Communication Systems 2

Communication Systems 2
Course Title
By: Lecturer. Elmustafa Sayed Ali Ahmed

Red Sea University
Red Sea University Engineering Collage
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Course outline:
-
Communication model.
Transmission line.
Noise effect.
Attenuator and filters.
Data communication.
Introduction of Modem design.
Information theory.
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Lecture One: Communication model:

Introduction to Communication Systems
The Purpose of a communication system is to carry information from
one point to another.
A typical communication system consists of three main components

as shown in figure 1, they are:
Source.
Channel.
Destination.
(Figure 1: communication system model)

An example of communication system shown in figure 2.
(Figure 2: example of communication system)
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In telecommunications and computer networking, a communication

channel, or channel, refers either to a physical transmission
medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection over
a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel. A channel is used
to convey an information signal, for example a digital bit stream,
from one or several senders (or transmitters) to one or
several receivers. A channel has a certain capacity for transmitting
information, often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data
rate in bits per second.
The channel is a media that information passes through from source
to destination and there are many channel impairments affect in
channel performance as shown in figure 3 .these impairments such
as;
Attenuation.
Distortion.
Noise.
(Figure 3: channel impairments)
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Attenuation
Attenuation can be problematic for long distance communications. This means
due to signal propagate through media the initial signal power decreases if the
length of the media becomes longer.
(Figure 4: attenuation effect)

For example if the attenuation level is 0.9 /km, so every length that signal
passes the power of the signal becomes lower by 0.9 * Power at every km . As
an example, figure 5 shows the attenuation effect in the transmission media.
(Figure 5: attenuation example)
To solve the problem of attenuation, amplifiers used to amplify the signal

power, make it able to pass the haul distance between the source and
destination. Also use of digital signals are less susceptible to attenuation than
analog signals
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(Figure 6: amplifiers in communication system)
Distortion
Other channel impairment known as distortion, it means that the signal is
distorted and may have a bandwidth larger than the channel bandwidth. The
distortion causes a variation in signal frequency and maybe a linear or nonlinear distortion.
Linear distortion :
Linear distortion is said to occur if the system has a not flat amplitude transfer
function or if the group delay is not zero or constant. Phase- and Amplitude
errors cause linear distortions. The linear distortion is shown in figure 7 below.
(Figure 7: linear distortion)

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Linear distortion can occur for two reasons.
The first is a not flat amplitude transfer function. It's called frequency
response. It's just a graph of the reproduced amplitude as a function of
frequency (as opposed to amplitude as a function of time-the time
domain).
The second is a bit more confusing and has to do with the phase shift that
can occur. A signal has amplitude, but it also has a phase characteristic. If
the amplitude relationships are reproduced correctly, but the phase
relationships are not, this can cause linear distortion. A certain amount of
phase shifting between frequencies occurs wherever there is not flat
frequency response. But a device can have a flat amplitude transfer
function and still have this phase shifting going on between adjacent
frequencies.
(Figure 8: example of liner distortion)
To solve the problem of linear distortion, the message should fit the channel
bandwidth by using and equalizer.
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Non-linear distortion:
Nonlinear distortion is said to occur when the output waveform has any
frequency components not present in the original signal.
(Figure 9 : non linear distortion)
Means that Non-linear distortion arises when a signal passes through a system
element that has a non-linear Vin -Vout transfer characteristic. Figure 10 shows
a non linear distortion example for two signals that pass through the same
media.
(Figure 10: nonlinear distortion example)
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To solve the problem of nonlinear distortion using and equalizer. Equalization
compensates for the differences in signal attenuation and delay associated with
different frequency components. Around a center frequency, relatively high
frequency signals attenuate more than relatively low frequency signals over a
distance, so an equalizer may reduce the amplitude of the low frequency
signals and increase the amplitude of the high frequency signals in order that
the signals at the receiver are in the same relative balance as they were at the
transmitter. Adaptive equalizers automatically adjust to levels of distortion that
vary as the signal path or its characteristics change over time.
Noise
Noise is the one of channel impairment, causes an interruption in the received
signal at the destination. Noise maybe caused by external or internal noise
source.
External Sources: interference from signals transmitted on nearby channels
(crosstalk), interference generated by contact switches, automobile ignition
radiation, natural noise from lightning, solar radiation, etc. as an example of
external figure 11 shows a crosstalk noise.
(Figure 11: crosstalk noise)

Internal Sources: thermal noise (random motion of electrons in conductors,
random diffusion and recombination of charged carriers in electronic devices).
As an example figure 12 shows an internal noise.
(Figure 12: internal noise)

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Notice:
The effects of external noise can be minimized or eliminated.
The effects of internal noise can be minimized but never eliminated.
Solutions for External Noise are;
Shielding or twisting.
A different cable design.
Proper design of the channel.
Use digital transmission
Using BPF or LPF at the receiver side.
Solutions for Internal Noise are;

Cooling.
Use digital transmission.
Using BPF or LPF at the receiver side.
The effect of Impairments ALL Together (Attenuation + Noise) is calculated as
shown in figure 13.
(Figure 13: noise and attenuation problem)
Lecture Two: Transmission line:
Introduction of Transmission
The purpose of the transmission line is to transfer from source over some
distance to a remote load. Transmission lines are commonly used in power
distribution (at low frequencies) and in communications (at high frequencies).
Various kinds of transmission lines such as the twisted-pair and coaxial cables
are used in computer networks such as the Ethernet internet.
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A transmission line basically consists of two or more parallel conductors used
to connect a source to a load. The source may be a hydroelectric generator, a
transmitter, or an oscillator; the load may be an antenna, or an oscilloscope,
respectively. Typical transmission lines include coaxial cable, a two-wire line, a
parallel-plate or a wire above the conducting plane, and a micro strip line.
Reflections on transmission line

When signals are travelling down the transmission line, the source does not at
first know what the impedance of the load is. If the voltage and the current
travelling down the line do not match the impedance, a reflection occurs at the
load end. there are two types of example of transmission lines that affected by
the reflection they are;
Open circuit line :
A voltage V with source resistance R is connected by a switch to the
transmission line of characteristic impedance Zo at time t =0. To get maximum power
from the source into the Transmission Line, R is made equal to Zo. The load is an
open circuit. when load is open circuit the current should be zero but the source
cannot do that , so initially current starts to flow at t=0 with value V/2Zo (there is a
potential divider effect between the source resistance and the Zo of the transmission
line , giving 0.5 when R=Zo. When current step arrives at the load it has nowhere to
go so it is reflected and a reverse step is created at time t= where is time taken to
travel down the line. The value of the reverse step is V/2Zo the two currents cancel
out completely so there is some transient behavior known as the steady state.
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Short circuit line:
When the far end is short circuit, the voltage at far end will be zero, but the
source does not know what is connected at the end, so initially the voltage step starts
to travel down the line when value V/2
When the volage step arrives at the load the step is reflected and a backwardstraveling step is created at the time t= and the value of the reverse step is V/2 and
the two voltages cancel out at the short circuit end.
The reflection coefficient is the ratio of the reflected and incident voltage
waves. For the short circuit its value is -1 or magnitude 1 phase 180 degrees.
Notes;
Transient behavior in electricity power transmission con cause huge spikes and
destroy the equipments.
In computer networks the reflections cause data error as bits interface with one
another.
In radio systems reflections can also lead to damage to components, inefficient

transfer power and data corruption.
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The way to avoid this problem is to ensure Z source = Z load = Zo of the
transmission line, in this case the reflection coefficient of the matched load is
zero. For open circuit case the reflection coefficient is 1 angle 0 degrees.
Practical construction of transmission line for RF & Microwaves

Twisted pairs line :
Twisted pairs started off life in telephony and were generally regarded as a
cheap and simple means of achieving signal for low frequency transmission line.
Nowadays they used widespread in computer networking a UTP stands for
unshielded twisted pair and this cables are used to supply 100Mb/s.
Coaxial cables;
Coaxial cable consists of a centre connector inside a cylindrical outer ground
shield, usable to a few hundred MHz. Other types are usable up to GHz.
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There are other types used for computers supports high data rate connections
known as Micro coaxial.
Hollow waveguide:
In this waveguide signal propagates as an electromagnetic wave, with a
complicated filed pattern, they have low loss and handle high power.
Micro strip cables:

This type consists of signal conductor mounted above ground plane, usually
by using dielectric substrate. The micro strip is usable to more than 100 GHz.
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TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

Its easy to describe a transmission line in terms of its line parameters, which
are its:
1- Resistance per unit length R
2- Inductance per unit length L
3- Conductance per unit length G
4- Capacitance per unit length C.
Each of the lines has specific formulas for finding R, L, G, and C For coaxial,
two-wire, and planar lines, the formulas for calculating the values of R, L, G,
and C are provided in Table below ;
The characteristics of the conductor at each cable are , , and other lengths
are also used. Normally each of the above line R, L, G and C are given to
calculate the transmission line equations.
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TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS

For calculating the equations of the transmission lines assume that we have a
line with two conductors they support an electromagnetic wave , the electric
and magnetic fields on the line are transverse to the direction of wave
propagation , the fields E and H are uniquely related to voltage V and current I,
respectively:
V = - E . dI ,
I = H.dI
we will use circuit quantities V and / in solving the transmission line problem
instead of solving field quantities E and H , the equivalent circuit for this line
shown below . We assume that the wave propagates along the +z-direction,
from the generator to the load.
(Figure 21: transmission line circuit)

Steps of Equations:
1- By applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to the outer loop of the circuit we obtain;
V (z, t) =Rz I (z, t) + L z
+V (z + z, t) (1)
V (z, t) - V (z + z, t) = Rz I (z, t) + L z
(2)
Divide the equation 2 by z :

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V (z, t) - V (z + z, t) = R I (z, t) + L
z
(3)
Taking the limit of z 0 :

V (z, t) = R I (z, t) +L I (z, t) (4)
z
t
2- By applying Kirchhoff's current law to the main node of the circuit we obtain;
I (z, t) = I (z + z, t) + I. (5)
From the figure 21 the value of I given by;
I = Gz V (z + z, t) + C z V (z + z, t). (6)
t
So the equation 5 becomes;
I (z, t) = I (z + z, t) + Gz V (z + z, t) + C z V (z + z, t) (7)
t
I (z, t) - I (z + z, t) = Gz V (z + z, t) + C z V (z + z, t) (8)
t
Divide the equation 8 by z :
I (z, t) - I (z + z, t) = G V (z + z, t) + C V (z + z, t) (9)
z
t
Taking the limit of z 0 :
I (z, t) = G V (z, t) +C V (z, t) (10)
z
t
If we assume harmonic time dependence so that;
V (z, t) = Re [Vs (z) e jt] . (11)
I (z, t) = Re [Is (z) e jt] . (12)
where Vs(z) and Is(z) are the phasor forms of V(z, i) and I(z, t), respectively;
equation 4 and 10 become;
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d Vs = (R + jL) Is..(13)
dz
d Is = (G + jC) Vs..(14)
dz
Take the second derivative of Vs in equation 13 and apply equation 14 to the

equation obtained after second derivative;
d2 Vs = (R + jL) (G + jC) Vs ..(15)

d z2
or can be written by;
d2 Vs 2Vs= 0 ..(16)
d z2
Where =;
=+ j =
. (17)
Take the second derivative of Is in equation 14 and apply equation 13 to the

equation obtained after second derivative;
d2 Is = (R + jL) (G + jC) Is ..(18)
d z2
or can be written by;
d2 Is 2Is= 0 ..(19)
d z2
for all above equations ;
= represents the propagation constant.
= attenuation constant (in nepers per meter or decibels per meter).
= phase constant (in radians per meter).
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The wavelength and wave velocity u are, respectively, given by;
=2
u=
= 2
So;
u=f
The solutions of the linear homogeneous differential equations 16 and 19
similar to;
d2 Vs 2Vs= 0 ..(16)
d z2
d2 Is 2Is= 0 ..(19)
d z2
Vs (z) = V+o e -z + V-o e z . (20)
>+z
-z<
Is (z) = I+o e -z + I-o e z (21)
>+z
-z<
Where V+o , V-o , I+o , I-o are wave amplitudes ; wave traveling along +z- and z-directions .
The characteristic impedance Zo of the line is the ratio of positively traveling

voltage wave to current wave at any point on the line. By applying equation 20
and 21 into 13 and 14 we will obtain;
Zo = V+o = - V-o = R+ jL =
I+o
I-o
___ . (22)
G+ jC
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So becomes;
Where; Ro and Xo are real and imaginary of Zo.
Lossless line (R = 0 = G):

A transmission line is said to be a lossless if the conductor of the line are perfect
and the dielectric medium separating them is lossless.
Means that;
R=0=G
=0 ; = j = jLC
Xo= 0 ; Zo=Ro = L
C
Distortion less Line (R/L = G/C):
- A signal normally consists of a band of frequencies; wave amplitudes of
different frequency components will be attenuated differently in a lossy line as
is frequency dependent. This results in distortion.
- A distortion less line is one in which the attenuation constant is frequency
independent while the phase constant is linearly dependent on frequency.
- For distortion less line,
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- showing that does not depend on frequency whereas is a linear function of

frequency. Also
Or
Notes:
1- The phase velocity is independent of frequency because the phase constant
linearly depends on frequency. We have shape distortion of signals unless
and u are independent of frequency.
2- u and Zo remain the same as for lossless lines.
3- A lossless line is also a distortion less line, but a distortion less line is not
necessarily lossless. Although lossless lines are desirable in power transmission,
telephone lines are required to be distortion less. table below shows the
characteristics of transmission line ;
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- Example 1 :
An air line has characteristic impedance of 70 and phase constant of 3 rad/m
at 100 MHz Calculate the inductance per meter and the capacitance per meter
of the line.
Solutions;
An air line can be regarded as a lossless line;
R=0=G ; = 0
Zo=Ro = L . (1)
C
= LC .. (2)
Divide equation 1 by 2;
Ro = 1
C
C=
Ro
= 3 / (2*100*106*70) = 68.2 pF/m
L= R2oC
= (70)2 (68.2*10-12) = 334.2 nH/m
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- Example 2:
A distortion less line has Zo = 60 fl, = 20 mNp/m, u = 0.6c, where c is the
speed of light in a vacuum. Find R, L, G, C, and at 100 MHz.
Solution;
For a distortion less line,
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- Exercises
1- A transmission line operating at 500 MHz has Zo = 80 , = 0.04 Np/m, =
1.5 rad/m. Find the line parameters R, L, G, and C.
Answer: 3.2 /m, 38.2 nH/m, 5 * 10-4 S/m, 5.97 pF/m.
2- A telephone line has R = 30 /km, L = 100 mH/km ; G = 0, and C = 20 F/km
At f = 1 kHz, obtain:
(a) The characteristic impedance of the line.
(b) The propagation constant.
(c) The phase velocity.
Answer: (a) 70.75<-1.367 , (b) 2.121 * 10-4 + 78.888 * 10-3/m (c) 7.069* 105 m/s.
INPUT IMPEDANCE, SWR, AND POWER:
- Consider a transmission line of length L characterized by and Zo connected
to a load ZL as shown in figure below ; the generator sees the line with the load
as an input impedance Zin It is our intention in this section to determine the
input impedance the standing wave ratio (SWR), and the power flow on the
line .
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- Let the transmission line extend from z = 0 at the generator to z = L at the load;
we need the voltage and current waves.
Vs (z) = V+o e -z + V-o e z . (20)
Is (z) = I+o e -z + I-o e z (21)
Is (z) = V+o e -z + V-o e z . (22)
Zo
Zo
- if we are given the conditions at the input, say;
Vo = V (Z = 0)
Io = I (z = 0)
V+o= 0.5 (Vo + Zo Io)... (23)

V-o= 0.5 (Vo- Zo Io)... (24)
- If the input impedance at the input terminals is Zin, the input voltage Vo and
the input current Io are easily obtained by;
Vo = Zin Vg
Zin+Zg
Io =
Vg
Zin+Zg
- if we are given the conditions at the load, say;

VL = V (z = L), IL = I (z = L); substituting this into equations 20 and 22; obtain
V+o= 0.5 (VL + Zo IL)eL .. (25)

V-o= 0.5 (VL- Zo IL) e-L .. (26)
- The input impedance Zin = Vs(z) / Is(z) at any point on the line , at the
generator ;
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Zin = Vs(z) = Zo(V+o + V-o) .. (27)
Is (z)
V+o - V-o
After substitute the equations 25 and 26 into 27 the equation solved by;
- We get ;
(Lossy)
(Lossless)
- The voltage reflection coefficient given by L;
reflection wave to the incident wave at the load.
is the ratio of the voltage
L = V-o eL .. (28)
V+o e-L
- after Substituting equation 25 and 26 into equation 28 we obtain ;
- The voltage reflection coefficient at any point on the line is the ratio of the
magnitude of the reflected voltage wave to that of the incident wave.
- The current reflection coefficient at any point on the line is negative of the
voltage reflection coefficient at that point.
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- the standing wave ratios denoted by SWR as;
- And also the Zin can be at the standing wave ratio;
(Max)
(Min)
- The average input power at a distance from the load is given by an equation;
- The power transmitted through the transmission line given by ;
Pi= the incident power.

Pr= reflected power.
Where Pt is the input or transmitted power.
Note: the maximum power is delivered to the load when Y = 0, as expected.
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- Characteristics of Open circuit and short circuit line :
There are special cases when the line is connected to load ZL = 0, ZL =
and ZL = Zo, these special cases can easily be derived from the general case.
1- Shorted Line ZL = 0 :
From the equation below; when ZL substituted by zero (0)
The result is;
From the equation below; when ZL substituted by zero (0)
The result is;
2- Open-Circuited Line ZL = :
As the same when you substitutes the ZL = to the equations below;
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The results are;
And
The variation of Zin with t is;
3- Matched Line ZL = Zo:

This is the most desired case from the practical point of view when
substitute the ZL = Zo in the same equations as in the last two cases the
results are;
Example 1:
Solution:
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Exercise:
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The Smith Chart
- Prior to the advent of digital computers and calculators, engineers developed
all sorts of aids (tables, charts, graphs, etc.) to facilitate their calculations for
design and analysis. To reduce the complexity of calculating the characteristics
of transmission lines, graphical means have been developed. The Smith chart is
the most commonly used of the graphical techniques. It is basically a graphical
indication of the impedance of a transmission line as one move along the line. It
becomes easy to use after a small amount of experience.
- The Smith chart is constructed within a circle of unit radius || <=1 as shown
in figure below ;
- The construction of the chart is based on the relation in equation ;
Or
Where r
and
are the real and imaginary parts of the reflection
coefficient .
- Instead of having separate Smith charts for transmission lines with different
characteristic impedances such as Zo = 60,100, and 120 one that can be used
for any line. To achieve this , using a normalized chart in which all impedances
are normalized with respect to the characteristic impedance Zo of the particular
line under consideration For the load impedance ZL for example, the
normalized impedance given by;
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When substitutes the above equation to the equations below;
And
The results are;
And
After normalize the obtained equations ;
After Rearranging terms in equations above ;
The results equations similar to;
Which is the general equation of a circle of radius a, centered at (h, k).

then equations become;
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And
Typical r-circles for r = 0,0.5, 1,2, 5 and for normalized resistance as

shown in figure below;
Typical x -circles for x = 0, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, for x part (L or C ) as

shown in figure below;
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- After superpose the r-circles and x-circles, what we have is the Smith chart
shown in Figure below On the chart, we locate a normalized impedance z = 2 +
j , for example, as the point of intersection of the r = 2 circle and the x = 1 circle .
This is point P1 in the figure. Similarly, z = 1 - 7 0.5 is located at P2 where the r
= 1 circle and the x = -0.5 circle intersect.
- We can draw the s-circles or constant standing-wave-ratio circles (always not
shown on the Smith chart), which are centered at the origin with s varying from
1 to . The value of the standing wave ratio s is determined by locating where
an s-circle crosses the r axis Typical examples of s-circles for s = 1,2, 3, and
are shown also in figure below.
(Figure A; smith chart)

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Important points about smith chart;
1- At point Psc on the chart r = 0, x = 0; that is, ZL = 0 + j0 showing that Psc
represents a short circuit on the transmission line. At point Poc, r = and x= ,
or ZL = =+j, which implies that Poc corresponds to an open circuit on the
line. Also at Poc, r = 0 and x = 0, showing that Poc is another location of a short
circuit on the line.(see figure A)
2- A complete revolution (360) around the Smith chart represents a distance of
/2 on the line. Clockwise movement on the chart is regarded as moving
toward the generator (or away from the load) as shown by the arrow G in
figures below. Counterclockwise movement on the chart corresponds to
moving toward the load (or away from the generator) as indicated by the arrow
L in. (see figure B).
3- There are three scales around the periphery of the Smith chart as illustrated in
Figure B; the three scales are included for the sake of convenience but they are
actually meant to serve the same purpose; one scale should be sufficient. The
scales are used in determining the distance from the load or generator in
degrees or wavelengths. The outermost scale is used to determine the distance
on the line from the generator end in terms of wavelengths, and the next scale
determines the distance from the load end in terms of wavelengths. The
innermost scale is a protractor (in degrees) and is primarily used in
determining r it can also be used to determine the distance from the load or
generator.
4- Since a /2 distance on the line corresponds to a movement of 360 on the
chart, distance on the line corresponds to a 720 movement on the chart.
5- Vmax occurs where Zin max is located on the chart and that is on the positive
r axis or on OPOC. Vmin is located at the same point where we have Zin min
on the chart that is, on the negative r axis or on OPsc (see figure B).
6- The Smith chart is used both as impedance chart and admittance chart (Y =
1/Z).
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(Figure B; smith chart)

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- To Calculate the Impedance and admittance by smith chart , calculations of
impedance taken in the side of open circuit at the smith chart and the
admittance calculations taken from the short circuit side in the smith chart. ( see
figures below).
Impedance chart;
Admittance chart;
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Example:
Solutions;
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Note : Locate zL on the Smith chart at point P where the r = 1.2 circle and the x = 0.8
circle meet. To get at zL, extend OP to meet the r = 0 circle at Q and measure OP
and OQ. Since OQ corresponds to =|1| then at P,
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Note that OP = 3.2 cm and OQ = 9.1 cm were taken from the Smith chart used by the
author; Angle 0r is read directly on the chart as the angle between OS and OP; that is
(b) To obtain the standing wave ratio s, draw a circle with radius OP and center at O.
This is the constant s or circle Locate point S where the ^-circle meets the axis The
value of r at this point is s; that is;
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Example 2:
Solutions:
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Noise effect (Noise in Communication Systems)

- The term noise refers to unwanted signals over which the designer has little or
no control and which tend to disrupt the transmission and reception of signals
in a communication system.
- Noise may enter the system from external sources (eg interference generated by
a motor next to the receiver system) or may be generated from fluctuations
internal to a circuit. For examples;
Thermal Noise - Due to the random nature of the movement of electrons.
Shot Noise - Arises in electronic devices due to the discrete nature of current
flow.
1/f noise - Due to surface leakage in semi-conductors.
Partition noise - Due to recombination in the base of a transistor.
- Usually these types of noise may be considered to be independent of the actual
operating frequency (ie have a constant spectral density) and are therefore
referred to as White Noise.
- To model the occurrence of white noise , consider a resistor at temperature T
degrees kelvin (K = 273 + C). The random movement of charge in the resistor
will produce a noise voltage at the resistor terminals. The rms noise voltage is
approximately;
Where;
k is Boltzmanns constant (1.38 10-23 J/K).
T is temperature in K.
B is bandwidth in Hz.
R is the resistance in .
- The maximum power transferred will be ;
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- We can model an arbitrary source of noise (as long as it is White noise) as an
equivalent thermal noise power and characterise it with an equivalent noise
temperature.
- An arbitrary source of noise (sin source, amplifier, and antenna) which delivers
a noise power Ps to a load resistor R can be replaced by a noisy resistor R at a
temperature Te. The temperature Te is calculated so the same noise power is
delivered to the load;
Note: Components and systems can then be characterized by saying they have an
Effective Noise Temperature of Te.
Noise in Networks
Noise Figure
- We have already mentioned the effective noise temperature as a measure of a

devices noise performance. There is another parameter also commonly used to
characterize noise performance, the Noise Figure.
-
The noise figure is defined as the ratio of the signal to the noise ratio (SNR) at
the input of a device to the SNR at the output.
- In the diagram Si is the input signal power and So is the output signal power.
Ni and No are the input and output noise powers. Thus the Noise Figure is
defined by;
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- In a practical device, No > G.Ni and so F > 1.0. The closer to 1 is F, the less noise
the device introduces and the better its noise performance.
In decibels, Fdb = 10 log 10 (F)
- Since noise figure and effective noise temperature measure the same
characteristic they are of course related. Consider a network with gain G,
bandwidth B and an equivalent noise temperature Te.
1. The input noise power is Ni = kToB, where To is the surrounding
temperature.
2. The output noise power is a sum of the amplified input noise and the
internally generated noise; No = kGB(To + Te). The output signal power
is So = G Si.
- Therefore, Noise Figure F =
Thus F = 1 + Te/To
and Te = (F-1) To
If the network were noiseless, Te = 0, giving F = 1 or 0dB.
Noise Generated by a Lossy Network
- Lossy network is one in which the input signal is attenuated at the network
output. Some examples are shown below.
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- What effect does a lossy network have on the noise performance of a system?
Consider a lossy network connected to a matched resistor, R. Assume the lossy
network is at a temperature To. The gain of the network will be less than one
and can be define by a loss factor L = 1/G. Looking back into this network from
its output we see a matched resistance R at temperature To. Thus the output
noise power will be;
No = kToB
- We can think of this noise as partly coming from the source resistor at the input
of the network through the lossy network and the remainder being generated
by the lossy network itself. The fraction of the input noise power at the output
of the network will be;
P1 = GkToB = kToB/L
- The power added by the network referred to the input is say NN/W and the
contribution due to this part at the output will then be;
P2 = G. NN/W = NN/W/L
- The total noise output power is therefore No = P1 + P2. Substituting from
above,
No = 1/L (kToB + NN/W)
- Solving for noise generated by the network referred to the input, NN/W;
NN/W = (L-1) kToB
The Effective temperature Te of the lossy network is;
Te = NN/W /(kB) = (L-1) To
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Cascaded Networks
- We are often required to determine the noise performance of a number of

networks in series. Consider the system below involving two noisy networks in
cascade and at a temperature, To.
- The two noisy networks can be considered as 2 noise free networks at which an
extra noise term (the effective temperature) is added at the input. That is,
- The effective temperatures Te1 and Te2 are related to the noise figures and the
ambient temperature.
Te1 = (F1-1) To and Te2 = (F2-1) To
- From the diagram then we see that;
Ts1 = Te1 + To = F1.To
- This implies that the input noise at network 1 is N1 = k B Ts1.
- The output noise power, No1 is this value multiplied by the gain of the ideal
first stage.
No1 = G1.N1 = k B G1 Ts1 = k B G1 F1 To
- This noise power implies a noise temperature To1 of;
To1 = No1/(kB) = G1 F1 To
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- Similarly,
Ts2 = To1 + Te2
- Therefore,
N2 = k B Ts2 = k B To [G1 F1 + (F2-1)]
-
Finally,
- The total effective noise figure for the two networks taken together (as one
device with a gain G1.G2) is;
- This result may be extended for the cascade of 3 or more networks to get a
general expression;
- We can write a similar expression in terms of effective noise temperatures for

the whole system;
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Attenuator and filters

Filters:
- The function of a filter is to separate different frequency components of the
input signal that passes through the filter network. The characteristics of the
network are specified by a transfer function H_(j) or H(s), where s =+j
represents the complex frequency defined for the Laplace transform The
transfer function is the ratio of output signal to input signal, voltage, or current:
- The transfer phase function, (), is related to the transfer group delay through
a differential with respect to frequency as follows:
- For constant group delay, the phase function must be linear with frequency. In
most filters only the magnitude of the transfer function is of interest. However,
in modern-day systems using signals with complex modulation schemes, phase
and group delay functions are also important.
- A filter network passes some of the input signal frequencies and stops others,
and being a linear circuit, this function is performed without adding or
generating new frequency components.
- The frequency band that passes, ideally without losses (0 dB insertion loss),
defines the pass band, and the band that stops the frequencies, ideally with
infinite loss, is called the stop band. This loss representation of the ideal lowpass filter.
- Low pass filter passes all low-frequency signals from dc to some high
frequency, c and stops all signals above c. The frequency, c, is called the
cutoff frequency of the filter.
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- Similar considerations can be applied in the design of filters using phase

linearity and/or group delay flatness. The concept of pass band, stop band, and
transition band permits specifications of five major types of filters: (1) low pass,
(2) high pass, (3) band pass, (4) band stop, and (5) all pass. The transmission
behavior of these filters is shown in figures below;
- Filters are always used to reduce the effect of the noise to the signals that
transmitted through the transmission line. From previous studies the amount of
noise in the original signal known as signal to noise ratio SNR. Max signal to
noise power ratio, represents a low noise and min signal to noise ratio indicate
that the amount of noise is larger than the signal.
- A matched filter is a linear filter designed to provide the maximum signal to

noise power ratio at its output for a given transmitted symbol waveform.
consider signal S(t) plus AWGN n(t) is applied to a linear time-invariant
receiving filter followed by a sampler as shown in figure below;
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At t=T, the sampler output.

Z (T) =ai+n0
where ai= signal component at the filter output
N0=noise component
-
The variance of the output noise (average noise power) is denoted by o2
Low-Pass Filter:
Low-pass filter networks are realized by using a cascade of series
inductors and shunt capacitors. At low frequencies, series inductances
produce low impedance, and shunt capacitors produce high impedance, thus
allowing the signal to appear at the output of the filter. Above the cutoff
frequency, the series inductors behave as large impedances and shunt
capacitors as low impedances, thereby impeding the signal transfer to the
load.
High-Pass Filter:
The high-pass filter allows signal frequencies higher than the cutoff
frequency to pass through the filter to the load with a minimum loss and stops all
frequencies below the cutoff frequency. This behavior is the reverse of the lowpass filter, and sometimes the high-pass filter is referred to as the complement of
the low-pass filter. High-pass filter networks are realized by using a cascade of
series capacitors and shunt inductors. Capacitors at high frequencies have low
Page 53
impedance, and inductors have high impedance. Thus the high-frequency signal
passes through the filter to the output load with a minimum loss. Just the opposite
happens at low frequencies, resulting in a high attenuation of the low frequencies.
Band-Pass Filter:
The band-pass filter allows the signal transfer in the load in a band of
frequencies between the lower cutoff frequency, c1, and the upper cutoff
frequency, c2. Between the lower and upper cutoff frequency is the center
frequency, , defined by the geometric mean of c1 and c2.
Band-Stop Filter:
The band-stop filter is a complement of the band-pass filter the signal in
a band-stop filter is transferred to the load in two frequency bands, one from a low
frequency to a low cutoff frequency, c, and the other from the upper cutoff
frequency, c2, to infinite frequency. The signal experiences high loss between
c1 to c2, hence the name band stop or band rejects.
All-Pass Filter:
The all-pass filter allows the signal amplitude for all frequencies to pass
through the network without any significant loss this network has no frequency
selective pass band or stop band. The transmitted signal ideally experiences a
linear phase shift or constant group delay with frequency.
Unfortunately, minimum phase networks do not have constant group
delay: rather there are peaks near the corner frequency. All passive ladder
networks, such as filters that have frequency selectivity, are minimum phase. In
the design there is a trade-off between flat group delay and filter selectivity.
However, a network that is non minimum phase can be cascaded with a minimum
phase network to achieve both flat group delay and selectivity. All pass networks
with non minimum phase are used as group delay compensation devices.
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Attenuator:
Attenuators are linear, passive, or active networks or devices that
attenuate electrical or microwave signals, such as voltages or currents, in a system
by a predetermined ratio. They may be in the form of transmission-line, strip line,
or waveguide components. Attenuation is usually expressed as the ratio of input
power (Pin) to output power (Pout), in decibels (dB), as;
- This is derived from the standard definition of attenuation in Nepers (Np),

as;
- Where a is attenuation constant (Np/m) and Dx is the distance between the

voltages of interest (E1 and E2).
- There are many instances when it is necessary to reduce the value, or level,
of electrical or microwave signals (such as voltages and currents) by a fixed
amount to allow the rest of the system to work properly. Attenuators are used
for this purpose. For example, in turning down the volume on a radio, we
make use of a variable attenuator to reduce the signal. Almost all electronic
instruments use attenuators to allow for the measurement of a wide range of
voltage and current values, such as voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and other
electronic instruments. Thus, the various applications in which attenuators
are used include the following:
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To reduce signal levels to prevent overloading.

To match source and load impedances to reduce their interaction.
To measure loss or gain of two-port devices.
To provide isolation between circuit components, or circuits or instruments
so as to reduce interaction among them.
To extend the dynamic range of equipment and prevent burnout or
overloading equipment.
- There are various types of attenuators based on the nature of circuit elements
used, type of configuration, and kind of adjustment. They are as follows:
Passive and active attenuators.
Absorptive and reflective attenuators.
Fixed and variable attenuators.
- A fixed attenuator is used when the attenuation is constant. Variable
attenuators have varying attenuation, using varying resistances for instance.
The variability can be in steps or continuous, obtained either manually or
programmable. There are also electronically variable attenuators. They are
reversible, except in special cases, such as a high-power attenuator. They are
linear, resistive, or reactive, and are normally symmetric in impedance. They
include waveguide, coaxial, and strip lines, as well as calibrated and uncalibrated versions. Fixed attenuators, commonly known as pads, reduce
the input signal power by a fixed amount, such as 3, 10, and 50 dB.
- A variable attenuator has a range, such as 020 dB or 0100 dB. The
variation can be continuous or in steps, obtained manually or programmable.
Page 56
Data Communication
- Data communication is an Exchange of digital information between
two digital devices is data communication.
- Data communication history;
1838: Samuel Morse & Alfred Veil Invent Morse code Telegraph
System.
1876: Alexander Graham Bell invented Telephone.
1910: Howard Krum developed Start/Stop Synchronization.
1930: Development of ASCII Transmission Code.
1945: Allied Governments develop the First Large Computer.
1950: IBM releases its first computer IBM 710.
1960: IBM releases the First Commercial Computer IBM 360.
- Data communication is most technology widely used nowadays in
several proposes. The main contributions of data communication are;
1- Transmission Technology.
2- Packet Switching Technology.
3- Internet.
4- LAN Technology.
5- WAN Technology.
There are Various Networks dials with data com;
Personal Area Network (PAN).

Local Area Network (LAN).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
Wide Area Network (WAN).
Global Area Network (GAN).
Page 57
- Data communication refers to informations transfer such data, voice

and videos. Each of this information transfers from one device to
another through what is called network.
- Networking is the convenient way of making information accessible
to anyone, anytime & anywhere. The Capability of two or more
computers of different vendors to transmit & receive data and to
carry out processes as expected by the user is called Interoperability.
- For any data networks there are many requirements that must be
available to establish data communication. This requirements are;
At least Two Devices ready to communicate.
A Transmission Medium.
A set of Rules & Procedure for proper communication (Protocol).
Standard Data Representation.
Transmission of bits either Serial or Parallel.
Bit synchronization using Start/stop bits in case of Asynchronous
Transmission.
In Synchronous Transmission the agreed pattern of Flag.
Signal encoding rules viz. NRZ or RZ.
And other higher layer protocol.
- Data represented by using a binary form, A group of bits are used to

represent a character/number/ special symbol/Control Characters.
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5-bit code can represent 32 symbols (25=32)

- A code set is the set of codes representing the symbols. there are
many standards of codes that used in data communications such as
ASCII , EBCDIC and Baudot Teletype code.
- ASCII: this is ANSIs 7-bit American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. ASCII code (7-bit) is often used with an 8th bit known as
parity bit used for detecting errors during Data Transmission. Parity
bit is added to the Most Significant bit (MSB).
- EBCDIC: this is IBMs 8-bit Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code. It is an 8-bit code with 256 Symbols. No parity bit
for error checking.
- Baudot Teletype code is a 5-bit code also known as ITA2
(International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2) used in Telegraphy/Telex.
- Data Transmission means movement of the bits over a transmission
medium connecting two devices. Two types of Data Transmission
are:
Parallel Transmission.
Serial Transmission.
Parallel Transmission:
In this all the bits of a byte are transmitted simultaneously on
separate wires. Practicable if two devices are close to each other e.g.
Computer to Printer, Communication within the Computer using a com
port.
Page 59
Serial Transmission:
Bits are transmitted one after the other .Usually the Least Significant
Bit (LSB) has been transmitted first. Serial Transmission requires only one
circuit interconnecting two devices and its suitable for transmission over
long distance. Such serial device is USB.
- The transmitting speed of each types measured by bit rate. the bit rate
is Number of bits that can be transmitted in 1 second If tp is the
duration of the bit then the Bit rate R= 1/tp.
- At receive side; received Signal is never same as transmitted. A clock
signal used to samples & regenerates the original bits as it was
transmitted. Received Signal should be sampled at right instant.
Otherwise it will cause bit error.
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- There are two methods for Timing control for receiving bits.
Asynchronous Transmission and Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission:
Sending end commences the Transmission of bits at any instant of
time.
No time relation between the consecutive bits.
During idle condition Signal 1 is transmitted.
Start bit before the byte and Stop bit at the end of the byte for
Start/Stop synchronization.
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Synchronous Transmission:
Carried out under the control of the timing source.
No Start/Stop bits.
Continuous block of Data are encapsulated with Header & Trailer
along with Flags.
- Signal Encoding used to represent the bits as electrical Signals. That

because for transmission of bits into electrical signals for two binary
states simple +ve and ve voltages is not sufficient. Sufficient Signal
transition should be present to recover the clock properly at the
receiving end and the Bandwidth of the signal should match with
transmission medium. Two broad classes of encoding are:
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Non-Return to Zero (NRZ):
Return to Zero (RZ)
- A transmission and communication way take place by three possible

modes they are;
Page 63
Transfer in one direction only called simplex, just transmit in one

way.
Transfer in two directions but one at a time, known as half duplex,
transmission done in two way alternatively.
Transfer in both the direction simultaneously, termed as full duplex,
and the transmission take place in two directions simultaneously
Introduction of Modem design

- Modem is refers to modulation and demodulation. Modulation is to
adapt the signal in transmitter side to be suitable for the media. Then
demodulation refers to extracts the original signal after received in
receiver side.
- In order to transmit a signal over a given physical medium we need
to adapt the characteristics of the signal to the properties of the
medium. In the case of electromagnetic signals, the main object is to
fit the spectrum of the signal into a prescribed bandwidth, called the
pass band, and this is accomplished by means of a technique called
modulation.
- Modulation is performed by multiplying the original signal by a
sinusoidal signal called carrier; the mean of the modulation theorem
is that, in so doing, we are actually translating the spectrum of the
original signal in frequency, over the frequency of the carrier. This
frequency is chosen according to the physical medium: copper wires,
optical fibers, all require different modulation frequencies since their
useful pass bands are located in different portions of the spectrum.
The pass band of a communication channel is, roughly speaking, the
part of the spectrum which behaves linearly for transmission; there,
we can rely on the fact that a properly modulated sinusoidal signal
will be received with only phase and amplitude distortions.
Page 64
- The pass band of a physical channel is of finite width, so we must

make sure that the bandwidth of the original signal prior to
modulation is "of the same size as the channel's pass band. In other
words, we must build a signal with a finite, prescribed spectral
support.
- A big effort in designing a modem is trying to squeeze as much
information as possible over the relatively narrow pass band of the
telephone channel for example. The operation of limiting the bandwith of a digital communication signal goes under the name of pulse
shaping and is basically a linear filtering operation.
- To illustrate what modulation is all about, take the example of AM

radio. The AM band extends from 530 KHz to 1700 KHz and each
radio station is allowed by law to transmit over an 8 KHz frequency
slot in this range. Assume we want to transmit speech over AM with
given slot from Fmin=650 KHz to Fmax=658 KHz, with the
bandwidth W=Fmax-Fmin equal to 8 KHz. The speech signal s(t) ,
obtained with a microphone , has a wideband spectrum which spans
several KHz; we can however filter it through a low pass filter with
cutoff frequency 4 KHz without losing too much quality and thus
reduce its spectral width to 8 KHz. The filtered signal has now a
spectrum extending from -4 to 4 KHz; by multiplying it by a sinusoid
at frequency Fc=(Fmax+Fmin)/2=654KHz. We can sift it to allotted
AM band according to the modulation theorem:
Page 65
- For digital communication first the data must flow as a data stream,
converts the bit stream to data (baud) stream by mapping the bits into
symbols of 2m, this shape not yet suitable for transmission , first there
is a need to design its spectral characteristics to fits it into the
available bandwidth of the channel , then translate it in frequency to
place it right in the pass band of the channel .this functions are
performed by a pulse shaper( low pass filter) and by modulator .
- Demodulation done at receives side by convert modulated signal to
original signal. The signal created at the modulator is converted to a
continuous time signal c(t) by a D/A converter operating at a
sampling frequency fs and sent over the telephone channel. With
reasonably good approximation the channel behaves like a linear
signal and also introduces a certain amount of additive noise so that
the signal appearing at the receiver's input looks like;
Where tp is the propagation delay, dependent on the distance

between transmitter and receiver, d (t) is the equivalent impulse
response of the channel and n (t) is the noise.
-
The first thing the digital receiver does is sampling the incoming
signal A fundamental building block of any modem is an adaptive
equalizer whose task is to estimate the distortion introduced by the
channel in order to eliminate it. A modem is a device consists of
modulation and demodulation at each of communication sides.
Page 66

Communication Systems 2

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Communication Systems 2

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Communication Systems 2

By: Lecturer. Elmustafa Sayed Ali Ahmed

Red Sea University Engineering Collage

Red Sea University Engineering Collage

Lecture One: Communication model:

A typical communication system consists of three main components

(Figure 1: communication system model)

(Figure 2: example of communication system)

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In telecommunications and computer networking, a communication

(Figure 3: channel impairments)

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(Figure 4: attenuation effect)

(Figure 5: attenuation example)

To solve the problem of attenuation, amplifiers used to amplify the signal

(Figure 6: amplifiers in communication system)

(Figure 7: linear distortion)

(Figure 8: example of liner distortion)

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(Figure 9 : non linear distortion)

(Figure 10: nonlinear distortion example)

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(Figure 11: crosstalk noise)

(Figure 12: internal noise)

Solutions for Internal Noise are;

(Figure 13: noise and attenuation problem)

Lecture Two: Transmission line:

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Reflections on transmission line

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In radio systems reflections can also lead to damage to components, inefficient

Practical construction of transmission line for RF & Microwaves

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Micro strip cables:

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TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS

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TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATIONS

(Figure 21: transmission line circuit)

Divide the equation 2 by z :

Taking the limit of z 0 :

Take the second derivative of Vs in equation 13 and apply equation 14 to the

d2 Vs = (R + jL) (G + jC) Vs ..(15)

Take the second derivative of Is in equation 14 and apply equation 13 to the

The characteristic impedance Zo of the line is the ratio of positively traveling

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Where; Ro and Xo are real and imaginary of Zo.

Lossless line (R = 0 = G):

- For distortion less line,

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- showing that does not depend on frequency whereas is a linear function of

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An air line can be regarded as a lossless line;

= 3 / (2*100*106*70) = 68.2 pF/m

= (70)2 (68.2*10-12) = 334.2 nH/m

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V+o= 0.5 (Vo + Zo Io)... (23)

- if we are given the conditions at the load, say;

V+o= 0.5 (VL + Zo IL)eL .. (25)

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is the ratio of the voltage

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= 3 / (2100106*70) = 68.2 pF/m