive strength of 15.5N/mm2 at 28 days, in comparison to
the control concrete(0% plastic) which had a strength of 21 N/mm2. The 30% , 45% ,60% and 75% glass
replacement

had compressive strengths of 12.8N/mm ,9.83N/mm,5.4N/mmand 3.6 N/mm2

respectively, at 28 days.

29

The results for the 15% replacement concrete were slightly lower than the control mix, which could
probably be attributed to poor bonding between the glass aggregates and the cement paste. The waste
glass had smooth , flat surfaces and were large in size as compared to natural aggregates. The These
factors could have contributed to the compressive performance observed. The compressive strength of
concrete is known to depend on the characteristics of the coarse aggregate i.e. aggregate strength, shape,
size and surface texture. Thus an aggregate that does not have the above characteristics adequately might
not produce a conducive concrete mix. For the 60% and 75% replacement concrete, it can be seen that an
increase in the quantity of waste glass led to a remarkable decrease in compressive strength. Moreover,
the w/c ratio could affect the strength development of concrete, although the initial w/c ratio is the same
for all the mixes, the absorption of water by the aggregate can affect the final w/c ratio, which then leads
to strength difference. The higher the w/c ratio is, the lower strength. Therefore, for the first mix, a larger
amount of aggregate absorbs a greater quantity of water. The effective w/c ration in that mix has reduced
and thus, higher strength that resulted.
4.3.1 MODES OF FAILURE
The modes of failure of the hardened concrete cubes after crushing, at 28 days, are shown in the figures
below. The mode of failure is distinct for the cubes containing the waste glass. This can be explained by
analysing the state of the glass cullets themselves in comparison to the sample containing ballast only.
During the compression test, the control concrete cube fails by the failure/cracking of the ballast
aggregate itself, but the glass aggregates dont crack or break. This indicates that the failure of the cubes
containing glass is due to weak bonding with the cement paste, thus leaving the glass whole even after the
cube is crushed.

30

Fig 2: 75% Coarse glass aggregate replacement

31

Fig 4: 45% Coarse glass aggregate replacement.

32

Fig 4: 30% Coarse glass aggregate replacement

33

Fig 5: 15% Coarse Glass Replacement

4.4.0 TENSILE (SPLITTING) TESTS


From the results shown below, the tensile strength of the concrete containing normal aggregates had the
highest tensile strength as compared to those containing glass cullets. The tensile strength of the concrete
decreased as the percentage of glass cullets increased. The tests were carried out after 28 days, and the
full results summarized as shown below. This indicates that the trend value of the tensile strength is
similar to that of compressive strength. This indicates that the effective w/c ratio has a similar influence
on the tensile strength as to the compressive strength and this is likely related to the water absorption
performance of concrete.

34

Table 6: Summary of Splitting Tensile Test Results


Percentage

Average

Tensile

Replacement

Strength (N/mm2)

0%

1.68

15%

1.35

30%

0.84

Fig 9: Tensile Strength Graph

The strength attained at 28 days by the control concrete was 1.91 N/mm2. The concrete containing the
glass cullets had lower tensile strengths and progressively reduced densities. This shows that concrete
made using these glass cullets produces less tensile strength than conventional concrete. The above results
35

could be attributed to binding characteristic of the cement paste and the glass cullets. Due to their physical
characteristics i.e. surface texture and shape, the bonding was weak.
4.5.0 FLEXURAL STRENGTH (MODULUS OF RUPTURE)
Flexural testing is used to determine the flexure or bending properties of a material. Sometimes referred
to as a transverse beam test, it involves placing a sample between two knife-edge points and initiating a
load at the midpoint of the sample. Maximum stress and strain are calculated on the incremental load
applied. From the results shown in the tables below, it can be seen that the flexural strength of the beams
decreased with an increase in the % replacement of coarse aggregate with glass cullet. The control
concrete beam had the highest strength, which decreased as the percentage of glass cullet increased. The
full results are summarized in Table 7 below.

Table 7: Summary of Flexural test results at 28 days


Percentage Replacement

Maximum
2

(N/mm )
0%

1.70

15%

1.21

30%

1.74

36

Flexural Strength

Fig 9: Flexural Strength Graph

37

4.5.1 TESTING OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE


Fig 6: 30% replacement before flexture

38

Fig 7: 30% replacement after flexure.

39

5.0 CHAPTER 5
5.1 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study evaluated the feasibility of using glass from one source as a partial replacement of course
aggregate in concrete. The results of this study should be verified using several other sources of course
glass cullets. Based on the results obtained in this investigation, the following conclusions may be drawn.
I.

Strength of concrete is slightly reduced when coarse aggregate is partially replaced by glass
cullets.

II.

The use of glass cullet aggregates results in concrete with density which is more than that of
coarse aggregate.

III.
5.1.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
I.

Research should be done on to find the effect of Alkali silica reaction in the sense of development
of strength in concrete.

II.

Research should be done on whether lower quantities of glass cullets can be used with admixtures
to boost their strength.

III.

The effect of using crushed fine glass cullets as a replacement of fine aggregates on the strength
development of concrete.

40

REFERENCES
A M Neville, Properties of Concrete, Third Edition
A Report by, Nebraska State Recycling association on Glass cullet utilization study for
Civil Engineering Applications.
British Standard Institution, BS 1881-116:1983, Method for Determination of Compressive
Strength of Concrete Cubes, London
British Standard Institution, BS1881-117:1983, Method for Determination of Tensile
Splitting Strength, London
British Standard Institution, BS1881-118:1983, Method for Determination of Flexural
Strength London
Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, Chapter 12
on Strength, ASTM STP 169B.
Studies of Flexural Strength of Concrete, Part 3, Effects of Variations in Testing Procedures,
by Stanton Walker and D.L. Bloem, NRMCA Publication No. 75 (ASTM Proceedings,
Volume 57, 1957).
Utilization of Soda glass in wall and floor tile by House and Building Research Center
Cairo.

41

APPENDIX A
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN TABLE
Stage

Item

1.1

Characteristic strength

Reference/Calculation

Values

Specified

20..N/mm at...28..days

Proportion defective5. %

1.2

Standard deviation

Fig. 3

8..N/mm

1.3

Margin

C1

(k=1.64)1.64*8=13.12.N/mm

1.4

Target mean strength

C2

20..+8.2.=28.2.N/mm

1.5

Cement type

Specified

OPC

1.6

Aggregate type: coarse

Crushed..

Aggregate type: fine

Uncrushed.

1.7

Free water/cement ratio

Table 2, Fig 4

0.7..

1.8

Max. water/cement ratio

Specified

0.60..

2.1

Slump or V-B

Specified

Slump30-60mm or V-B.s

2.2

Max. aggregate size

Specified

20.mm

2.3

Free water content

Table 3

190..kg/m

3.1

Cement content

C3

190..0.7.=271kg/m

3.2

Max. cement content

Specified

3.3

Min. cement content

Specified

3.4

Modified water/cement

3
3

ratio
4

4.1

Relative

density

of

2.7..

aggregate

4.2

Concrete density

Fig 5

2430.kg/m

4.3

Total aggregate content

C4

2430- 271....-190..=1969.kg/m

5.1

Grading

fine

BS 882

Zone 2...

fine

Fig 6

45. %

of

aggregate
5.2

Proportion

of

aggregate

Quantities

5.3

Fine aggregate content

C5

45%.*1969..=886kg/m

5.4

Coarse aggregate

C5

.1969..... 886.. ...1083.kg/m

Cement

Water (kg)

Fine Aggregate (kg)

Coarse Aggregate (kg)

190

886

1083

(kg)
Per m3

270

Per

trial

mix

of

..m3

42

.=

43

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