I&c Training

I&C
Electric Engineering Technical Service Subsidiary of

Wuhan Qingyuan Electric Co., Ltd.
ADD: SUJIAWAN, QINGSHAN DIST., WUHAN, HUBEI, CHINA, 430082 Tel: 027-86592373 Fax: 02786592359
September 2011
Training of PLTU Sulawesi Selatan (250MW) Coal Fired Steam Power Plant Project of Indonesia
Contents
Chapter 1 Measuring Instrument in Thermal Power Station.............................................................. 2
1 I&C Measurement Foundation........................................................................................................... 2
2. Pressure Indicator............................................................................................................................. 13
3. Flow Process System........................................................................................................................ 34
Chapter 2 Automatic Control System of Power Station....................................................................... 53
1. Basic Knowledge of Automatic Control.........................................................................................
53
2. Automatic control system...............................................................................................................
55
3. Automatic control Principles........................................................................................................... 55

4. Automatic Control Block Diagram.................................................................................................. 76
5. Automatic Control System Evaluation.............................................................................................. 79
Chapter 3 Digital Electric-Hydraulic Regulating System................................................................... 84
1 Basic Conception of Turbine Digital Electric-Hydraulic Regulating System.................................... 84
2 Digital Electric-Hydraulic Regulating System DEH..........................................................
3 Digital System of Digital Electric-Hydraulic Control System (DEH)........................................
95
109
4 DEH Regulating Protection System.............................................................................................. 125

5 Failure disposal for DEH............................................................................................................... 128
Chapter 4 Turbine Supervisory Instrument..................................................................................... 129
1. The Basic Concept of Turbine Supervisory Instrument..............................................................
129
2. Measuring Principle of TSI System Parameter............................................................................ 129

3 Install of transductor....................................................................................................................
139
4 TSI signal......................................................................................................................................
142
Chapter 5 Distributed Control System (DCS)................................................................................
143
1. The Basic Conception of Distributed Control System................................................................... 143

2. Sequence of Event System........................................................................................................... 152
3 DCS Overview.............................................................................................................................
153
Chapter 6 Emergency Trip System ETS ............................................................................
156
1 Basic Concept of Turbine Protection System................................................................................ 156

2 Automatic Protection System.......................................................................................................
156
3 Common faults of the ETS system and dealing with................................................................... 160

Chapter 7 Primary Control System Describe (BMS)....................................................................... 161
1 BCS Concrete Function...............................................................................................................
161
2 FSSS Concrete Function............................................................................................................... 163
Chapter 1 Measuring Instrument in Thermal Power Station

1 I&C Measurement Foundation
1.1 Summary
Measuring technology is to study a science that measures the principle,
measures the method and survey tools. Measurement is an indispensable ring in
industrial production, through measurement, can understand whether production
process accords with the rules regulation of the craft, whether has reached the quality,
security and economic indicator booked, thus according to the result of measuring, give
correct adjustment to the production process through the control system. So
measurement is ears and eyes which monitors the production process, is the
foundation of realizing production process automation too.
It refers to the measurement to various kinds of thermal technology parameters
and physical quantities in the production process of heating power that thermal
technology is measured, for instance temperature, pressure, flow, thing location, etc.,
thermal technology measurement is to guarantee the safe economical operation of
power plant and realize one of the automatically controlled primary conditions. The
instrument used for measuring thermal technology parameter is called thermal
technology and measured the instrument, is abbreviated as the thermal technology
instrument.
1.1.1 Measuring method
1.1.1.1 Definition
Measurement to adopt survey tools (or instrument), through experiment
measurement with compare with standard volume (namely measure the unit) of nature
method, how many multiples course is the standard volume that measured in order to
determine.
Standard volume to measure unit, measure unit people fixed, gets country and
internationally acknowledged. Adopt the International System of Units at present. It has
stipulated seven base units, namely: meter (m ), kilogram (kg ), second (s ), ampere
(A ), kelvin (K ), Mole (mol ), candela (cd ).
1.1.1.2 Measuring method
Measurement is an experimental work, in order to get the reliable data
accurately, must follow target's characteristic, and choose the rational measurement
method. According to differences getting procedures which measures the result,
measurement can be divided into:
a. Direct Measurement this is compared the standard volume with directly
measurement, or by marking the measuring instrument reserved and carrying on
measurement in advance, thus get the measurement method of the measurement value.
For example measure length with straightedge, measure container medium pressure
with manometer, measure medium temperature with mercurial thermometer, etc.
b. Indirect Measurement This is that known measurand and some one or
several other quantities have certain functional relation, through measure the quantity
2
value directly, calculate out the measurement method of measurand value with the
relational expression of function. For example, get the area through measuring the
length, width and get the resistivity through the resistance, length and diameter of
measuring the wire, then area, resistivity, etc. are all results measured indirectly.
c. Associated measurement Associated measurement is on the basis of
measuring several groups have measuring value of certain function, through solving the
method that the simultaneous equations ask for measurand.
Dividing according to comparative way to measurand and measure unit,
a. Deviation measures method
Measurand acts on the measuring
appliance, make working parameter and its initial state of the measuring appliance
produce and deviate from, from the method to get measurand value of the deviating
from amount, because this kind of bias change concerns and already marks the scale
directly on the measuring appliance, can be read the result of measuring directly by the
instrument scale. For example, can be read temperature number value by the height of
the mercury directly when the mercurial thermometer measures temperature.
b. Zero-bias measures method
Compare measurand with one known
measurand, when the two reach the balance, the balanced indicator of instrument refers
to zero; known measurand is measurand value at this moment. For example, measure
object quality with the balance and measure the electric potential and adopt Zero-bias
measures method with potential meter. Zero-bias measures method and little difference
measure method are very much favorable for reduce measuring system to be error, so it
is high to measure the precision, adopt more extensive.
Whether the target keeps in touch with examining according to the instrument,
a. Contact measurement A part of the instrument keeps in touch with
measurand, is affected by measurand and drawn maturations of measurement result. For
example when the mercurial thermometer of glass tube examines temperature, the
warm bag of the thermometer should be put in the medium examining, in order to
experience the level of temperature.
b. Non-contacting measurement Any part of the instrument needn't contact
measurement that can get measurement result with measurand directly. Examine with
optics pyrometer warm, is it examine warm heat radiation function in instrument that
target produce, so the instrument needn't keep in touch with measurand directly.
1.1.2 Composition of the I&C Measuring System
Measuring system of thermal technology is between measure and the measurer,
its function lie in that it changes corresponding measurement value offer measurer to
reading. Usually this value is not equal to truth value of measured variable; its degree of
closeness depends on the accurate degree of the measuring system, but must reach
measure the standard that the work put forward. The position where the measuring
system of thermal technology is in measurement as Fig. 1-1 shows.
Though the measuring system of thermal technology has nothing in common

with each other on the operation principle and structure, but as to function of its every
part, the same basically, according to thermal technology measuring system every
function of part require, the measuring system of thermal technology is generally made
up by several following units.
1.1.2.1 Sensing Unit
Also call the sensor, is generally made up by the sensitive element (measures the
component) and suitable component. With measure and interrelate, directly sensitive
reflect a certain output amount of measurement; It benefits the form dealt with further
that the suitable component varies this quantity, for instance pressing, electric current or
the frequency, etc. Usually finish with various kinds of measurement circuit, enlarge
circuit and vary circuit, so the sensor needs extra power.
1.1.2.2 Signal processing units
Signal processing units is used for varying the signal of the sensor into a signal
that is suited to more showing; usually change into a standardized signal, for instance
such direct current signals as 0-10mA, 4-20mA, 1-5V, etc. The modern measuring
system often changes through A/D the signal that the sensor comes; turn the voltage
signal into a form of the binary scale number. So can adopt the digitized instrument on
one hand, can be through computer makes operation, compensates and stores to the
signal, by improving the precision of measuring on the other hand.
1.1.2.3 Data display unit
It show measurement value and reflect measure and in the quantitative change. A
simple one is it reading instrument, graphical recording instrumented., a complicated
one have digital display, display, data type equipment and magnetic disc recording
equipment, etc..
a. Digital display
Provide measurement value in digital form directly, so does not have a
collimation error at reading value, but show with simulation that compares, it is bad to
direct-viewing.
b. Screen display
It is technology of TV that is being measured and showing application on. It can
show the simulation curve, can show number value too, or two show at the same time.
Display has advantage of vividness and easy reading, and help to be examined
comparison between measurand.
1.1.3 The Classification of Thermal Technology Measures Instrument
According to differences of instrument use, principle and structure, thermal
technology instrument can be divided for many kinds.
1.1.3.1 According to different measurand, it can be divided temperature, pressure, flow,
4
liquid level, composition analysis and machinery amount (displace, rotation speed,
vibration, etc.) measuring instruments.
1.1.3.2 According to different use, it can be divided three kinds of instruments: the
standard used, the laboratory used and the project used.
1.1.3.3 According to different showing characteristics, it can be divided indicating
instrument, recording instrument, integrating instrument, digital instrument and screen
display instrument.
1.1.3.4 According to different operation principle, it can be divided mechanical
instrument, electric instrument, electron type instrument, chemical instrument,
pneumatic instrument and liquid moving instrument.
1.1.3.5 According to different device being place, it can be divided local instrument and
panel instrument.
1.1.3.6 According to different occupation modes, it can be divided the regular
instrument and portable instrument.
Mostly adopt the instrument used for project that have firm structure and can
adapt to the comparatively abominable environment. The standard instrument, often use
for checking the instrument used for project and transmitting standard in the laboratory.
1.2 Measuring Error and the Main Quality Indexes of Instrument
1.2.1 The concept of measuring error
While carrying on the measurement work, if the instrument is not perfect or
measurer operate inexactitude, or there has the change of the objective condition and all
sorts of reasons not realized for people yet in measuring, will make the measurement
value not correspond to actual value of measurand, namely there is error of measuring.
Frequent measuring error express as follows.
1.2.1.1 Absolute error
The difference between the measured value of instrument and the actual value of
measurand is called the absolute error. But the actual value of measurand does not
known, so replace actual value with the reading of the standard instrument in actual
measurement, called standard value. If the instruction indicated value namely
instrument measurement value is x , the indicated value of the standard instrument is
X 0 , the absolute error of the point indicated value is
in the equation
=x
- X0
absolute error
x Measured value
X 0 actual value.
1.2.1.2 Relative error

Besides expression form of absolute error, measuring error can also be expressed
in the relative error and the corrected error. Relative error is that absolute error
compares with actual value, usually use percentage expression.
5
=
X
X X0
100
%
X 0 100%
0
In the equation Relative error.

For the different measured value of size number, Can show the accurate degree
of measurement more accurately with relative error, namely the relative error is more
small, accurate degree is more high.
1.2.1.3 Corrected error
Corrected error is that absolute error compares with span of measuring
instrument, express with percentage too.
X max X min
100%
in the equation 0
corrected error
X max X min the upper limit of Measuring instrument and lower limit
scale.
X max - X min Called span of the measuring instrument.
Corrected error is generally used for comparing the quality of measuring

instrument, and we will explain in next section. In order to get the measurement result
of approaching truth even more as much as possible, it is necessary to understand and
analyze reason of measuring error and change rule, so that improve measurement,
reduce and avoid measuring error.
1.2.2 Classification of the Measure Error
According to the most basic nature and characteristic of measuring error, it can
be divided measuring error into three kinds: System error, random error and neglect
error.
1.2.2.1 System error
When the same value is measured some times under the same condition, if the
error of measured value each time is invariable basically, or change according to a
certain rule, this kind of error is called system error (or determinacy error). Basically
invariable error value is called constant value system error, and variable error value is
called variable value system error. Variable value system error can be divided into
several kinds as a system error of accumulation, Periodicity and complicated change,
etc. according to its change rule. The system error stems from the following aspects
mainly:
a. Measuring instruments and measuring systems are not perfect enough: For
example own scale of the instrument is inaccurate; the standard instrument has errors;
the measurement principle that the appearance bases on is not perfected etc., that will
cause measuring system error.
b. The instrument is improperly used: Such as measuring equipment and circuit
install, assign, being improper adjustment, measurer operate inexpert, reading
inaccurate etc. that cause the systematic error.
6
c. The external environment can't meet the service condition of the instrument:
when the instrument is used, environment temperature, humidity, electric magnetic
field, etc. is dissatisfied, that can cause the systematic error.
Because system error is generally regular, it produce reason be can grasped
often, so should try to predict the concrete sources of different as much as possible, do
the best to dispel its influence so should try to predict all kinds of system errors as much
as possible, do us best to dispel its influence; Secondly should try to determine the
system error number value failed to dispel and revise, in order to improve the accurate
degree of measurement. The size of the system error has indicated one measures degree
that the result deviates from truth; it is usually expressed with the vocabulary of
"correct degree ". The less the system error is more little, correct degree of measure is
more high.
1.2.2.2 Random error
When we measure the same value time after time at the same condition after
managing to dispel system error, each measured value still can appear large or small,
positive or negative small error, this kind of error is called random error. It is also called
accidental error that causes by outside accidental factor.
1.2.2.3 Neglect error
Error caused because measurer operate mistake, careless, it is called neglect
error. Neglect error is often shown as number value bigger, and abnormity. So measurer
should have high sense of duty and familiar with the operating technology in
measurement, in order to avoid neglect error.
1.2.3 Method of dispel and reduce measure error
General random error can be dealt with through statistics rule, ask out its
arithmetic average as measurement result through a lot of repeated measurement, can
estimate single times maximal error of measuring value through ask for standard
deviation. Can reduce system error through improving the technology of measuring.
Usually dealing with system error has the following several kinds method:
1.2.3.1 Dispel the origin that the system error produces: Make the environmental
condition accord with the service condition of instrument regulation at the time of
measurement, familiar with instrument performance, correct to install and adjust
measuring instrument, etc. can reduce system error.
1.2.3.2 Add correction value in measurement result: Determine correction value of
measuring instrument with the standard instrument before measurement; To the
influencing amount of various kinds of external world (such as temperature,
atmospheric pressure, acceleration of gravity), should make every effort to determine
correction formula, correction curve or correction value form, for correct measurement
result.
1.2.3.3 Take compensation measure: Adopt compensated equipment in the measuring
system, in order to dispel system error automatically in the course of measuring. Such
as when thermal couple is measured temperature, adopt cold junction compensation and
dispel system error that the temperature change of thermal couple cold junction
produced.
1.2.3.4 Adopt the model of dispelling system error to measuring technique: usually
7
the method to adopt has method of zero value and symmetrical observation means, etc.
a. Null value means: In measure method in classifying, we know this is a process
of balance between a measurand and a known standard value, if only judge the
appearance of the balance is high enough in sensitivity. Error of measurand is decided
by error of standard value and had nothing to do with other factors mainly, and
accuracy of the standard value is generally all relatively high, so the error of
measurement result must be relatively small.
b. Symmetrical observation means: In order to prove conveniently, let us watch a
measurement instance. Fig. 1-2 is the circuit of measuring resistance with potential
meter. Operating current I am supplied with by power E, pass the standard resistance
R0 and examined resistance R x
U x voltage of I on R x
. It is a common measuring means that measures
with potential meter, then measures U 0 voltage of I on R0
. Assume I do not change, because of U x = IR x , U 0 = IR0 , can get result
R x UIx UU 0x R0
Ux
.If measures U x1 , measures U x 2
= 12 (U x1 U x 2 ) , R x
Ux
U0
again, so we can get a result:
R0
It shows that voltage of R x
does not influence by electric current change, thus
dispels system error which produce by electric current linear change.

1.2.4 Main quality index of instrument
The quality index is a standard of expressing the quality of instrument, it relates
to instrument design, manufacture quality, and influence measuring accuracy. While we
measure, there must be measuring error in various degrees in any instrument. So, in
order to guarantee measurement is accurate and reliable, guarantee the instrument can
be well production service, the country measures administrative service divisions and
instruments production administrative department regulate quality index about all kinds
of instruments in the rules.
8
1.2.4.1 Accuracy of instrument

Correct degree expresses the size of system error; Precision expresses the size of
random error. So the accuracy of instrument is to show the comprehensive degree of
closeness between measuring result and measurand true value.
a. Absolute error Measuring the same parameter at the same time with the
measured instrument and the standard instrument, comparing their reading value, the
difference between them is called the absolute error of the reading value of the checked
instrument, namely absolute error:
X X0
In the equation X
X0
the reading value of the checked instrument;
the reading value of the standard instrument.
Absolute error of the instrument: In the range of measured instrument scale, the
maximum absolute error of each point reading value is called the absolute error of the
instrument.
b. Relative error Relative Error is calculated with the following
formula
X X 0X 0 100%
c. Corrected error of instrument The absolute error of instrument can't be
used for judging the quality of the instrument, if absolute errors of two instruments are
the same, but ranges is different, obviously instrument has more range that has higher
accuracy. So, judgment quality of instrument does not often use the absolute error of
instrument, but use the corrected error of instrument. Corrected error is to into the
percentages that the absolute error of the instrument is converted range.
Corrected error of instrument =absolute error of instrument / (scale upper limit
- scale lower limit) *100%
d. Fundamental error and additive error of instrument The greatest
error of instrument under normal working condition, expresses with the fundamental
error. The instrument does not work under a fixed normal working condition, an extra
error by external condition change caused, is called the additional error. For example,
when working temperature of the instrument exceeds the fixed range, it will cause the
additional error of temperature.
e. The allowable error of instrument and accuracy class: When a kind of
instrument is under a normal working condition, the extreme value of its error by
artificial regulation is called the allowable error of instrument. To an instrument, its
fundamental error may be greater or smaller than allowable error, so the allowable error
can not represent the material error of the instrument. The allowable error of instrument
and the accuracy class which the country stipulates have relation. The national accuracy
classis is arranged according to a seriation 0.005
0.0l
0.02 0.04 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.35 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.5
4.0 5.0. The smaller the class is, the higher the accuracy is. The allowable
error of the 0.5 grade instrument is 0.5 , the allowable error of 1.0grade
9
instrument is 1.0 .
Example 1-1 We measure about 10MPa of main steam pressures with a
0-16MPa pressure meter, requirement of the relative error does not exceed 0.5 ,
try choosing the accuracy class of the instrument.
Answer: Absolute error =100.5 =0.05MPa
Corrected error of the instrument =0.05 (160)100 =0.313
The accuracy class of the instrument should be elected as 0.35 grade.
To the industrial instrument, because there are a lot of additive errors, its
accuracy is relatively low, generally only stipulate an allowable error, and stipulate a
time interval of regular checking at the same time. So long as the reading error of each
point on the instrument scale is within the range of allowable error of the instrument,
needn't revise reading value.
1.2.4.2 Variation (lag error)
It is called instrument's variation that the ratio of the maximum deviation
between input-output characteristic curves of instruments up-and-down range when the
outer condition is constant. It usually causes because the friction of instrument
movement system, gap, lagging elasticity of elastic material, etc. as Fig 1-3 shows.
Variation =
max
X max X min
100
1.2.4.3 Repetitiveness
In the same condition, when we input signals to the same direction and change
them time after time in the scope of range, for the same input value, the consistency of
the output value is called repetitiveness. Repetitiveness is expressed by the ratio of the
maximum variance value in total range and the scope of range.
1.2.4.4 Sensitivity and insensitive zone
The definition of sensitivity is the ratio of the change of instrument's output
value and the input value that causes the change, promptly
Sensitivity=
y
x
And the scope of the input signal that cannot causes the change of output, which
is the ratio of the maximum input change amplitude and range, when changing input
10
signals to the increasing or reducing direction slowly and the input is unchanged, is
called insensitive zone.
1.2.4.5 Drift
Under keeping certain input signal, environment and working condition, after
some time, the change of output is called drift. Drift is expressed by the ratio of the
maximum variance value in total range and range. Usually drift causes reason which
electronic element is ageing, elastic materials lose efficiency, throttle materials is worn
etc.
1.2.5 Check-up method of instrument
In order to confirm whether the instrument is qualified, when it uses after certain
time or overhauls, should carry on check-up. Instrument check-up generally including
visual examination, inside parts performance check, insulating ability check and
showing value check-up, etc. Usually from showing value we can check-up and judge
whether the fundamental error or the variation of the instrument is qualified. Usually
there are two kinds of check-up methods of showing value.
1.2.5.1 Comparative method of showing value
Measure the same parameter at the same time with the standard instrument and
measured instrument, in order to confirm measured instrument error of every point.
Check-up is it no less than five point. If fundamental error and variation of each point
do not exceed allowable error that the instrument accuracy class stipulates, it is
qualified. The allowable error of Standard instrument should greater than 1/3 of
measured instrument (absolute error value).
1.2.5.2 Method of standard condition
We check instrument with the standard condition of some materials. For example
check thermometer with the condition transition point temperature of some material
(such as water, various kinds of pure metal), or check oxygen meter of engineering with
the certain characteristic of oxygen content in air etc.
11
2. Pressure Indicator
Indicators that measure pressure play a very important role in the overall thermal
process of electricity. A wide range of pressures must be measured today. Negative
pressure (vacuums) as low as 210-5 1b/in2 (1.37910 Pa) up to positive pressures as
high as 1 1b/in (6.895 GPa) must be measured in industrial equipment. This wide range
of measurement requires a number of different indicating devices.
Elastic deformation pressure indicators are used in a very large portion of all
industrial pressure indicators today. These indicators employ an element that physically
changes shape when different pressures are applied. Fig.2-1 shows three elastic
deformation elements commonly used in indicators. The spiral and helix coil elements
of Figs. 2-1A and 2-1B have a tendency to uncoil when pressure is applied. The
Bourdon tube element of Fig.2-1C tends to straighten when pressure is applied to it.
The physical change produced by these different elements can be used to move an
indicator hand on a scale or a stylus on a paper chart.
Fig.2-2 shows a disassembly view of a pressure indicator employing a

Bourdon element. With pressure applied to the element it tends to straighten
which in turn causes the indicating hand to move. Indicators of this type can be
purchased to measure pressure in a number of ranges from 15 to 1000 psi (103.425
to 6895 kPa).
A cutaway view of a typical pressure indicating recorder with a spiral element is

shown in Fig. 2-3. Pressures from 14 to 4000 psi (96.53 to 27,580 kPa) can be measured
and recorded on this type of indicator. Instruments of this type are direct-reading
pressure indicators. This means that the output is taken directly from the pressure
element. These indicators are commonly mounted at a fixed location.
2.1 Resistance Transducers

A very common resistance transducer is designed to respond to the physical
changes in pressure that are applied to a strain gage. This resulting change in resistance
is then used to cause an ac bridge to become unbalanced. Indicator values due to bridge
imbalance are then used to register precise pressure values.
14
The strain gage of a resistance transducer is generally a simple grid of fine wire.
See Fig.2-4.
The resistance of this grid changes directly with length and inversely with its
cross sectional area when the grid becomes deformed. The actual resistance of a strain
gage element is expressed by the formula:
R=
KL
A
Where
K= specific resistance constant for wire type
L= length of wire
A= cross sectional area
Only small amounts of distortion are needed to change the resistance of a strain
gage through its total range. This type of element may be formed into a variety of
different structures. The most significant change in resistance occurs when a distorting
force causes the grid wire to be elongated horizontally. As a general rule strain gages are
used to detect very small changes in pressure.
Fig. 2-5 shows an ac resistance bridge circuit attached to a strain gage. The strain
gage serves as one of the resistor legs of the bridge while the temperature
-compensating gage serves as the alternate resistive leg. Through this type of circuit
construction variations in temperature are cancelled so that only strain resistance is
measured by the bridge.
When pressure is applied to the bellows element of the indicator it causes the
beam to flex upward. This causes a corresponding change in strain gage resistance. The
bridge immediately indicates an imbalance at output points A and B. this signal voltage
is then amplified and applied to the slide-wire servomotor. The motor moves the slider
contact of the slide-wire resistor to a position that will cause the bridge to return to its
15
balanced condition. The physical position of the slider is then used to register a pressure
value on the graduated scale. The desired response speed of this type of indicator is
l
a
r
g
e
l
y
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
ed by the selected significantly to the cost of this type of indicator.
2.2 Temperature Instrumentation
Instrumentation is a common term for describing devices or procedures used in

the measurement and evaluation of industrial process applications. Temperature
instrumentation is somewhat more specialized because it applies to those things that are
primarily used to test and evaluate the temperature of a system. Precise measurement of
temperature is a key factor in nearly all manufacturing operations regardless of the

product involved in thermal systems. Instrumentation may be applied to any discrete
part of the system. It is therefore essential that a person working with this type of
16
system, or with a process control application that responds in some way to temperature,
have an understanding of the basic principles of instrumentation.
A rather general way of classifying all temperature measuring instruments is
made by comparing the temperature operating range of each device. Fig.2-6 shows
an instrument operating range comparison chart. Note that several instruments
may be capable of measuring temperatures over the same given range. However, not
all instruments are equally suited for a given temperature measurement.
Selection of a specific instrument, therefore, must take into account something
other than the temperature range. This includes such things as response time,
accuracy, life expectancy, and the basic method of operation. In general the
measuring instrument should be compatible with the capabilities of the
controller, the process, and the system.
2.3. Non-electrical Instrumentation

Temperature measurement is commonly divided into two general classifications:
those things which are electrical or electronic and those which are not. Non-electrical
instrumentation was developed first and probably has more applications today than the
electrical or electronic classification. Non-electrical instrumentation essentially
exemplifies the expansion principle. Changes in temperature will, in effect, cause
dimensional changes in solid materials or cause gas, vapor pressure, or liquids to
expand. As a result of this action, temperature can be transformed into a physical or
mechanical change that can be read on a calibrated scale.
2.4 Field System Indicators
The principle of volumetric liquid expansion with increasing temperature is
probably one of the oldest methods employed for the determination of temperature. The
glass stem thermometer which utilizes this principle was developed by G.D. Fahrenheit
in the eighteenth century. In the general range of -500 to 1000 (-295 to
537.7) this type of indicator is about as important as any other method of
measurement today.
A filled thermometer is essentially a glass tube that has a small hole bored
lengthwise, with a bulb reservoir
at one end. When the reservoir is
filled with a liquid, the remaining
tube air removed, and the top of
tube sealed, we have a closed
thermal expansion system.
Liquid
in
a
sealed
container that has a fixed but
larger volume area will expand
according
to
ambient
temperature. The expansion of
pure mercury is 0.01 percent per
degree Fahrenheit and is very
linear from its approximate
17
freezing point of -38 (-38.8) to its boiling point of 1000 (537.7).

Industrial applications of the thermometer are still rather common. Some
thermometers are permanently attached to a system while others are portable. In both
cases the thermometer is limited to only direct reading applications that are not
adaptable to recording or automatic control situations. With some degree of
modification it is possible to adapt the thermometer principle to perform these
operations. Filled temperature measuring instruments are the result of this modification.
A filled temperature measuring instrument is very similar for all practical
purposes to the sensing element, capillary tube, and pressure-volume element of a filled
system controller. In a temperature measuring instrument the end result of its operation
is a usable reading on a calibrated scale. The term temperature recorder is often used to
describe this type of device in industry.
Typical industrial filled system thermometers usually employ a circular chart and
a calibrated scale with a recording pen attached to the pressure element. Fig.2-8 shows a
partial cutaway view of a filled thermal temperature recorder, its sensor, and capillary
tube.
The pressure measuring element of Fig.2-9 responds to pressure changes
developed by the sensing element. Recorders of this type are usually available for Class
I, II, or III operation, with ranges from -450 to +1450 (-267.7 to 787.7).
A
compact version of the filled recorder is shown in Fig. 2-10. This recorder has a 6-inch
(15-cm) chart design with a 4-inch (10-cm) indicating scale. Chart rotation can be
obtained for either 24-hour or seven-day operation. Filled system recorders in general
require periodic maintenance when they are in service.
18
2.5 Bimetallic Thermometers

Bimetallic thermometers are non-electrical temperature measuring instruments
that find about the same amount of acceptance in industry as the glass bulb
thermometer.
Bimetallic
thermometers essentially make use of
the coefficient of linear expansion
principle, which states that a solid
material will change dimensionally
when its temperature is changed. If
two different kinds of metal strips are
bonded together and heated, the
resulting strip will bend in the
direction of the metal with the lower
expansion rate. The amount of
resulting deflection that occurs is
proportional to the square of the
length, the total change in temperature, and is inversely related to material thickness.
To take full advantage of the expansion principle the element of a bimetal
thermometer should be rather long. In practice the element INS formed into a flat spiral,
a single helix shape. The outside end of the element is then mounted to a structure and
an indicating band is attached to the inside loose end. An increase in temperature causes
the element to wind up, which produces a clockwise deflection. Movement of the
indicating hand registers a change in temperature on a calibrated scale.
19
F
ig
.2
1
1
s
h
o
w
s
a
n
e
x
a
m
pl
e
of
a spiral element bimetal thermometer. The sensing element in this case is exposed for
quick and accurate response to surface temperature. Where applications demand better
protection the element may be covered with a protective cover.
2.6 Electrical and Electronic Instrumentation
Electrical instrumentation is somewhat different from non-electrical measuring
techniques. First of all, electricity must be supplied by an auxiliary source in order to
make the system function. Secondly, a transducer is employed to change temperature
variations in to electrical signals. This type of instrumentation also has the advantage of
small-mass sensing elements which can be located an effective distance from the
measuring area. In addition to this, electronic instrumentation lends itself well to
portable applications that increase the versatility of measuring equipment.
Electrical and electronic instrumentation is primarily classified according to the
fundamental operating principle of the sensing element. In practice this includes
resistance changes, voltage generation, and radiation and optical comparisons. The
sensing element or transducer of these instruments must have the ability to distinguish
between temperature changes and judge the amount of heat in an object.
Temperature measuring transducers are very similar to those used in the sensor
element of a controller. In fact, sensor elements are often used interchangeably in
controllers and temperature recorders. These functions are frequently combined to
achieve both control and temperature indications in a recording type of controller. Due
to the uniqueness of temperature instrumentation and the importance of it as a system
measuring function, we will now direct our attention to the operation of some of the
20
commercially available instruments used by industry.

2.7 Thermo-resistant Instrumentation
Thermo-resistant instrumentation is based on the property of certain metals to
change resistance when subjected to heat. In general, all metals possess this
characteristic to some extent. The selection of a specific metal for use as a thermoresistant element depends upon several factors. The most significant of these
considerations is the purity of the metal and its ability to be formed into a fine wire. In
addition to this the metal should respond to rapid changes in temperature, have a
repeatable temperature coefficient, respond over a linear resistance range, and possess a
high resistance temperature change ratio.
The sensor of a thermo-resistant instrument is simply a long piece of wire formed
into the shape of a coil wound around a ceramic core. The entire assembly is then
enclosed in a protective sheath. Connection to the wire coil is made by passing leads
through the ceramic core forming a stress relief junction. Fig.2-12 shows a crosssectional view of a typical industrial type resistance thermal detector, or RTD, element.
Note that the active length of the sensor is quite small compared with the rest of the
assembly. Today thermo-resistive sensing elements are constructed from a number of
common metals and alloys. Among these, platinum, nickel, tungsten, and copper are
frequently used with odium; rhodium, silver, iron, and tantalum are used occasionally.
Of these metals platinum is the best suited for industrial applications. It is readily
available in nearly a pure state and can be easily formed into wire. In addition to this it
has linear resistance over a very useful range. The accuracy of platinum is so good that
it serves as the international standard for temperatures between -297.35 and
+1102.9 (-182.9 to 594.9).
The display or readout of a thermo-resistive instrument is ordinarily obtained by

connecting the sensing element output to a bridge circuit. Two-, three-, and four-wire
bridge circuit configurations are in use today. A simple two-wire bridge circuit is shown
in Fig.2-13. Note that the RTD element is connected to the bridge as Rx.
21
The resistance relationship of a bridge circuit (Fig.2-13) when it is balanced is

expressed by the formula:
R2/R1= R3/RRTD
When balance occurs the current through R2 and R3 equals that through R1 and
the RTD element. A zero deflection of the meter shows this condition.
To determine temperature, the resistance of the RTD sensor must first be
determined. In practice R3 is adjusted to produce a balance indication on the
galvanometer after the RTD has changed value. The resistance of RTD is then
determined by the formula:
R = R1/R2R3
(balance)
When the value of the RTD element is determined, temperature can be
determined by locating this value on a sensor resistance-temperature graph.
Typical temperature bridge circuits often have R3 calibrated in temperature
values instead of resistance. As a result of this, when the circuit is balanced, the
temperature is read directly from a calibrated dial or on a scale. Fig. 2-14 shows a
representative resistance thermometer bridge of this type.
22
An automatic self-balancing Wheatstone bridge resistance thermometer circuit is

shown in Fig.2-15. With this type of circuit any condition of imbalance caused by heat
applied to the resistance element is recognized and corrected by the slide-wire resistor
balancing motor. An indication of this change is then recorded on a suitable scale or
chart.
The operation of a self-balancing bridge thermometer is based upon the dc

voltage developed across the bridge circuit as a result of the resistance element. Any dc
voltage appearing at points A-A is changed into an alternating current by action of the
electromagnetic converter. By input transformer action this ac is stepped up and applied
to a voltage amplifier at points B-B. The output of the voltage amplifier at points C-C is
then used to drive the power amplifier. Power amplifier output at points D-D then
controls the rotation and direction of the balancing motor. Mechanical connection of the
motor and slide-wire potentiometer is made through points E-E. As a result of this
action an increase or decrease in element resistance is automatically transposed into a
physical change in slide-wire resistance which nulls the bridge. This action can also be
used to drive a recording stylus or deflect a meter, thus indicating the temperature of the
resistance element. Temperature recorders of this type are commonly used to monitor
continuous temperature values in process control applications.
A rather recent addition to the thermoresistant measuring device family is the

23
portable digital readout type of instrument. Fig.2-16 shows an instrument of this type
that will measure temperatures over a range of -50 to 900 (-45.5 to 482.2).
The resolution of this instrument with a platinum RTD probe is 0.1 (0.05 ). Similar
models have ranges for -50 to 500, 0 to 2000 (-17.7 to 1093.3), and
0to 1370. By placing the sensor probe on a surface, in liquids, powders, air, or
gases an instant digital reading is obtained.
A simplified block diagram of a representative digital thermometer is shown in

Fig.2-17. The operation of this circuit centers around an as table multivibrator. This part
of the circuit is designed to change temperature or analog information into a digital
signal. The sensor probe resistance is part of the frequency determining network of the
multivibrator. An increase in temperature causes a corresponding increase in probe
resistance, which ultimately causes an increase in output frequency. The output of the
analog-to-digital converter is then applied to a counting circuit. The pulses which occur
in binary form are counted, decoded, and applied to the readout part of the display for
an indication of temperature.
The display response time is very rapid. Some models of the thermometer will
trigger and hold momentarily at the maximum sensing temperature. The versatility of
this device plus its operational simplicity and accuracy makes it a very popular
industrial temperature measuring instrument.
2.8 Thermocouple Indicators
24
Thermocouple indicators respond to the electrical property that a dc voltage is

generated when two dissimilar metals are heated at a common connection point. The
resulting voltage measured across the free ends of the thermocouple wires can be used
to indicate the temperature applied to the measuring junction. Fig.2-18 shows a
simplified circuit diagram of
thermocouple
temperature
indicator.
In
industrial
applications this type of
instrument is commonly called
a millivolt pyrometer or simply
a pyrometer. When heat is
applied to the thermocouple
measuring junction a resulting
voltage appears at the free ends
or reference junction. This
voltage causes a corresponding
current in a series circuit
formed by the meter coil,
compensating
resistor,
and
thermocouple. The resulting
current through the meter coil
produces an electromagnetic field. This electromagnetic field is in opposition to the
permanent magnetic field surrounding the coil by the horseshoe shaped magnet. An
interaction between the electromagnetic field and the permanent magnetic field causes
the meter coil to move or deflect. An indicating pointer attached to the coil displays the
amount of deflection in degrees of temperature or millivolts.
Several different types of thermocouples are available today for industrial
applications. The combination of metals must possess a reasonably linear temperaturemillivolt relationship to be of value in this type of measurement. Fig. 2-19 shows the
temperature-millivolt characteristic of several common types of thermocouples.
25
An indicating recorder circuit diagram for a continuous balance thermocouple

temperature measuring system is shown in Fig.2-20. Note that this circuit is very similar
to the self-balancing Wheatstone bridge resistance thermometer of Fig.2-15. The
primary difference in the two circuits is in the thermocouple connection to the bridge.
The final operation of this circuit is essentially the same as the previous circuit.
When more accurate thermocouple measurements are desired, it is a rather

common practice to use cold junction compensation. In this situation a reference
junction is placed between the thermocouple and the meter or readout device. The
reference junction is then maintained at a constant temperature of 0, or 32. Fig2-21
shows a schematic drawing of a thermocouple circuit with cold-junction compensation.
With this addition to the circuit the only variables that remain are the cold-junction
26
temperature and the resistance of the reference-junction readout leads wires. Special
cold-junction compensators and ice-point cells simplify this measuring technique.
2.9 Thermistor Instrumentation

Thermistors are one of the simplest and most versatile temperature measuring
components available. This component, being a solid-state device, differs from its RTD
counterpart by having a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. As a result,
increases in temperature cause a corresponding decrease in resistance. This effect is the
reverse of that in a metal which has a positive temperature coefficient.
The process of measuring temperature with a thermistor simply involves a
process of monitoring corresponding circuit changes in current or voltage. The circuit of
Fig.2-22 shows a dc energy source, a variable resistor, a thermistor, and a micro
ammeter. Any temperature change that takes place around the thermistor will produce a
change in current. With the meter calibrated in temperature values, direct readings can
be obtained from the meter. In this type of circuit the thermistor may be located a long
distance from the other circuit components without adversely affecting accuracy.
Additional copper wire, for example, only adds a negligible amount of circuit resistance
to a normally high-resistance circuit.
Two additional thermistor measuring circuits are shown in Fig.2-23. In these

bridge circuit configurations additional temperature sensitivity is achieved. The meter in
both circuits is a zero-centered galvanometer. The sensitivity of the galvanometer
determines the temperature range indicated by the meter. In some cases a full-scale
deflection may correspond to a reading of only 1.
27
When two thermistors are used in a bridge circuit differential comparisons can be
made. If the two thermistors are placed in different locations a greater circuit imbalance
will occur. If matched thermistors are used it will be possible to detect temperature
changes as low as of 0.0005 on the galvanometer of this circuit.
Thermistor temperature measuring circuits are inherently sensitive, stable, fast
responding, and require rather simple circuitry. Lead length is not a significant problem
and device polarity does not effectively alter circuit operation. In addition to this the
thermistor does not require reference temperatures or cold-junction compensation and it
is rather inexpensive. Its disadvantages are nonlinearity over wide spans and instability
for temperatures in excess of 200. The uniqueness of a thermistor to produce changes
in resistance that is almost entirely a function of temperature makes it a vital industrial
measuring device.
2.10 Level Measuring Techniques
The first and most significant part of determination is a measuring technique. In
this regard, level must be measured and evaluated before it can be decided whether a
control action is needed. In practice, level is either measured direct method uses an
actual physical change in the material itself to obtain a measurement. An inferential
method, by comparison, employs some outside variable such as pressure to indicate
changes in level. Typically, mechanical mechanisms, pressure gages, and diaphragm
elements are used to achieve this type of measurement. Mechanical, pneumatic, and
electrical controllers are ultimately energized by these measurement techniques.
The Buoyant-Force Principle Buoyant-force level sensors respond to the
Archimedes principle, which was discovered around 250 B.C.: A body placed in water
is buoyed up by a force that is equal to the weight of the water it displaces. The body in
28
this case is commonly called a float. In effect the float is actually a liquid-level to
mechanical-motion transducer.
Float Level Sensors In general the float mechanism element rides on the
surface of the liquid in a tank as a means of detecting point a mechanical action signal is
generated. In practice float level changes are commonly used to control electrical switch
contacts or pneumatic valve operation. Typically this action is of the digital type that
turns a liquid control valve on when the level is low or off when it is full.
Fig. 2-24 shows a liquid-level controller with a Teflon float mounted on a short
float arm. A change in buoyant force of less than one ounce (28.35g) applied to this
float causes full actuation of the micro-switch. This particular level controller will
operate in liquids having a minimum specific gravity of 0.5.
Fig. 2-25 shows a cutaway view of a permanent-magnet float-actuated liquidlevel switch. In this unit one permanent magnet is attached to the float which rises and
falls with changes in liquid level. A second permanent magnet is mounted in the switch
head. The magnets are positioned so those like poles face each other through a
nonmagnetic diaphragm. Changes in liquid level will cause the float to follow
accordingly. When the float magnet is positioned close to the headmagnet, repulsion
occurs. This, in effect, gives a snap-action operation of the switch can be used to turn a
pump on or off.
29
A permanent-magnet float-actuated liquid-level switch with pneumatic control is

shown in Fig. 2-26. A rise in liquid level will cause the float to be positioned in the
upward direction. This action causes the float magnet to repel the head magnet
downward. As a result of this, air supplied to inlet A passes into outlet c and is coupled
to a control valve or pressure switch that stops the flow into the tank.
A decrease in liquid level causes the float to change to the position indicated in
the diagram. In this position, inlet supply air is shut off and vent B is opened to exhaust
the control valve or pressure switch air into the atmosphere. Through this operation
there is no significant loss in air other than that exhausted during the changeover action.
The maximum supply pressure that can be handled by this type of controller is 100 psi
(6970 KPa).
A liquid level controller that operates on the magnetic float principle is shown in
Fig. 2-27. In this controller a single magnetic float travels up and down the entire length
of a guide tube of any practical length can be attached to the unit. Up to 12 magnetically
latched reed switches are placed at desired levels in the guide tube. As the magnet
passes a given control level it magnetically actuates a reed switch which energizes
externally mounted relays. With this type of unit, level adjustments can be easily
achieves by altering the position of a common support wire in the guide tube. This type
of controller is quite versatile, very reliable, can be adjusted, and is quickly installed. It
is commonly used in a broad range of applications requiring accurate multiple-level
control for nearly any type of liquid.
Displacer Level Sensors The displacement level sensor is somewhat different
when compared with the float type of level sensor. Displacer elements, for example,
respond to a force that is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the sensing
element. Sensors of this type employ a probe that is submerged in the liquid.
30
Fig. 2-28 shows an illustration of the displace principle. In the low-level part of
the diagram (Fig. 2-28A) the buoyant force FB is quite small and the displacer weight
force Fw is large. The resulting effect of this condition causes the connecting cable
spring assembly to be fully loaded by the weight of the displacer.
In the high-level application of the displacer (Fig.2-28B) the action is reversed.
Buoyant force is increased due to the rise in liquid level change the connecting cable
spring assembly has reduced loading. Less deflection of the indicator hand demonstrates
the physical change that has taken place.
31
The physical change in force that occurs in the displacer element can be used to
indicate liquid levels changes or to actuate a controllers generally respond to a two-state
or digital switching action. Some advantages of the displacer over the float type of
controller element are an extended range of level control, immunity to surface to fluid
density.
A displacer-actuated pneumatic liquid-level controller is shown in Fig. 2-29.
Force developed by the displacer of this unit is transmitted to the pneumatic relay by a
constantly engaged magnetic field. The transmitter force is dependent upon the amount
of liquid displaced and the resulting output is an increasing or decreasing linear signal.
In operation an increase in liquid level unloads the displacer spring. This change
in force is then transmitted to inner magnet D and through the magnetic field to outer
magnet C. The force balance beam continues the transmission process by applying force
to actuating arm F. This action in turn compresses the air inlet port. This immediately
causes an increase in air pressure to the tank by seating the valve.
When a decrease in liquid level occurs, the action of the displacer is reversed.
Displacer spring tension is increased, which forces magnets D and C downward. This
action is again transmitted through the force balance beam to the exhaust tube to lift
32
from the ball. As a result, control valve pressure bleeds off through the exhaust. This
action, in turn, cause the valve seat to open, which now admits more liquid to the tank.
Fig. 2-30 shows a cutaway view of a typical displacer-actuated pneumatic liquid-level
controller.
Capacitance Level Sensors By definition a capacitor is considered as two or

more electrical conductors separated by a dielectric or insulating material. If a probe
made of two metal conductors forms a capacitor, it can be used to a dielectric that
changes the value of the capacitor probe as it changes level. Liquids applied to metal
rods must be nonconductive or have a low dielectric constant.
Fig. 2-31 shows a cross-section view of a capacitor probe used to determine
liquid level of materials with a low dielectric constant. When liquid enters the probe, the
capacitor increases. The change, in this case, occurs because the dielectric constant of
the liquid is greater than air. A probe exposed to air with a dielectric constant of 1.0
could have a normal capacitance of 10 pF. When the same probe is completely
immersed in a liquid, such as chlorine, with a dielectric constant of 2.0, its capacitance
changes to 200 pF. Changes in capacitance can therefore be equated to linear changes in
liquid level. A capacitance bridge excited by frequencies of 500 kHz or 1.5 MHz is
normally used to determine capacitance which is translated into feet or meters.
33
When conducting liquid levels are to be measured by the capacitance method,

there is a rather decided change in the installation. A single insulated conductor probe
serves as one plate of the capacitor while the metal tank serves as the other conductor.
See Fig. 2-32. Level changes in the conducting material of the tank again produce a
change in capacitance. The change in capacitance still increases linearity with level.
A unique feature of the insulated probe type of installation is that it can be used
to measure both conductive and nonconductive liquids. Fig. 2-33 shows a single-point
capacitance probe.
Capacitance can also be used to determine liquid levels without actually touching
the liquid. Installations of this type employ a proximity probe as shown in Fig. 2-34.
Applications of this type are used to detect level changes where the liquid is above
800F (426C) pr where it contaminates or coats an immersed probe.
In a proximity sensor application level changes produce a capacitance change
between the sensor plate and the liquid surface. In practice, capacitance changes
detected by the sensor probe are used to produce changes in the frequency of an
oscillator. Frequency counters are then used to register frequency values which are
ultimately expressed in level indications or feet or meters. Installations of this type
usually have a digital readout as a level indicator.
34
The advantages and disadvantages of capacitance level determination should be

somewhat obvious after the preceding discussion. On the plus side there are no moving
parts and the installation is quite simple. The proximity unit is excellent for hot liquids
because it does not make contact with the liquid. In contrast, the disadvantages are that
accuracy is affected by material characteristics and probe coating, and that some rather
sophisticated equipment is needed to detect changes in capacitance, this method of level
determination is somewhat expensive and should be used only where its selection can
be adequately justified.
3. Flow Process System

3.1 Flow Processing Principles
In an investigation of flow processing systems one frequently encounters a
number of terms and principles that find rather common usage. In many cases these
terms are not particularly unique to flow process applications. They are, however, quite
important and often serve as the basis of a control principle or measurement technique.
A brief definition of these terms is presented here as a general review.
Differential pressure: The difference in pressure between two distinct sources
measured with respect t each other.
Flow, laminar: Flow that is streamlined or moves parallel with the path.
Head: Pressure resulting from gravitational forces on liquids. Head is measured
in terms of liquid depth with respect to a free surface and a zero reference.
Orifice: A small symmetrical hole or aperture placed in a piece of material. The
diameter is generally larger than the thickness of the material.
Pitot tube: A cylinder tube, with an open end pointed upstream, that is used to
measure input pressure.
35
Reynolds number: A flow value based upon the product of fluid density, flow
velocity, and internal pipe diameter, divided by the viscosity of the fluid.
Rotameter: A fluid flow measuring device with a tapered tube and a float
element.
Slurry: A liquid that contains suspended solid particulate matter.
Turbulent flow: A type of flow that occurs when the rate exceeds 4000
Reynolds.
Venturi: A length of tube with a varying cross-sectional area. Flow through the
tube causes a pressure drop according to the velocity of flow.
Viscosity: The resistance of fluid to flow.
Weir: A form of obstruction placed across an open liquid stream to raise the
liquid level for flow measurement.
3.2 Flow Instrumentation Equipment
In industry today flow equipment plays a very significant role in manufacturing.
A very high percentage of all industrial materials, at some time, are subjected to a type
of flow processing during manufacturing. Flow has therefore become an essential
division of industrial processing.
One way of classifying equipment associated with the flow process is to place it
in two rather general divisions. Flow rate instrumentation is one major division. This
type of equipment is used to determine the amount of fluid that moves past a given
point at a particular instant. Totalizing flow measurement is the other classification.
Instrumentation of this type responds to total flow that moves past a given point during
a specified period.
Totalizing and rate flow instrumentation have a rather wide range of applications
in industry. In general the material that flows in the system is very important. Liquids,
gases, and solid particulates suspended in liquid are typical materials that respond to
flow instrumentation. Some degree of instrument modification must take place in order
for the instrument to respond to more than one type of material flow.
Another very important way of classifying flow instrumentation is through
grouping according to the principle of operation and design. In this regard methods
include head flow meters, area flowmeters, magnetic instruments, velocity flowmeters,
positive displacement instruments, and obstructionless flowmeters.
The selection of a particular type of instrument according to its principle of
operation is based upon the material being measured, flow volume, accuracy, and the
type of control desired. In this classification of instruments there are many unique
methods of determining flow. Strangely enough, very few of these instruments have
found very widespread acceptance in industry because of their limitations and cost. In
this discussion of flowmeter principles we will try to point out the limitations and
advantages of each instrument as it is presented.
3.3 Head Flowmeters
The head pressure metering principle is used rather extensively in a number of
industrial flowmeters. Essentially this type of instrument takes advantage of the fact that
a change in pressure will occur when liquids or gases are forced to flow through a
36
restriction placed in a flow path. The resulting difference in pressure or head is

ultimately used to indicate different values of flow. In practice, flow or head pressure is
measured before and after a restriction. The pressure differential is then changed into an
indication of flow rate.
Fig.3-1 shows a simplification of the head principle. Flowmeters that employ this
principle are used primarily to measure clean fluids. This type of device is rather low in
cost, requires very little maintenance, usually has no moving parts, and is easily
installed in a system. The restriction part of this instrument is commonly called the
primary element. The secondary element of the instrument is used to indicate a
difference in head pressure before and after the restriction. The position of the pressure
test points, called the vena contract taps, are located on pipe diameter upstream and at
the point of minimum pressure downstream from the restriction.
Head Theory The head type of flowmeter illustrates a fundamental law known
as Bernoullis principle. This principle states that the higher the speed of a flowing
streams of fluid or gas, the lower the resulting pressure. A decrease in flow speed
likewise causes a corresponding increase in pressure. In practice, flow moves faster
through the narrow portion of a pipe than through the wider portion. This means that a
restriction placed in the flow path will cause a corresponding change in flow speed. As a
result of this action, there will be a decided pressure differential developed before and
after the restriction. A measurement of this pressure differential can be used then to
establish flow rate.
Bernoullis principle applies to flowmeters by altering the velocity of the flow
stream in some predetermined manner. Typically there is a physical change in the crosssectional area of the flow path. The velocity of flow passing through this diminished
cross-sectional area increases, which in turn causes a corresponding decrease in
pressure on the downstream side. The pressure differential between the throat and
downstream side of the restricted area is used to indicate flow rate.
Head Flowmeter Types The head principle of operation is used extensively in
37
industry for a number of flowmeter applications. These instruments in general are

inexpensive, very reliable, have accuracies of 1/4 to 2 percent of full scale, and can be
selected from a number of different range values. Measurement and control applies to
the flow of incompressible gases, liquids, and slurries. Typical instruments in this
classification employ orifice plates, venture tubes, flow nozzles, target meters, and pitot
tubes.
3.3.1 Orifice Plate Flowmeters
Measuring flow as a result of the differential pressure developed across an orifice
dates back to the days of Falileo and Bernoulli in the early 1700s. Commercial use of
the orifice principle, however, has been confined to rather recent times when process
applications created a need for this method of control. In spite of the wide range of
instruments available, the orifice plate flowmeter still ranks as one of the most widely
used methods of measuring flow.
The orifice plate of a flowmeter serves as the primary measuring element or
sensor of the instrument. This part of the instrument comes in a wide variety of different
types and styles. Four representative types are shown in Fig.3-2.
The paddle-type of orifice plate of Fig.3-2A is available with a concentric bore,

as indicated, or with an eccentric or segmental bore. These plates are normally made of
stainless steel but are available in other materials. Concentric orifice plates are used to
develop differential pressure levels where liquid volumetric flow rate metering is
desired. The concentric universal-type of orifice plate of Fig.3-2D is similar in
operation, but requires a different housing.
An eccentric orifice plate is shown in Fig. 3-2B. In this plate the orifice is located
at a tangent to the pipe wall diameter. This type of orifice is commonly used in
38
horizontal pipe installations. Eccentric plates are used to meter gas, vapor containing
some liquid, or liquids contaminated with solids. For the best accuracy concentric
orifices should be used whenever possible.
A segmental orifice plate is shown in Fig. 3-2C. This type of plate is used in
applications similar to those of the eccentric orifice. Specifically this plate is used to
prevent the damming up of material when used in horizontal lines. Segmental plates
have reduced accuracy when compared with the concentric type of orifice.
A cross-sectional view of a typical orifice plate installation and the resulting flow
diagram is show in Fig. 3-3. In this illustration the orifice plate is of the concentric type.
Fluid passing through the sharp-square edge opening forms a unique flow contour as
shown. The diameter of the flow stream immediately in back of the orifice is called the
vena contract area. The area of the stream at this point is equivalent to the diameter of
the orifice.
Orifice plates are normally installed between a pair of flanges as shown in Fig. 33. In some installations it is possible to replace the orifice plate without interrupting the
flow. In practice a straight run of smooth pipe should be installed before and after the
orifice. The length of pipe required is dependent upon the beta ratio of the system. This
ratio compares inside pipe diameter to orifice diameter. The beta ratio determines the
flow velocity and differential pressure of the system.
In orifice plate flowmeters there is continuous contact between the flow material
and the orifice plate. Any change in orifice diameter, surface, or edge shape will have a
pronounced effect on the resulting differential pressure developed. The orifice must
therefore be kept free of wear and corrosion in order to maintain an accurate indication
of flow. Orifice plate flowmeters are therefore best suited for clean measuring
applications of liquid and gas.
3.3.2 Venturi Tube Flowmeters
39
The general theory of operation and performance of a venturi tube is similar to

that of the orifice plate flowmeter. This type of flowmeter is primarily designed for
slurry measurements and for liquids that contain solids in suspension.
The construction of a venturi tube consists of a main barrel section that first
decreases in diameter and a discharge section that expands again to the original
diameter. The restricted area increases flow velocity and decreases head pressure.
Differential pressure measured at one-half of the pipe diameter upstream and at the
center of the throat restriction is used to indicate flow rate.
Fig. 3-4 shows a representative venturi tube for measuring clean fluid flow. The
piezometer ring at the entrance and the throat section is used to measure pressure. This
part of the venturi tube contains a set of holes distributed around a ring to indicate
average pressure. When slurries or dirty liquids are to be measured the piezometer ring
is exchanged for a pressure ring tube.
The construction of a venturi tube is designed so that it has no sudden changes in

contour, projections, or sharp corners placed in the flow path. Through this type of
construction dirty fluids can be readily measured without plugging up or clogging the
flow path. Venturi tubes may be round, as in Fig.3-4, eccentric, or rectangular in shape.
They may be inserted into larger pipes or serve as single sections of pipe.
The major limitation of a venturi tube type of flowmeter is its construction cost.
The accuracy of measurement is also somewhat less than a sharp-edged concentric
orifice plate. It will, however, permit a rather accurate measurement of approximately
two-thirds more fluid at the same differential head pressure than a thin-plate sharpedged orifice of the same size. Flowmeters of the venturi type are primarily used to
measure dirty flow streams and in high-velocity flow applications.
3.3.3 Flow Nozzles
Flow nozzles are the primary element of a type of flowmeter that also employs
the restriction principle to develop differential head pressure in a flow path. A flow
nozzle has a unique bell-shaped flare on the flow approach section which follows into a
40
cylindrical throat section. Differential pressure is developed at taps located one pipe
diameter in front of the approach and one-half diameter to the rear of the section. Fig. 35 shows a cross-sectional view of the construction of a flow nozzle.
Due to the streamlined contour of the flow nozzle inlet, high-velocity flows can
be easily measured without causing erosion problems and clogging. Since the precision
of the contour is not critical in measurement, flow nozzles can be expected to remain in
calibration for long periods under rather adverse flow in this downward direction. Flow
nozzles in general are much more cent more flow will pass through a nozzle than an
orifice plate, and the nozzle develops the same differential pressure as the orifice plate.
Applications of the flow nozzle instruments are commonly found in highvelocity fluid flow and steam measurement where erosion may cause a problem for
other primary elements. The streamlined contour of the flow nozzle also tends to pass
suspended solids through the restriction without a problem. Flow calculations for a flow
nozzle are very similar to those of the venturi tube and orifice plate.
3.3.4 Target Flowmeters
The primary element of a target flowmeter is an annular orifice that is placed in a
section of pipe or tubing. See Fig.3-6. The annular orifice is formed by a circular disc
that is placed in the center of the flow path. Flow through the open ring area between
the disc and the inside tubing diameter develops a force on the disc that is proportional
to the velocity head pressure. Mechanical motion of the disc is transferred through a
connecting rod that passes through a flexible seal. Head pressure is measured by a
secondary element that responds to the amount of mechanical motion produced by the
connecting rod.
A cross-sectional view of an industrial flowmeter of the target type is shown in
Fig.3-7. The target disc appears in the center of the orifice area. The disc is supported
by the force arm. Mechanical motion of the target is transferred to the top of the unit,
which severs as a force-balance transmitter.
Target flowmeters are in general used to measure liquids, vapors, and gases. This
type of instrument is particularly well suited for hard-to-measure applications that
include condensates, hot materials, dirty liquids, or viscous flows. It usually gives
consistent and dependable service for long periods. There are no differential pressure
41
taps to become clogged and this type of instrument can be used in service up to 700 0F
(3710C) if needed.
The target area of the primary element ranges is available in sizes from 0.6 to 0.8
times the diameter of the flow tube. Available sizes range from 1/2-inch to 8-inch (1.27to 20.32-cm) pipe diameters. Flow around the annular orifice has the advantage of being
less sensitive to changes in the Reynolds number and to improvement in this area takes
place when the target size is 0.8 of the flow tube diameter. Two representative target
flowmeters are shows in Fig. 3-8.
3.3.5 Pitot Tube Flowmeters

A Pitot tube is the primary element of a laboratory type of flowmeter that
compares the head of a flowing stream with a static head. Typically this element of the
instrument balances the velocity head of a flowing stream with a liquid head of mercury
42
or water in a secondary measuring element such as a manometer. See the simplified

Pitot tube flowmeter of Fig. 3-9.
An elementary Pitot tube has two pressure passages in its construction. One faces
into the direction of the flow stream and intercepts a small portion of the flow axis and
reacts to static pressure. The difference in pressure between these two heads is
proportional to the square of the stream velocity in the vicinity of the impact area
(defined below) of the Pitot tube.
A pitot tube flowmeter is often described as an impact type of instrument. The
pressure passage facing into the flow stream is normally called the impact area. This
type of flowmeter in general causes practically no pressure loss to the flowing stream
because of the size of the impact tube. Pitot tubes are easily inserted into a flow steam
by installation through a nipple in the side of a pipe or tube. In test work the tube is
installed through a gate valve with packing, so that it can be easily moved across the
stream to establish a flow velocity profile.
The venturi Pitot of Fig. 3-10 is a common variation of the Pitot tube that is often
used to develop an increased differential pressure. Impact pressure is developed in the
same manner as that of a conventional Pitot tube. This pressure, which is the impact
head minus the static head, is then compared with the venturi head pressure. The
differential pressure in this type of instrument is much greater than that of a
conventional Pitot tube.
43
Pitot tube primary elements are used rather sparingly in most industrial
flowmeter applications sparingly in most industrial flowmeter applications. They are
primarily used in research work, laboratory testing operations, and to perform spot tests
of an operating system. The tendency of the Pitot tube to become clogged, its limited
velocity measuring range, and its sensitivity to abnormal velocity distribution effects
tend to limit its usefulness. In general, a number of improvements in other flowmeters
have reduced the primary importance of this instrument.
3.4 Variable Area Flow Meters
The variable area flowmeter is one of the simplest and most elementary methods
of determining flow rate. It essentially consists of a metering float and a tapered tube
that is larger in diameter at the top. Flow entering the tapered tube at the bottom lifts the
float, which indicates flow rate on a calibrated scale. The density of the float is
generally greater than that of the flowing substance being measured. This is designed so
that the buoyant effect alone is not sufficient to lift the float.
Variable area flowmeters operate on a principle that is very closely related to the
head pressure type of instrument using an orifice. In the orifice type of instrument there
is a fixed aperture and flow rate is determined as a function of the developed differential
pressure. In a variable area instrument the tapered tube serves as a variable orifice that
develops a rather constant pressure drop. Flow rate is thus indicated by the area of the
tapered opening through which the flow must pass. This area is indicated by the position
that the float takes in the tapered orifice.
There are three basic forms of variable area flowmeters in common usage today.
Rotameters are the most common form of
flowmeter in this classification. They employ
a tapered upright glass or plastic calibrated
tube with a dense float. Orifice meters are a
variation of the rotameter that has a fixed
orifice and a tapered float. Piston meters are
the third division of this classification. They
incorporate an accurately fitted piston in a
sleeve that is lifted by flow pressure. All
three forms of instruments are available as
either direct reading meters or can be used to
generate an output for remote indicator
installations.
Rotameter
The rotameter is a
variable area type of flowmeter that consists
of a tapered metering tube and a float that is
free to move within the tube (Fig.3-11). The
entire unit is mounted vertically with the
small end of the tapered tube at the bottom.
The flow material to be measured enters the
bottom of the tube and exits at the top. In making its path through the tube the flowing
44
material causes the float is read on a calibrated scale that indicates gallons per minute
(gpm) for liquids or standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) for gas flow.
Fig.3-11 shows a cross-sectional view of a rotameter. When no fluid or gas is
flowing, the float comes to rest at the bottom of the tapered tube. The float is usually
designed so that it blocks off the small end of the flow tube completely. When flow
occurs the buoyant effect of the applied gas or fluid and the force of the flow lifts the
float. This causes the float to raise a proportional amount according to the flow rate. As
the float moves toward the larger end of the tapered tube the flow path cross-sectional
area increases. The process continues until all of the flow material passes around the
float. When the velocity head pressure of the flow plus its buoyant effect equals the
float weight, dynamic equilibrium occurs. The float then maintains this position as an
indication of the flow rate.
The glass tube rotameter of Fig. 3-12 is commonly used to measure gas and
liquid flow in line sizes 2 inches in diameter and less. This type of instrument is widely
used where the fluid is free of entrained solids and where it can be mounted and viewed
in a suitable location. Accuracy ranges from 2 percent for inexpensive instruments to
0.5 percent of the full-scale range in precision instruments. Typical range spans of
45
measurement are 12 to 1.
A moderately priced molded-plastic flowmeter is shown in Fig. 3-13. This
instrument employs a ribbed-bore taper tube that guides and stabilizes a ball float.
Through this type of construction the float is held in the center of the flow area. It
reduces turbulence and provides a smooth flow through the tapered area. The window
area, which is attached to the flow surface, provides a quick and easy display of float
position. Scale sizes are available in 10, 5, and 2 inches (approximately 25, 13, and 5
cm) with the longest scale providing an accuracy of 2 percent.
When rotameters are used to record flow rates on chart recorders or transmit
information to a remote location, they must employ some type of mechanism that will
respond to the position of the float. One very common method used to achieve this
operation is to attach the float of a rotameter to a permanent magnet. Magnetic coupling
through this action is then used to generate an output signal that is representative of
flow rate. For electrical displays,
magnetic output is often used to alter
the impedance of a bridge circuit. For
recording or pneumatic output a
magnetic following mechanism is
often used.
Fig.
3-14
shows
a
representative magnetic rotameter
take-out mechanism that is used to
drive the pen of a recorder. The
extension of the float or plummet is
attached to a permanent magnet.
Changes in flow rate are transmitted
as magnet position locations inside of
an extension tube. A second
permanent magnet is located outside
of the extension tube, and is free to
follow the movement of the internal
magnet. The external magnet is
connected to a lever and links that
driver a pen mechanism. Through this unit flow rate values may be graphically recorded
on a chart for permanent records.
Orifice-Plug Flowmeters Orifice-plug flowmeters employ a tapered float
assembly and a fixed-diameter orifice. This type of instrument is often considered to be
a compact low-cost version of the larger glass-tube rotameter. Fig. 3-15 shows the
construction of an orifice-plug flowmeter.
46
In operation, flow is admitted to the bottom of the instrument and exits at the top.
The ratio of float weight to plug diameter is generally quite high for this meter, which
results in flow rates larger than those of a glass tube rotameter. An increase in flow lifts
the tapered float assembly out of the orifice. The output of the meter is then developed
by a permanent magnet located in the float.
The position of the float magnet is tracked by
an external follower magnet attached to an
indicator. The housing of the meter must be
nonmetallic in order for a coupling of the
magnetic fields. Flowmeters of this type are
commonly used in applications where high
accuracy is not essential and compact size and
cost are important.
Piston-Type Meters Piston flowmeters
employ a sleeve or cylinder which is held in a
cast body and a fitted piston or metering plug.
Orifices cut into the sleeve are uncovered by
the position of the piston until sufficient area is
opened to permit passage of the flow being
measured. Metering of flow is achieved by
location of the orifice area and consequently
the rate of flow. The position of the piston can
be viewed through a window on a calibrated
scale, by a magnetic follower, or by a
mechanical hand-deflection mechanism.
Fig. 3-16 shows a variable area
flowmeter of the piston type that is used to
transmit flow rate measurements to indicating,
recording, or controlling equipment at remote
47
locating, recording, or controlling equipment at remote locations. This particular

instrument indicates flow rate on a uniformly graduated scale. The unit is installed
horizontally in a pipe line with the spring assembly pointing down.
Fluid applied to the instrument enters the housing on the left and exits from the
right side. Upon entering the housing it must first flow downward through the cage and
then upward through the metering ports before exiting. The upward flow of the fluid is
restricted fluid is counterbalanced by pressure applied downward on the metering plug
by the loading spring. Movement of the metering plug is directly proportional to the rate
of flow while the differential pressure developed by the spring is kept constant. Position
of the metering plug is then transferred through a spindle/linkage mechanism to the
indicating hand.
In general, piston type flowmeter operation is influenced to some extent by the
viscosity of the flow and must be calibrated to accommodate each type of flow. This
type of instrument is primarily used to measure clean fluids and highly viscous fluids
that are free of particles. Metering scale ranges are 50 to 1 with a sensitivity of 0.25
percent. Common applications are to measure the flow of kerosene, gasoline, oil, tar,
and other clean petroleum-base liquids. Pipe sizes of this instrument are normally in the
3- to 5- inch (7.6-to 12.7-cm) range. Piston flowmeters are commonly used to measure
specific flow materials and are considered to be specialized instruments.
3.5 Velocity Flowmeters
Velocity flowmeters employ primary measuring elements that respond to the
speed at which a stream passes through a closed pipe as a measure of flow rate.
Flowmeters of this type are capable of high-performance measurements that are useful
in precision batching, blending, and billing applications. Accuracies are 0.25 percent
of flow rate over ranges from 20:1 to 70:1 depending upon the size of the system.
Turbine meters, vortex swirl, and vortex strut meters are primary types of instruments in
this division.
Turbine Flowmeters When a turbine rotor is placed in the path of a flowing
stream the imparting force of the flow produces rotor motion of the turbine rotor. The
rotational speed of the turbine rotor can be used as an indication of flow rate. A
simplification of the turbine flowmeter is shown in Fig. 3-17.
48
Flow entering the simplified is at the left and exits at the right. The front support
holds the rotor in place and conditions the flow pattern prior to being applied to the
rotor. Flow passing through the rotor causes it to turn with an angular velocity that is
proportional to the volumetric flow rate. A linear relationship then exists between rotor
speed and volumetric flow. The turbine flow then enters the outlet support where it is
reconditioned to a laminar flow before exiting the meter.
The resulting output signal of the simplified turbine flowmeter is developed by
the signal pickoff coil. In the center of the pickoff coil is a small permanent magnet. The
resulting field of the magnet is influenced by movement of the turbine rotor blades.
When one of the blades passes through the magnetic field, this change in reluctance
causes the field to cut across the sensing coil, which generates a voltage by the
induction process. Essentially, motion of the turbine blade generates an ac voltage into
the pickoff coil. The frequency of the generated voltage is used as an indication of flow
rate. The pickoff coil assembly is commonly described as a variable reluctance
transducer. This type of signal sensor is used in nearly all turbine flowmeters.
The resulting output or calibration factor (K) of a velocity flowmeter is expressed
by the formula:
K=Tkf/Q
Where: Tk is the time constant in gallons or liters per minute,

Q is the volumetric flow rate in gallons or liters per minute,
F the generated frequency in hertz, K the number of representative pulses per
volume unit such as pulses per gallon or liter. In practice, the K factor for a specific
instrument is established by the manufacturer prior to shipment. Calibration remains
very accurate for long periods of operational time in this instrument.
Some representative turbine flowmeters are shown in Fig. 3-18. These
instruments range in size from 15 to 300 mm (1/2 to 12 inches) with 0.1 percent
repeatability, and accuracies of 0.5 percent over a 30:1 flow range. In this type of
instrument each resulting output pulse corresponds to discrete volume of flow material.
Vortex-Swirl Flowmeters
Swirl flowmeters are velocity instruments that

49
respond to the vortex precession principle in their operation. The primary element of
this flowmeter does not obstruct the flow path, and measurement occurs when a rotating
body of fluid enters an enlarged area within the instrument. A simplification of the swirl
flowmeter is shown in Fig. 3-19
.
Fluid flow enters the swirlmeter on the left and is caused to rotate by passing
through the stationary swirl-producing component. The center of the rotating fluid
forms a twisting high-velocity area called the vortex. It tends to align itself axially in the
center meter body area of the instrument. Upon entering the enlarged area, the vortex
leaves the center and forms a helical path around the inside diameter of the meter body.
This action is called the precession function. The frequency of helical precession has
been proved to be proportional to the instruments volumetric flow rate. A sensor placed
in the enlarged area is then used to detect the frequency of the precession.
Just before exiting the flowmeter, all fluid is forced into the deswirl component.
This part of the instrument restores the flow pattern to normal. The deswirl component
is also used to isolate the measurement function from any downstream piping effects
which could impair the precession function.
The sensor or secondary element of a swirl flowmeter is usually a thermistor that
detects velocity changes in the processing vortex. The frequency with which this
velocity change occurs is then
transposed into a changing
voltage. The thermistor of Fig.
3-20 is placed in the
processional path so that it
senses a change in temperature
due to the area of increased
velocity. A constant-current
source applied to the thermistor
causes a change in voltage to
be developed as a result of temperature variations. Theses voltage changes are
50
subsequently amplified and filtered. A typical output signal is a 15-V P-P square wave
that varies in frequency with the volume of the flow rate.
The electrical output signal of a swirl flowmeter may be used to produce direct
reading on a hand-deflection meter, an electronic recording instrument, or employ a
digital readout to the instrument for a local response or may be placed at a remote
location up to a half-mile away. Electrical energy for operation must be supplied to both
the primary and secondary elements of the instrument.
A representative swirl flowmeter is shown in Fig. 3-21. This type of instrument is
employed in many industrial applications because it employs no moving parts, has
improved reliability, and has a minimum of maintenance problems. This instrument is
individually calibrated and is linear over an operating range of 100:1. Repeatability is
0.25 percent for accuracies of 0.75 percent. In general, this method of flow
measurement is more costly then many other methods.
Strut Vortex Flowmeters The strut vortex type of flowmeter is a common

variation of the swirl flowmeter. This particular type of instrument responds to a
principle known as the vortex shedding phenomenon. An obstruction bar or strut placed
in the flow path produces a number of predictable swirls or vortices downstream. These
vortices separate or are shed froe the strut and travel downstream in a predictable
pattern. The number of vortices that appear downstream in a given period is directly
proportional to the liquid flow rate.
51
An industrial type of strut vortex flowmeter is shown in Fig. 3-22. The strut of
this instrument is the vertical bar located near the center of the flow tube body. Flow
striking this strut sheds small vortices that alternately change direction as shown in Fig.
3-23.
The sensing element of the strut flowmeter is normally a thermistor. Temperature

variations detected by the thermistor are changed into a square-wave output voltage.
The high-velocity center of each vortex causes a very pronounced change in
temperature compared with other flow areas. The number of vortices passing across the
thermistor in a given unit of time is directly proportional to volumetric flow rate. The
output frequency signal is amplified, filtered, and ultimately applied to a recorder,
indicator, or digital readout.
52
Chapter 2 Automatic Control System of Power Station

1. Basic Knowledge of Automatic Control
Automatic control is one of the important technological measures of process
modernization in thermal power plant, and is the important means to guarantee safe
economical operation. The so-called automatic control is all of technological means that
automatic control device make production equipment or production process according
to predetermined value, when nobody participated in directly. Process automatic control
mainly includes automatic measurement, automatic adjustment, sequential control and
automatic protection at present. This book introduces the automatic adjustment principle
and application in thermal power plant.
1.1 Human-Aided Control
Figure 1-1 shows a modification of the tank system to allow artificial regulation
of the level by a human. To regulate the level so that it maintains the value H it will be
necessary to employ a sensor to measure the level. This has been provided via a sight
tube S as shown in Figure 1-1. The actual liquid level or height is called the controlled
53
variable. In addition, a valve has been added so the output flow rate can be changed by
the human. The output flow rate is called the manipulated variable or controlling
variable.
Now the height can be regulated apart from the input flow rate using the
following strategy: The human measures the height in the sight tube and compares the
value to the setpoint. If the measured value is larger, the human opens the valve a little
to let the flow out increase, and thus the level lowers toward the setpoint. If the
measured value is smaller than the setpoint, the human closes the valve a little to
decrease the flow out and allow the level to rise toward the setpoint.
By a succession of incremental opening and closing of the valve, the human can
bring the level to the setpoint value H and maintain it there by continuous monitoring of
the sight tube and adjustment of the valve. The height is regulated.
1.2 Automatic Control
To provide automatic control, the system is modified as shown in Figure 1-2 so

machines, electronics, or computers replace the operations of the human. An instrument
called a sensor is added that is able to measure the value of the level and convert it into
a proportional signals. This signal is provided as input to a machine, electronic circuit,
or computer, called the controller. This performs the function of the human in evaluating
the measurement and providing an output signal u to change the value setting via an
54
actuator connected to the valve by a mechanical linkage.

When automatic control is applied to systems like the one shown in Figure 1-2,
which are designed to regulate the value of some variable to a setpoint, it is called
process control.
1.3 Common Noun and Term in Automatic Adjustment System
1.3.1 Regulated objective: The production process or production equipment regulated is
called regulated objective.
1.3.2 Controlled variables: The physical quantity which needs to regulate in production
process is called controlled variables.
1.3.3 Setpoint: The expected value which controlled variables keeps is called setpoint.
1.3.4 Disturbance: All factors which bring controlled variables to deviate setpoint is
called disturbance.
1.3.5 Regulating mechanism: Equipment realizing regulating action is called regulating
mechanism.
1.3.6 Basic disturbance: Disturbance is occurred by regulating mechanism.
2. Automatic control system

The system which adopts automatic instrument and device to accomplish the
regulated task automatically is called automatic adjustment system. It is formed by two
kinds of equipment. First a whole set of instrument and device playing a regulating role
is called generalized regulator, it includes sensor, transmitter, set point adjuster,
regulator and final controlling element, etc. Second, the production equipment
controlled by the regulator is called regulated objective. Therefore automatic adjustment
system is put closed loop formed together connecting each other by generalized
regulator and regulated objective through signal transmission.
The automatic adjustment system in heat power engineering is mainly
coordinated control system of unit plant at present, including coordinated main
control system and turbine control subsystem, etc.
3. Automatic control Principles

3.1 Classification of the Automatic Control System
In process of production the type of the automatic adjustment system is varied
there can be different classification.
3.1.1 Classify according to different structure of automatic adjustment system.
3.1.1.1 Open-loop adjustment system
The open-loop adjustment system means that between regulating mechanism and
regulated objective the system has only forward direction function, but has not reverse
direction connection. Its operation principle is regulating according to disturbance
directly called the feed forward adjustment too. If it is suitable for regulated value to
choose, we may offset the influence of disturbance in time and make controlled
variables keep invariable. But because there is not feedback of regulated value after
regulating, it is very difficult to guarantee controlled variables equals setpoint. So in
process of production, this system cannot be used alone, as Fig.3-1 shows.
55
3.1.1.2 Closed loop adjustment system

The closed loop adjustment system means that between regulating mechanism
and regulated objective the system not only has forward direction function, but also has
reverse direction connection. It works according to feedback principle, namely it
regulates according to deviation and dispel the deviation finally, called feedback
adjustment too, as Fig.3-2 shows.
3.1.1.3 Composite adjustment system
Main disturbance is joined into the feed forward on the basis of the feedback
adjustment system, which composes the composite adjustment system, also called the
feedforward-feedback adjustment system, as Fig.3-3 shows. The composite adjustment
compared with feedback adjustment, has more high rapidity and regulation quality, so
gets extensive application.
3.1.2 Classify according to different setpoint
3.1.2.1 Constant value control system
Setpoint of controlled variables is invariable in operation; this system is called
constant value control system.
3.1.2.2 Follow-up control system
The setpoint of controlled variables is a function of time; this system is called
follow-up control system.
3.1.2.3 Program control system
Setpoint of controlled variables is a known function of time, this kind of
adjustment system is called the program control system.
56
3.1.3 Other classification

The single input-single output system has only an input signal and an output
signal, this system structure is simple and has only a main feedback. Sometime for
improve system performance, can join local feedback, as Fig.3-4 shows. Multi-path
input-output system is as Fig.3-5 shows.
Fig.3-4
Fig.3-5 multi-path input-output system
3.2 Dynamic Characteristic of Typical Link and Link Connection Mode
3.2.1 Express Mode of Link Characteristic
Link characteristic refer to function relation of output signal and input signal.
The characteristic which the input and output signal does not change with time in the
balance is called the static characteristic; the relation of input/output in variable state is
called the dynamic characteristic.
To study static characteristic of link is very important, because thermodynamic
production process of thermal power plant is operated under the relatively stable
operating condition, we could use the equipment correctly, only after understand the
static characteristic of the equipment. But to study the static characteristic of link is
more important. Because thermodynamic production process always is in the change
state and disturbance will happen constantly. Adjustment action must overcome
influence of disturbance to make it enter the balance state again, so to study the static
characteristic has more common significance.
The dynamic characteristic of a link or s system often have many kinds of
expressions methods, it often adopts dynamic differential equation method, transfer
function method and response curve method in adjustment process.
3.2.1.1 Dynamic differential equation method
The dynamic differential equation law is the most basic method to study dynamic
characteristic of link. It which finds out differential equation between output and input
according to the basic physics laws is called differential equation law. When the
equipment has a simple structure and a pure character, using differential equation to
show its dynamic character has advantages such as simple, accurate and direct-view.
57
In RLC circuit of Fig.3-6, R, L, C are a constant value, u1 is an input value and

u2 is an output value. So the dynamic equation of u1 and u2 can be listed as:
du 2
LC dt 22 RC
du 2
dt
u2 u1
3.2.1.2 Transfer function method

The differential equation of the adjustment system is a basic form to describe
system dynamic performance in time domain. Though this method has advantages of
accurate and direct-view, but need carry on more complicated operation of fluxional
calculus, so it is unfavorable to analyze and design system.
Use Lap lace transformation to ask and solve systematic linear ordinary
differential equation, can get the system in the mathematics model of complex field.
This mathematics model has shown the transitive relation of the systematic input signal
and output signal, called transfer function. The transfer function can signify the dynamic
characteristic of the system more concisely.
3.2.1.3 Step response characteristic
Under the function of step-input signal, the output characteristic of the system is
called step response characteristic.
Fig.3-7 shows a step response signal x .It is a kind of input signal which jumps
to another value from a certain value suddenly, and then keeps intact all the time. In
process of production, a lot of disturbance input change suddenly, such as the load
increases or reduces suddenly, can use step-function signal to show.
58
Fig.3-7 Step response curve

3.2.2 Dynamic characteristic of six kinds of typical links
The typical link has proportional component, integrating element, differentiation
element, first order inertial element, first order reality differentiation element and delay
element. If we understand dynamic characteristic of this kinds of typical links, we can
establish the foundation for studying the dynamic characteristic of complex link.
3.2.2.1 Proportional component
a. The concept of proportional component
Fig.3-8(a) shows that the lever transmits strength, The relation between output
signal(Fy)and input signal(Fx) is Fy=
a
b
Fx .Fig 3-8(b)shows a transistor amplifier
which the relation between output signal( u y ) and input signal( u x ) is u y Ku x

.This link which output signal and input signal become direct proportion relation is
called proportional component.
59
b. The dynamic characteristic of proportional component

In proportional component the relation between output value(y) and input
value(x) can express: y K p x .
In the equation K p transfer coefficient or amplification coefficient.
Its transfer function is W(s)=
Y (s)
X (s)
=Kp
Fig.3-9 the response curve of proportional component

Fig.3-9 shows an output response curve of proportional component under the
function of step-input signal. So we can understand that output value(y) completely
reproduces variety of input value (z) in the certain proportion, there are no distortion,
inertia and delay.
3.2.2.2 Integrating element
60
a. The concept of integrating element

Fig.3-10 shows a water tank , error of volume flow rate( q v1 q v 2
)is used a
input signal and water level(H)is a output signal. So elevatory process of the water
level is an Integrating process of error of volume flow rate with time.
The above-mentioned examples has stated that output signal has an integrating
direct relation to input signal with time, usually the link has this dynamic characteristic
is called integrating element.
Fig.3-10 integrating element

b. Dynamic characteristic of integrating element
Dynamic equation of integrating element is y
function of integrating element is W ( s )
Y (s)
X (s)
1
Ta S
1
Ta
xdt
y, and transfer
In the equation Ta time constant of integrating element. Ta
Expresses
the size of dynamic capacity in this link. Under a certain step-input function, if Ta
is big
that accumulation of link is slow, namely output changes slow. It shows that
the dynamic capability of the link is big; If Ta is small that shows dynamic capability
of the link is small.
If input signal is a step-input signal, then the step response function can gain.
y T1 x0 t
in the equation x0 amplitude value of step-input signal.
Fig.3-11 shows the step-response curve of integrating element. Its peculiarity is

that if input( x 0
)occurs
output(y) increases with time rise. This characteristic
shows that integrating element has an unstable characteristic.
61
3.2.2.3 Differentiation element

a. The concept of differentiation element
Fig.3-12 shows a circuit of pure inductive coil. current(i) is used a input
signal
induced electromotive force( e L )by inductive coil production is used a
output signal. According to law of electromagnetic induction we can gain e L L dtdi

L is a coil inductive value in the equation. This link that output signal has a
differential direct ratio to input signal with time, is called differentiation element.
b. Dynamic characteristic of differentiation element

Differentiation equation of differentiation element is y Td
dx
dt
In the equation Td differentiation time of differentiation element.

Its transfer function is W ( s )
Y (s)
X (s)
Td s .
For a pure differentiation element when input signal is a step signal( x 0 ),its
62
initial variety rate is infinite, output signal rises infinite suddenly at the initial time too.
After initial time the variety rate of input signal is zero and output signal come back
zero instantly. As Fig.3-13(a) shows, In fact this process is hard to realize for inertia.
When input signal is a ramp signal, namely x v 0 t
y Td
dx
dt
Td v 0
equal and keep Td v0
so output signal is
as Fig.3-13(b) shows. We can understand that output signal(y)

immediately after disturbance begins. But input signal(x) can
rise to the value of Td v0
after Td
time, output signal overtake a period of time to
input signal. So differentiation element has characteristic of initial strengthen and lead.
Fig.3-13 response curve of differentiation element

(a)step-input
(b)ramp input
3.2.2.4 First order inertial element
The voltage of both ends of capacitance can't change suddenly; the electric
current on the inductance can't change suddenly etc. All these have displayed inertia
function.Fig.3-14 shows a resistance-capacitance circuit, which input voltage is u x ,
output voltage is voltage u y ( u c ) of both ends of capacitance, then the relation
between the output input of circuit is
RC
du y
dt
u y ux
63
Fig.3-14 inertial element

If we order Tc RC which is called time constant. The previous equation is a
first order time constant differential equation .Because this link has inertia and the tiptop
term is a first order, so it is called first order inertia link, abbreviate as inertia link.
Universal type of Dynamic equation of first order inertia link is Tc
dy
dt
y Kx .
In the equation Tc time constant of inertia link it express the size of

inertia link; Kstable state amplification coefficient of inertia link.
The transfer function of inertia link is W ( s )
When input signal is a step-signal ( x0
y Kx 0 (1 e
Tt
Y (s)
X (s)
1KTc s .
), the variety of output signal(y) is
) , it is an exponential curve as Fig.3-15 shows. It is obvious that
output signal rises gradually and it always lags the change of input signal.
Fig.3-15 step response curve of the first order inertial element

3.2.2.5 First order reality differentiation element
First order reality differentiation element is a differentiation element which has
64
certain inertia. So its differential equation is TD
dy
dx
y K D TD
dx
dt
In the equation TD differential time constant of reality differentiation element;

KD
differential gain
The transfer function of first order reality differentiation element is
W (s)
Y (s)
X (s)
K DT
1T
DS
DS
When input signal is a step-signal( x0 ),Fig.3-16 shows the change curve of reality
differentiation output signal( y ).Output signal has a sudden value K D x 0
at the
beginning moment of disturbance, then drop according to the index law, trend toward
zero at last. It is different with returning back to zero instantly in ideal differentiation
element.
Fig.3-16 step response curve of first order reality differentiation element

3.2.2.6 Delay element
The adjustment object generally has a certain delay, Belt conveyor is an example
at power plant. Because input point has a certain distance with output point, so output
signal is behind input signal for some time. The definition of delay element is the link
that the form of output signal and input signal is completely same but the former is
behind the latter for some time.
The equation of delay element is y (t ) x(t 0 )
In the equation 0
pure delay time,
The transfer function of delay element is
W (s)
Y (s)
X (s)
e 0 s
65
When input signal is a step-signal x0, output signal(y) also changes according to step,
only lags some time.Fig.3-17 shows its response curve.
3.2.3 Three kinds of basic connection mode and transfer function

In adjustment system link partition is not aim, but a necessary means to dynamic
analyze. It is necessary to gain transfer function of the adjustment system for analyzing
its dynamic characteristic. The basic connection mode and total transfer function of link
should be introduced in this section.
3.2.3.1 Series connection
The series connection of links is series transfer relation of input signal and output
signal among link, as fig.3-18 shows. The output signal of the former link is input signal
of the latter link, input signal of the first link is the input signal of all links, and output
signal of the latest link is the output signal of all links. The total transfer function W(s)
is
W (s)
X n 1 ( s )
X1 ( s )
W1 ( s )W2 ( s ) Wn 1 ( s )Wn ( s )
Namely the total transfer function after each link series equals the product of transfer
function of each link.
Fig.3-18 series connection
3.2.3.2 Parallel connection

Fig.3-19 shows a parallel connection mode of link. The input signal of each link is
samely in parallel connection, the total output is an algebraic sum of each link.
66
For examples there is three links connection by parallel, after each link parallel
connection the total transfer function is
W ( s) Y1 ( s )YX2 (( ss ))Y3 ( s ) W1 ( s) W2 ( s) W3 ( s)
Fig.3-19 parallel connection

Fig.3-20 feedback connection
3.2.3.3 Feedback connection
Fig.3-20 shows two links which form a closed loop by interaction end to end, this
connection mode is called feedback connection. The output signal Y (s ) form the
feedback signal X f (s )
by feedback element W f (s ) in feedback connection mode,
then it is sent to input end by feedback for comparing error signal E (s )

signal X (s ) , act on direct link W z (s )
with input
again. If it is a negative feedback, so the total
transfer function is
W (s)
Y (s)
X (s)
Wz ( s )
1Wz ( s )W f ( s )
3.3 Dynamic characteristic of adjustment object for heat power engineering

The automatic regulating system is made up of by regulated objective and
adjuster. In order to understand the regulating system, dynamic characteristic of
regulated objective is familiarized at first. The dynamic characteristic of regulated
objective is referred to relation of output signal and input signal after objectives
balance is breached .The regulated objective for heat power engineering is referred to
all kinds of equipment for heat power engineering. Though its structure and production
process is different, but can be divided to two major kinds as a whole. One kind is the
single content regulated objective for heat power engineering another kind is the multi
content regulated objective for heat power engineering.
3.3.1 The dynamic characteristic of the single content regulated objective
The single content regulated objective is the simplest regulated objective for heat
power engineering. The deaerator and condenser can be seen a single content regulated
objective under a certain conditions.
67
Fig.3-21 a single content water tank objective

Fig.3-21 shows a single content water tank objective. If the inflow q1
is input
signal and water level of tank is output signal, so the dynamic equation of tank is
AR dH
H RQ1
dt
After Lap lace transformation the transfer function of objective is
W ( s) QH1 ((ss))
R
ARs 1
TsK1
In the equation T the inertia time constant of objective, T AR ;

K the amplification coefficient of objective K = R
R the drag coefficient of valve.
If at the moment =0, the regulating valve is opened wider suddenly, the step
disturbance variety value of inflow is Q0 , so the variety function of tank level is
t
h(t ) KQ0 (1 e T )
.Fig.3-22 shows the step response curve. By the step response
curve we can understand that single content tank objective having self balancing is a
first order inertial element. At the start of the disturbance the water level changes slow.
At last level trends balance by self change. It shows that the single content tank not only
has inertial but also has self balance characteristic.
68
Fig.3-22 the step response curve of single content tank

3.3.2 The dynamic characteristic of the multi content regulated objective
The objective for heat power engineering usually is a complex objective;
analytical method of this kind objective is that gained dynamic characteristic of
objective through experiment under operating condition.Fig.3-25 shows a typical step
response curve of regulated objective. We can understand by characteristic curve that
the complex objective has a similar character with the simple regulated
objective but the former has more complex.
Fig.3-25 the step response curve of multi content objective

a. Multi content objective having no self-balancing
b. Multi content objective having self-balancing
3.4 Regulative Rules of Automatic Adjuster
Regulation quality is decided mainly by dynamic specialty of regulative object
and adjuster. But it is difficult that factitiously change the dynamic specialty of
regulative object. For excellent regulation, we should select appropriate adjuster
according to the dynamic specialty of regulated object.
69
Figure 3-26 Regulative Rules

In figure 3-26, the dynamic specialty of adjuster is dynamic relation between the
output signal and input signal of adjuster. This relation is also called regulative rule of
adjuster.
The adjuster has some different types of regulative rule according to the dynamic
relation between input signal and output signal. Nowadays the adjusters used widely in
power plant have three typical regulative rules, namely proportional rule, integral rule
and derivative rule. The adjuster is made according to above three rules are proportional
adjuster, proportional-integral adjuster and proportional-integral-derivative adjuster.
3.4.1 Proportional adjuster (P)
3.4.1.1 Principle of proportional adjuster
The water level regulation system is shown in the figure 3-27. The adjuster is
consisted of bobber and lever. If the bobber and lever stand the real line position in the
diagram, the regulation system keeps up with balance status. The water level h
is
stayed at given level h0 .
Figure 3-27 Bobber style water level regulation system

When the level rises due to affection, the bobber will rise. The valve stem move
down by lever action. The valve will close part travel to decrease input water. Vice
versa, when the level falls, the valve will open part travel to increase input water.
Thereby the level will be kept up with constant value. So the regulation level is
achieved. When the level rise, if level change h is used for input signal and the
change of valve travel is used for output signal, because their change direction isnt
70
same the relation formula between input and output signal is: ab h . But
e g h h ,
therefore ba e
. (where a
b are lengths of force arm of
two levers.)
It is obvious that the relation between the change of valve travel and warp
e is the direct ratio. This adjuster above direct ratio is the proportional rule adjuster (P
rule adjuster for short).
The currency formula between input signal and output signal of the P rule
adjuster is: K p e (where: K p is amplification factor.).
3.4.1.2 Characteristic of the rule adjuster
As motion before, the regulative valve will close part travel accordingly
with the level hoist h . The valve continues to close part travel if the level hoist
again. This express the regulative valve will activate toward the direction of eliminating
warp. When the regulative process finishes the valve will close part travel due to level
rise. The level will be kept up new value. In this way this will leave a static warp h .
This shows the regulation of the P rule adjuster is fast, don't delay. And this adjuster
always activates toward the direction of eliminating warp and satisfies right direction.
But there is always the static warp.
3.4.1.3 Affection of proportional band for regulation process
The amplification factor K p is expressed customarily by proportional band .
Relation formula between them is:
1
Kp
100%
Is an important parameter of the P rule adjuster. For a using adjuster, the

value of proportional band may be set. E.g. the proportional band of level regulation
system is
K1p ba
. The
will be changed as long as change the ratio value
between two force arm length of levers. Once is set, it should keep up constant
value.
The affection for regulation process due to proportional band of bobber style
level regulation system change: Proportional band hoist means only the level rise
much the valve close part travel. So the static warp will rise. Proportional band fall
means the valve will close more part travel once the level raises little. Smaller the
Proportional band is, smaller the static warp is. In this way the regulative valve
activate more continually. But if the Proportional band is too small, the regulation
system will be not stable. Thus the big Proportional band
is good for system
stabilization, the small Proportional band is good for regulation veracity. We should
select appropriate proportional band according to different regulated object.
3.4.2 Proportional-Integral Rule Adjuster (PI)
To avoid the static warp the proportional-integral rule adjuster is adopted.
3.4.2.1 Integral Rule Adjuster
71
The principle of integral rule adjuster is that the relation between Travel change
of regulative valve and integral of warp e with time is direct ratio. Its dynamic
equation is: S i edt
1
Ti
edt
(where S i : integral speed of this adjuster; Ti
: integral time, customarily integral time expresses the unused speed of regulated object
warp.)
The smaller Ti
is, the faster unused speed of warp is. So the integral action is
stronger. Ti is a set parameter of integral rule adjuster.

As long as there is warp e , there is travel change of regulative valve due to
direct ratio. The regulative process doesn't finish. This shows integral adjuster can avoid
the static warp. This is the greatest excellence of integral adjuster.
However the demerit of integral adjuster is easily overdoing regulation. The
oscillation occurs in the regulative process. Thus integral rule is only used for auxiliary
rule commonly. Cooperation between proportional rule and integral rule make up
proportional-integral adjuster.
3.4.2.2 Proportional-Integral Adjuster
Proportional-integral adjuster is consisted of proportional adjuster and integral
adjuster. Its dynamic equation is:
band; Ti
pi 1 e 1Ti edt (where
: proportional
: integral time. They are both set parameters of proportional-integral
adjuster.)
Its transmission function is:
a step warp e0
W (s)
pi ( s )
e ( s )
1 (1 T1i s )
. If the input signal is
, the output signal is the summation of proportional and integral
1
1
action. Namely: pi e0 Ti e0 t
The step response curve is shown as figure 3-28.

This curve shows the proportional-integral adjuster change immediately
according to proportional step at start. Then rise with constant speed.
Even if the warp is very small the output of adjuster will change more with time
accumulation until avoiding warp as long as the present time of warp is long.
As motion before, in regulation process the proportional regulation is the main
one. It makes system stable and achieves quick regulation. The integral is only used for
avoiding warp. The proportional-integral adjuster not only holds the excellence of
proportional adjuster, but also avoids its demerit. Therefore this adjuster is used widely.
72
Figure 3-28 Response Curve of

3.4.2.3 Affection of integral time for regulation process
The equation
d I
dt
1Ti e
shows: the bigger the integral time is, the weaker
the integral action of adjuster. Namely static warp is avoided more slowly. If Ti
the integral action will disappear. The proportional-integral adjuster is just like
proportional adjuster. Whereas the smaller Ti
is, the stronger the integral action is.
Namely static warp is avoided more quickly. But if Ti
is too small, the output of
adjuster will overdo change continually, indeed the oscillation occur in regulation
process. Therefore we should augment proportional band properly for system adopting
proportional-integral rule. Normally augment 20% of proportional band of pure
proportional adjuster.
3.4.3 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Rule Adjuster (PID)
3.4.3.1 Derivative Rule Adjuster
The proportional and proportional-integral adjuster both regulate according to
warp value. For object with strong inertia and long delay, these rules will augment
dynamic warp and affect regulation quality badly. If the adjuster can activate ahead
according to change direction of warp, the regulation is ahead and active. This will
augment regulation quality greatly. Although derivative rule has an advanced regulation
73
action, we should not use pure derivative adjuster only.

3.4.3.2 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Adjuster (PID)
Proportional-integral-derivative adjuster composes of proportional-integral
adjuster and derivative adjuster. Therefore the dynamic equation of PID adjuster is as
follows.
PID 1 (e T1i edt Td
de
dt
Where Proportional band

Ti Integral time
Td Derivative time
Above three parameters are all set-parameters of adjuster.

Its transmission function is:
W ( s ) ePI( s()s ) 1 (1 T1i s Td s )
If input a step warp signal, the step response curve of PID adjuster is
superposition curve of proportional, integral and derivative action (as shown in figure 329). OACG expresses total output. At 0
zero to e0
, the step signal augments suddenly from
. At this time derivative action is the strongest. It will output a strong
regulation signal to hold back change of regulated parameter. Therefore it will limit
more augmentation of warp. This is the leading regulation action of derivative adjuster.
Proportional rule will activate immediately toward direction of avoiding warp as

long as there is a warp signal e0
. But it leaves a static warp at last.
The integral action becomes general gradually with time accumulation. Even if
74
the warp is very small the output of adjuster will change more with time accumulation
until avoiding warp. The adjuster output doesnt change until warp is zero. The whole
regulation system reaches a new stable status.
In whole regulation process, the proportional rule is the most basal rule all the
time, integral and derivative rule is only used for the auxiliary rule in order to improve
quality.
3.4.3.3 Affection of Integral Time for Regulation Process
The equation D 1 Td
de
dt
shows if Td is big derivative action is strong.
The dynamic warp will lower. If Td

continually. If Td
is too big, the output will change much
is too small, the derivative action will lower. It will result to
dynamic warp hoist. For steam temperature which delay time is long, the derivative
adjuster is adopted in order to improve quality.
As motion before, PID adjuster is provided with not only the excellence of quick
action and no static warp but also ahead regulation action. Therefore it can overcome
availably the affection of inertia and delay, lower dynamic warp, shorten regulative
time, and improve regulative quality. Thus it is a more perfect adjuster.
Compare of regulation process of P PI PID adjuster is shown in figure 330. There is static warp in the system adopted P adjuster. The dynamic warp will
augment and regulation time is long in the system adopted PI adjuster. The regulation
quality is the best if the system adopts PID adjuster. But set parameter is the most. We
should adopt different adjusters according to different regulated objects in application.
3.5 Loop, Multiloop and Other Regulated System

3.5.1 The Single Loop Regulated System
The single loop regulated system is the simplest feedback regulated system, it has
an input, output and feedback signal. It has been widely used in automatic control of
industrial production process.
It will be seen from this that the single loop regulated system is made up of by an
adjuster and regulated objective. Its structure is simple and the parameter of adjuster is
easy to set. But some industrial production process are so complex or having higher
quality of regulation that using the single loop regulated system can not satisfy
production requirement. In order to improve system performance, usually multiloop
regulated system and other complex regulated system are adopted.
75
3.5.2 Cascade Control System

The cascade control system is a widest application system of the complex
regulated system. The whole regulated system has two regulating loops and two
adjusters work in series, so this system is called cascade control system.
It shows that the cascade control system has more complex than the single loop
regulated system. The regulated objective is divided into two parts of look-ahead area
and inertia area by the cascade control system. The part before the middle parameter of
the objective is called the look-ahead area of objective or the secondary objective. The
part after the middle parameter of the objective is called the inertia area of regulated
objective. So it increases a secondary loop which make up of by a secondary transmitter
and a secondary adjuster.
If the secondary loop of the cascade control system is degenerated into a loop,
the cascade control system can be equivalent to the single loop regulating system, the
delay and inertia of the whole objective is reduced. So the cascade control system can
be seen a single loop regulating system which improves dynamic characteristic of
objective. Otherwise because of having the secondary loop, it improves ability to
restrain disturbance. So the cascade control system can improve control system
performance...
3.5.3 Double Loop Regulating System with Advanced Differentiation
In order to improve regulated objective which has more delay and inertia, besides
the cascade control system, also the double loop regulating system with advanced
differentiation can be adopted, as Fig.3-31 shows. It divides regulated objective which
has more inertia into two parts. The middle parameter Y2
is taken from output of the
advanced area of the regulated objective for advanced parameter. The advanced
parameter is send to main adjuster after derivative regulator calculate, compare this
signal with the main signal Y1 , it can reflect the disturbance of regulated value in
advance and strengthen at the beginning moment. So we can improve quality of
regulation of regulated objective with big inertia. At the moment of stable state,
differential action of the advanced signal Y2 disappears, the regulated value which the
main adjuster maintain equal to set point.
76
Compare with the cascade control system, the double loop regulating system
with advanced differentiation only uses a adjuster, it uses a differentiator to replace the
secondary adjuster .The adjuster accepts two signals of the main signal and the
advanced differential signal. The inner loop is composed by the advanced area of the
regulated objective, the secondary transmitter, the differentiator and the adjuster; the
outside loop is composed by the inner loop, inertial area of the regulated objective and
the main transmitter.
The double loop regulating system with advanced differentiation can be

equivalent to the cascade control system, as Fig.3-32 shows. So the double loop
regulating system can improve regulating system performance as the cascade control
system.
3.5.4 Feedback Regulating System with Feedforward
The simplest feedback regulating system is a single loop regulating system which
is composed by feedback of regulating system. Its specialty is:
a. It regulates according to the error of regulated objective and setpoint, at last
dispels the error.
b. Only after the disturbance causes the regulated value to change, the adjuster
would come into operation. Because dynamic deviation of the regulated value is big, so
feedback regulation is a kind of regulation out of time.
c. The feedback regulation is a closed loop regulation. If feedback action or
regulating action is so strong or wrong phase that the result of repeat action by
regulating action makes oscillation to intensify in adjustment process and stability
drops. So feedback regulating system has a question of stability.
77
Fig.3-33 shows a simplest feedforward regulation. It regulates directly according

to the disturbance. When it acquires complete compensation, the regulated value Y
would not change. It follows that the feedforward regulation has such specialties.
(1) It regulates according to the disturbance namely use regulating action
resulted from disturbance to compensate its disturbance action on regulated value. It is
the disturbance compensation in brief.
(2)It is a reason that regulated value is changed by disturbance. It can come into
operation before the deviation of the regulated value does not appear according to
disturbance. So the feedforward regulation makes dynamic deviation of regulated value
to reduce.
(3)The feedforward regulation is an open loop regulation, the regulating action
completes once. So there wont take place unstable situation. Because of having no
feedback signal of the regulated value, the regulating effect can not be checked.
Though dynamic deviation of the regulated value is reduced markedly by
feedforward regulation, but the feedforward regulating system can no be used singly in
industry.
4. Automatic Control Block Diagram

To provide a practical, working description of process control, it is useful to
describe the elements and operations involved in more generic terms. Such a description
should be independent of a particular application (such as the example presented in the
previous section) and thus be applicable to all control situations. A model may be
constructed using blocks to represent each distinctive element. The characteristics of
control operation then may be developed from a consideration of the properties and
interfacing of these elements. Numerous models have been employed in the history of
process-control description; we will use one that seems most appropriate for a
description of modern and developing technology of process control.
78
Figure 4-1 shows a general block diagram constructed from the elements defined
previously. The controlled variable in the process is denoted by c in this diagram, and
the measured representation of the controlled variable is labeled b. the controlled
variable setpoint is labeled r, for reference. The error detector is a subtracting-summing
point that outputs an error signal e=r-b to the controller for comparison and action.
Figure 4-2 shows how a physical control system is represented as a block
diagram. The physical system for control of flow through a pipe is shown in Figure 42a. Variation of flow through an obstruction (the orifice plate) produces a pressuredifference variation across the obstruction. This variation is converted to the standard
signal range of 3 to 15 psi. The I/P converter changes the pressure to a 4- to 20mA
electric current, which is sent to the controller. The controller outputs a 4- to 20-mA
control signal to signify the correct valve setting to provide the correct flow. This
current is converted to a 3- to 15-psi pressure signal by the I/P converter and applied to
a pneumatic actuator. The actuator then adjusts the valve setting.
Figure 4-2b shows how all the control system operations are condensed to the
standard block diagram operations of measurement, error detection, controller, and final
control element.
79
The purpose of a block diagram approach is to allow the process-control system

to be analyzed as the interaction of smaller and simpler subsystems. If the
characteristics of each element of the system can be determined, then the characteristics
of the assembled system can be established by an analytical marriage of these
subsystems. The historical development of the system approach in technology was
dictated by this practical aspect: first, to specify the characteristics desired of a total
system and, then, to delegate the development of subsystems that provide the overall
criteria.
It becomes evident that the specification of a process-control system to regulate a
variable c, within specified limits and with specified time responses, determines the
characteristics the measurement system must possess. This same set of system
specifications is reflected in the design of the controller and control element.
From this concept, we conclude that the analysis of a process-control system
requires an understanding of the overall system behavior and the reflection of this
behavior in the properties of the system elements. Most people find that an
understanding of the parts leads to a better understanding of the whole. We will proceed
with this assumption as a guiding concept.
80
The Loop Notice in Figure 1.5 that the signal flow forms a complete circuit from
process through measurement, error detector, controller, and final control element. This
is called a loop, and in general we speak of a process-control loop. In most cases this is
called a feedback loop, because we determine an error and feed back a correction to the
process.
5. Automatic Control System Evaluation

A process-control system is used to regulate the value of some process variable.
When such a system is in use, it is natural to ask, How well is it working? This is not an
easy question to answer, because it is possible to adjust a control system to provide
different kinds of response to error. This section discusses some methods for evaluating
how well the system is working.
The variable used to measure the performance of the control system is the error,
which is the difference between the constant setpoint or reference value r and the
controlled variable c (t).
e (t)= r- c(t)
(5-1)
Since the value of the controlled variable may vary in time, so may the error.
(Note that in a servomechanism, the value of r may be forced to vary in time also.)
Control System Objective In principle, the objective of a control system is to
make the error in Equation (5-1) exactly be zero, but the control system responds only
to error (i.e., when an error occurs, the control system takes action to drive it to zero).
Conversely, if the error was zero and stayed zero, the control system would not be doing
nothing and would not be needed in the first place. Therefore, this objective can never
be perfectly achieved, and there will always be some error. The question of evaluation
becomes one of how large the error is how it varies in time.
A practical statement of control system objective is best represented by three
requirements:
The system should be stable.
The system should provide the best possible steady-state regulation.
The system should provide the best possible transient regulation.
Stability The purpose of the control system is to regulate the value of some
variable. This requires that action be taken on the process itself in response to a
measurement of the variable. If this is not done correctly, the control system can cause
the process to become unstable. In fact, the more tightly we try to control the variable,
the greater the possibility of instability.
81
Figure.5-1 shows that prior to turning on a control system the controlled variable
drifts in a random fashion and is not regulated. After the control system is turned on, the
variable is forced to adopt the setpoint value and all is well for awhile. Notice that some
time later; however, the variable begins to exhibit growing oscillations of value, that is,
instability. This occurs even though the control system is still connected and
operational; in fact, it occurs because the system is connected and operational.
The first objective, then, simply means that the control system must be designed
and adjusted soothe system is stable. Typically, as the control system is adjusted to give
better control, the likelihood of instability also increases.
Steady-State Regulation The objective of the best possible steady-state
regulation simply means that the steady-state error should be a minimum. Generally,
when a control system is specified there will be some allowable deviation about the
setpoint. This means that variations of the variable within this band are expected and
acceptable. External influences that tend to cause drifts of the value beyond the
allowable deviation are corrected by the control system.
For example, a process-control technologist might be asked to design and
implement a control system to regulate temperature at 150 within 2 Celsius degrees.
This means the setpoint is to be 150, but the temperature may be allowed to vary in
the range of 148 to 152.
Transient Regulation When happens to the value of the controlled variable
when some sudden transient event occurs that would otherwise cause a large variation?
For example, there could be a setpoint change. Suppose the setpoint in the
aforementioned temperature case were suddenly changed to 160. Transient regulation
specifies how the control system reacts to bring the temperature to this new setpoint.
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Another type of transient influence is a sudden change of some other process

variable. The controlled variable depends on other process variables. If one of them
suddenly changes value, the controlled variable may be driven to change also, so the
control system acts to minimize the effect. This is called transient response.
Evaluation Criteria The question of how well the control system is working is
thus answered by (1) ensuring stability, (2) evaluating steady-state response and (3)
evaluating the response to setpoint changes and transient effects. There are many criteria
for gauging the response. In general, the term tuning is used to indicate how a processcontrol loop is adjusted to provide the best control. This topic is covered in more detail
in the following chapter.
Damped Response
One type of criterion requires that the controlled variable

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exhibit a response such as that shown in Figure 5-2 for excitations of both setpoint
changes and transient effects. Note that the error is of only one polarity (i.e., it never
oscillates about the setpoint). For this case, measures of quality are the duration t D of the
excursion and, for the transient, the maximum error emax for a given input. The duration
is the time from exceeding the allowable error to regaining the allowable error.
Different tuning will provide different values of emax and tD for the same
excitation. It is up to the process designers to decide whether the best control is larger
duration with smaller peak error, or vice versa, or something in between.
Cyclic Response Another type of criterion applies to those cases in which the
response to a setpoint change or transient is as shown in Figure 5-3. Note that the
controlled variable oscillates about the setpoint. In this case, the parameters of interest
are the maximum error emax and the duration tD, also called the settling time. The
duration is measured from the time the allowable error is first exceeded to the time
when it falls within the allowable error and stays.
The nature of the response is modified by adjusting the control loop parameters,
which is called tuning. There may be large maximum error but short duration or long
duration with small maximum error, and everything in between.
A number of standard cyclic tuning criteria are used. Two common types are
minimum area and quarter amplitude. In minimum area, the tuning is adjusted until the
net area under the error-time curve is a minimum, for the same degree of excitation
(setpoint change or transient). Figure 5-4a shows the area as a shaded part of the curve.
Analytically, this is given by
A = e (t) dt = minimum
(5-2)
The quarter-amplitude criterion, shown in Figure 5-4b, specifies that the
amplitude of each peak of the cyclic response must be a quarter of the preceding peak.
Thus, a2 = a1/4, a3=a2/4, and so on.
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Chapter 3 Digital Electric-Hydraulic Regulating System

1 Basic Conception of Turbine Digital Electric-Hydraulic Regulating
System
1.1 Basic Content of Turbine Automatic Regulation
Turbine is a large-scale and high-speed prime mover, and commonly works in the
high temperature and high-pressure environment; it is one of the most crucial equipment
in the thermal power plant. The task of turbine regulation are that assuring the turbine
operate safely, satisfying the power user demanded, ensuring the power grid frequency
steadily; because higher or lower frequency will affect the users normal operation;
steady frequency means steady turbine rotate speed. Turbine always own consummate
automation control system, there are several aspects, which are listed below and
distinguished from the contents about this system.
1.1.1 Automatic Detecting System
For monitoring the operation situation of turbine, fit all kinds of instruments to
monitor the main operation parameter. These instruments not only have the ability of
indication, but also have the capability to automatic recording and alarming functions
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and so on. With the cooperating of computer, the instruments can realize the data
process function such as trend predicting, accident recalling and efficiency calculation.
Nowadays, automatic detection include: generator power, pressure and
temperature of main steam, vacuum, steam pressure of monitored section, lubrication
oil pressure, governing oil pressure, rotate speed, oil servo motor displacement, rotor
axial displacement, relative expanding between rotor and cylinder cylinder heat
expanding
thermal stress between cylinder and rotor
turbine
vibration
shaft deflection
bearing temperature and lubrication
temperature thrust pad temperature, pressure of thrust bearing oil file oil
sink level and difference in temperature between upper and lower cylinder and so forth.
As the increasing of the turbine capacity, a set of consummate automatic
detective system is a vital condition that assure the turbine operation safely, high-power
steam turbine use DAS (Data acquisition system) to complete the automatic measure,
display, alarm and table printing.
1.1.2 Automatic Protection System
There are all kinds of automatic protection equipment on the turbine in order to
ensure the safe operation of turbine.
When the operation parameters overrun the normal scope, automation equipment
will alarm and act in time according to the situation to remind the operator to rescue.
When the operation parameters overrun the scope that turbine allow in safe operation,
automatic protection system will trip the turbine automatically in order to protect the
turbine.
At present, the main contents of the high-power turbine automatic protection
system are over speed, low oil pressure, axial displacement, differential expansion, low
vacuum, vibration protection system and so forth.
We need to use the double or triple protection measures for certain parameter in order to protect
the turbine credibly; for instance the over speed protection control (OPC) system.
1.1.3 Automatic Regulation System

Turbine must fit the automatic regulation system as the electricity customer
demand the sufficient electric energy and ensure the power supply quality. Power supply
frequency is the one of the significant symbol of power supply quality. We demand the
turbines that possess high performance automatic regulation system in order to maintain
the frequency in a certain precision scope.
High-power turbine generally possess the vapor lock pressure regulation system,
condensator level regulation system and thermal stress control system except speed
regulation system; some of above combine the speed regulation to be a multivariable
regulation system, some are independent system.
1.1.4 Program Control System
Program control system of turbine has an alias, turbine automatic startup and
stop. Currently, high-power turbine controls the automatic startup and stop process
according to the thermal stress. Turbine using automatic startup and stop is not only
economize the labour force and relieve the labour intensity but shorten the startup time,
avoid mistake in operation and improve the economical efficiency and reliability.
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1.2 Development of the Turbine Automatic Regulation

The automatic regulation system of turbine has a long history. Turbines apply to
the practical project after that realize the automation, possessing the regulation system.
1.2.1 Mechanical Hydraulic Control MHC
The turbine regulation system in early period consist of centrifugal fly ball, lever, cam and so
on and pilot valve, oil servo motor, which is named mechanical hydraulic control MHC. Refer to
diagram 1-1.The system controller consist of mechanical parts, the actuator consist of hydraulic
parts. The MHC possesses close loop speed regulation function and trip function and the system
response speed is low. At present, the MHC system applies to the practical project broadly because
the delays from mechanical clearance are high, static characteristics are fixed, which cannot be
changed, but it is provided with high reliability and satisfy the basic requirement of the turbine
operation.
1.2.2 Electric Hydraulic Control (EHC)

With the increasing of the capacity of power unit, appearing of the reheated
power unit, adopting the mode of unit operation and sliding pressure, increasing of the
generator startup and stop times, appearing of the question of centralized dispatching,
we need a higher standard turbine control system..
We cant complete the mission only depend on the MHC, then the electric
hydraulic control system EHC ,emergent. Refer to the diagram 1-2.
The system possesses two controllers, the controller 1 consists of electric
components, the controller 2 consists of mechanical components, and actuator part is
the old style hydraulic part. The systems easily realize the synthesizing treating and hold
high control precision and suit for the complex operation; moreover, operation and
adjustment and modification are very convenient. We keep the controller 2 for
redundancy, when EHCs circuit quit in operation caused by failing, we could depend
on the controller 2 to ensure the power unit safe and continuous operation because the
electric components in early period are uncertain and the circuit reliability can not
satisfy the requirement of the turbine regulation system.
1.2.3 Analog Electric Hydraulic Control AEH(AEH)
With the improving of the electric components, the pure electric regulation
systems, which not depend on the mechanical hydraulic mechanism, had appeared in
the 1950s. The initial system are composed of analog circuits, we entitle AEH. (Refer
to the diagram 1-3) The system controllers compose of analog circuit; executive
components hold the hydraulic part, which are connected by electric-hydraulic
converter.
1.2.4 Digital Electric Hydraulic Control DEH(DEH)
As the development of the digital computer technology and the applying in the
process automation, the turbine control technology obtained huge advance. The digital
electric hydraulic control DEH, had appeared in 1980s. (Refer to diagram 1-4).
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1.3 Fundament of Turbine Automatic Regulation System

1.3.1 Introduction
Generation of electricity have two basic demands for turbine regulation system,
which are that system need to ensure the electricity demand of costumer at anytime and
maintain the speed of the generator in order to assure the frequency and generator
safety.
The power of the generator has the relation with the feed steam parameter,
exhaust pressure, and feed steam quantity. If the feed steam parameter and exhaust
presser of turbine are constant, the power of power unit is direct proportional to feed
steam of turbine. When consumption of the electricity customer increase, feed steam
quantity of turbine will raise, vice versa.
If the power increase or decrease, feed steam quantity of turbine not has the
response, increasing or decreasing, the rotate speed of turbine will decrease or increase.
Turbine self-regulation ability means power unit will operate at a different rotate speed
when the power differentiates with load demand.
If depend on the self-regulation ability merely, the rotate speed will generate a
great number of variety because the change of electricity load of the power grid is very
giant. The system merely rely on the self-regulation ability, can neither assure the
electricity quality (frequency, voltage) nor ensure generator synchronization, therefore,
the turbine need to fit automatic regulation system, which use the signal of speed
variation adjusting the turbine. There are two systems, regulation system with difference
and regulation system without difference, in turbine automatic regulation system, as a
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whole.
1.3.1.1 Regulation System without Difference
When a power unit supplies the electricity to customer solely, the power unit
regulation system can adopt the regulation system without difference, according to the
theory of automatic regulation. The power of the turbine equals the load of power grid;
its speed is a rated value, in case of a certain initial condition. For some reason,
electricity consumption of costumer increasing, generator counter-torque augmenting,
rotate speed decreasing, at this time the regulation system of turbine is acting,
increasing the regulation valve instruction, increasing the feed steam quantity, in order
to alter the turbine power striking up a new torque balance relation and keep the
rotate speed constantly.
The power unit used regulation system without difference make against
operation, so all turbines connected with the power grid are using the regulation system
with difference.
1.3.1.2 Regulation System with Difference
a. Direct Regulation (Refer To Diagram 1-5)
The rotate speed increase when turbine loads decrease. The system action
procedure refers to the list below. Weight dropper of centrifugal governor open outward
Decrease the instruction of regulation steam valve 3 through lever 2.Decrease the power
of the turbine, Build up the new balance. Load increasing: Rotate speed decreasing;
weight dropper move inside; Increase the instruction of regulation steam valve, Increase
the power of the turbine.
From what I have mentioned above, we can draw the conclusion that because fit
the velometer, not only maintain the speed in a certain domain, but automatic balance
the power.
The system uses the displacement of velometer weight dropper directly moving
the regulating valve, so we call it direct regulation.
b. Indirect Regulation (Refer Diagram 1-6)
The diagram listed below is the most ordinary indirect regulation system. In
indirect regulation system, control drives the throttle. Turbine speed variation affects the
throttle; throttle change the oil pressure and oil servomotor, which realize the control
function.
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Figure 1-5 Direct Regulation System
1- fly-ball 2-lever 3-steam regulating valve
Figure 1-6 Indirect Regulation System

1-governor 2-lever 3-servomotor
4-steam regulating valve 5-slide
valve
From discussion above, a close-loop turbine control system includes:

a. Speed sense organ: Using it to sense the speed variation, convert the speed to
other physical variable.
b. Transmission and amplifier organ: it locates after the Speed sense organ and
before the steam distribution organ.
c. Steam distribution organ: It receive signal for the speed sense organ and
transmission amplifier organ, vary the feed steam organ. (Refer to fig 1-6)
d. Regulation object: For turbine regulation, regulating object is power unit.
Turbine power varies according to the feed steam quantity.
We can understand the relationship between the all parts of the regulating system
from figure 1-7.
Figure 1-7 Turbine Regulating System Block Diagram

1.3.2 Static Characteristics of Turbine Hydraulic Regulating System
When turbine load varies, the turbine speed will change, according to the direct
and indirect theory. Under steady status, the relationship between turbine power and
speed is static characteristics of regulating system.
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1.3.2.1 Static Characteristics Curves

We need to know the all parts static characteristics in order to illustrate static
characteristics of regulating. Refer to fig 1-6 to illustrate. We have known the static
characteristics of speed control, oil servo motor, throttle and lift flow characteristics of
regulating valve.
a. Static Characteristics of Speed Control x f (n) , the higher the speed
the higher the displacement of slip ring
x refer to static characteristics curves
in second quadrant in fig 1-8.

b. Static Characteristics Curves of Oil Servo Motor And Throttle: m f (x) , the
higher the displacement of slip ring
servo motor
x the lower the regulating valve drove by oil
m refer to static characteristics curves in third quadrant in fig 1-8.
c. Lift Characteristics Curves of Regulating Valve: p f (m) , there is a one to

one correspondence relationship between oil servo motor displacement ( m ) and
turbine power ( p
refer to static characteristics curves in fourth quadrant in fig
1-8.
1.3.2.2 Speed Diversity Factor and Delay Factor
a. Speed Diversity Factor
Static characteristics of regulating system is a continuous declining curve, the
slope can be expressed by speed of regulating system. According to the Static
characteristics curve of fig 1-9 we can find speed variation from non-load to fullload n n max n min speed diversity factor of regulating system formation.
n nmin
n
100% max
100%
n0
n0
nmax nmin non-load speed, full-load speed, r/min

n0
rated speed
r/min
is the most important index of the regulating system
it equals the
proportional band according to the automatic regulation theory. It not only reflects the
ability of first frequency adjustment, but also indicates the stability quality. Scope of
is 3%
6%
normal between 4.5%~5.5%

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Figure 1-8 Static Speciality Curve
Figure1-9 Drawn Static Speciality Curve
of Regulating System
according to Drawing Method
b. Delay Factor
When power unit increasing or decreasing load, the static characteristics curves
dont coincide for the conjunction of all parts of adjustment system exist in gap, friction
etc. Refer to fig 1-10,
n2
is defined that the speed difference divide rated speed.

n2 n1
100%
n0
speed according to power p1 when decrease load
n1 speed according to power p1
when increase load
The maximum speed difference n max

maximum delay factor.
nmax1
n0
divide rated speed, calling n0
100%
Delay factor of regulating is a crucial quality index, the lower the better. Velocity
or load unsteady is caused by high delay factor even regulation system unsteady.
1.3.2.3 Parallel Shift and Synchronizer of Static Characteristics Curves
Steam power unit have two-operation mode, single-unit and synchronizing
operation. In order to realize the parallel shift of the static characteristics curves, we can
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collaterally shift the random component in the second, third, fourth, quadrant.
Figure 1-10 Insensitivity Zone

of Static Speciality Curve
Figure 1-11 Function of Parallel For

Movement of Static Speciality
During Single Unit Running
For DEH system, parallel shift of the static characteristics curves is realized by
additional set value signal. Additional set value signal affect the speed sensor, its effect
is parallel shift of the static characteristics curves for speed sensor.
Power set value is the static characteristics curve which collaterally shifts the
amplificatory organ when Additional set value signal affects the speed sensor.
1.3.2.4 Distribution Property and Second Frequency Adjustment in Incorporating
In Power Grid
Power gird, which combined with a lot of turbine generator, is the mode of
neoteric large-scale power supply. The turbine generators look like a single turbine
generator unit because they have the identical rotate speed. Under this situation, effect
of all turbine generator units will disturb each other. Effect of regulating systems is
interfered by each other. Speed of every single generator unit is decided by frequency,
but frequency is decided by the regulating systems for all turbine generator units, so
generator unit load, which allocated from power grid, is determined by static
characteristics of very single generator unit.
Second frequency adjustment in incorporating in power grid means that we could
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use synchronizer to move the static characteristics curve of a certain turbine generator
unit when the unit incorporates in power grid.
1.3.2.5 Parallel Shift Scope of Static Characteristics Curves
Figure 1-12 Load Distribution During

Parallel Movement of Static
Figure 1-13 Function of Synchronization

Operation Speciality Curve During
Synchronization Operation
Synchronizer displacement, parallel shift scope of static characteristics

curves ought to satisfy the demand of steam turbine operation. The function of
Synchronizer is changing the power for steam power unit, when in incorporate in power
grid.
Figure 1-14 Movement Range of Synchronizer
Figure 1-15 Reasonable Static Curve
1.3.2.6 Logical Shape Of Static Characteristics

When steam turbine operates, we must maintain the frequency of generator
constant, but as the load varies; the turbine speed will change according to the static
characteristics curves.
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Several Aspects Ought To Be Considered

a. To demand great slope of static characteristic curve in initial period of curve
b. To demand great slope of static characteristic curve near the rated power.
c. The middle period for slope of static characteristic curve must varies smoothly.
The low or null or minus slope is forbidden in order to avoid local instability. Refer to
fig 1-15.
1.3.3 Dynamic Characteristics of Hydraulic System
Static characteristics of regulation system describes that the corresponding rule
between power and rotate speed under all kinds of steady condition, which have no
relationship between the transient process of two conditions. Dynamic characteristics of
regulation system describe the variety rule according to the time changing after the
system is interfered. The aim for researching the Dynamic characteristics of regulation
system is that we can distinguish whether the system steady, estimate the quality of
regulating system and analyze the main factor affecting Dynamic characteristics. So we
can improve the regulating quality according to the research mentioning above.
1.3.3.1 Index of Dynamic Characteristics
a. Stability
Fig 1-16 represents several variable processes when steam turbine rejects fullload. Three process curves in fig1-16 finally tend to non-load speed n1 determined by
static characteristics curve when time prolong. The process is called transient process.
Three-transition curve represented by fig 1-16 represent three states. Curve d represents
speed is a fadeless resonance process according to speed n1 ; Curve e represents
amplitude gradually increase according to time t ; Curve f represents speed diffuse
when drifting the rated speed. These processes are called unsteady transient process.
The ordinate of fig 1-16 represents speed relative value i.e. n / n0
Production process demands transient process of rotate speed regulation must be

a steady process; transient process could be a monotonic process or be a dying
oscillation process. The obvious oscillation times must be less 3 5.
b. Accuracy (Speed Dynamic Deviation)
Fig 1-17 represents a typical curve of speed transition process when power unit
reject the full-load. The power unit rejects the full-load when being rated load or rated
speed, the power unit will stand in a non-load steady condition through effect of
regulating system. We can obtain a new speed of steady operating condition point
according to synchronizer static characteristics relationship under rated load condition
i.e. n s (1 )n0 .
Speed dynamic deviation, in other words, speed dynamic overshoot(n)
represents a difference value between the maximum dynamic speed n And final
static steady speed n
. The maximum dynamic speed means
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n max (1 ) n0 nmax
The maximum dynamic speed nmax
must be lower than action speed of
overspeed shutoff device and reserve the sufficient allowance so that power unit doesnt
trip when unit reject full-load. The action speed of mechanical overspeed shutoff device
is (110% 112%) n0 and we hope the maximum dynamic speed nmax under (107%
109%) n0 . For
, not be selected too big and must improve the regulating
performance in order to decrease nmax I.E. reduce the system delay, try to decrease the
dynamic overshoot n max
. Otherwise
being full-load, if not have automatic
signal and drive the synchronizer backing to non-load position, it could better reduce
the maximum dynamic speed nmax .
Figure 1-16 Speed Transition Process

after Full Load Rejection
Figure 1-17 Speed Transition Process

after Full Load Rejection
(a) stable process (b) unstable process
c. Rapidity (Transient Process Time)

We consider that system has reached a new steady state when the deviation
between the regulated variable and the new steady variable less than 5% in regulating
process. Transient process time represents the minimum time needed from old steady
state to new steady state after system has interfered. t in fig 1-17 represents transient
process time when power unit reject the full-load, commonly be less 5 50s.
1.3.3.2 Main Factor Of Affecting Dynamic Characteristics
a. Rotor Maximum Momentary Time Constant Ta
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Rotor maximum momentary time constant represents the time that speed
increases from zero to rated speed when rotor is affected by steam main torque under
rated power.
b. Intermediate Capacity Time Constant TV
Intermediate capacity time constant represents time needed to reach the steam
density under rated condition as steam fill the whole intermediate capacity with various
processes and the rated flow.
c. Speed Diversity Factor (
The dynamic characteristics index affected by speed diversity factor is that if

is high, dynamic stability would be better, regulating speed would be fast, but, the
dynamic and static deviation might be great.
Figure 1-19 Affection of Servomotor Time (
Figure 1-18 Affection of Speed Diversity

For Dynamic Specialty
Constant Factor Tm
For Dynamic Speciality
d. Servomotor Time Constant Tm

The definition of servomotor is the time needed to complete the whole working
travel if the servomotor at the condition of maximum feed oil when servomotor at the
fully open position.
e. Delay Factor
The control system cant adjust the regulating valve in time when power unit
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reject load because the delay exist, so dynamic deviation would be greater.
2 Digital Electric-Hydraulic Regulating System DEH

2.1 Introduction
Computer took a boom into the industrial revolution accompanied by the
appearing of microcomputer in 1970s. With the development of the computer
technology, widespread applying of microcomputer, improving of cost performance, a
new style, strong function, high precision digital electric-hydraulic regulating system
has replaced the analog system rapidly and widespread apply to control for all kinds of
large-scale steam turbine.
Fig 2-1 is a block diagram of digital electric-hydraulic regulating system for
steam turbine. The system is a power-frequency regulating system its set point,
colligating comparative and PID or PI parts are all calculated by computer, which
compare with the analog electric-hydraulic regulating system. The two systems have
totally different control mode because the computer control system complete the control
function in a definite sampling time. Analog electric-hydraulic regulating system
belongs to continuous control Analog electric-hydraulic regulating system, in
other words, sampling control, belongs to discrete control.
Fig 2-1 Block Diagram Of Digital Electric-Hydraulic Regulating System

For Steam Turbine
The regulated object in fig 2-1 is a more consummate regulating system

because considering the characteristics of governing stage steam chamber,
characteristics of generator power and power grid characteristics; The computer possess
the strong capability for colligation, judgments, logic processing.
The system using PI regulating disciplinarian is a cascading regulating system.
The whole system consists of two loops, inner loop and outer loop, the inner loop
improves the rapidity of regulating process, and outer loop ensures that output strictly
equals set value. PI regulating disciplinarian not only ensure the calculating processing
and amplifying for system information, but also, integral action ensure to eliminate the
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static deviation, which could realize static regulation.

Virtual switch of system consist of software, the direction of K1 and K2 switch
provides different mode of operation, it could operate as either mode of cascade stage PI
or mode of single stage. That provides a normal operation ability when certain loop fails
in the system, for instance, transducer failing. The variation for mode of operation is
either switched by logical judgment and system automatic execution, or by keyboard
operation. The external disturbance in system is load variation R , the internal
disturbance is steam pressure variation p , set value are speed set value n and power
set value p , the two set value are restricted each other by static relationship. Power
unit uses speed control loop for controlling when starting or rejecting load, using power
control loop for controlling when operating in corporate in power grid, using powerfrequency loop for controlling when operating in corporate in power and taking part in
frequency regulating.
The DEH system possesses a lot of advantages that is compared with the
AEH system, features will be listed below:
a. Computer have replaced the electric hardware of the AEH, especially after
system adopts the microprocessor and distributed processing unit, which is improved
reliability distinctly.
b. Computers calculation, logical judgments and processing ability is
extraordinary strong, in addition to control measure, computer hold the ability for data
processing, system monitoring, reliability analyzing, performance diagnoses and
operation management (i.e. Parameter and index indicating, tabling printing, alarming,
sequence of emergency, man-machine conversation etc.).
c. The system possesses high quality regulation, well static and dynamic
characteristics, for instance, regulating precision of a 300Mw DEH power unit under the
condition of steady steam parameter (precision under 2MW about power
regulation precision under 2r/min about power regulation). Otherwise the
system hold the features of Flexibility and expandability, easy maintain because of
hardware modular construction. System, also, possesses reliable protection function
under the redundant controlling.
d. Using computer has the ability for realizing the coordinating controlling of
power unit, plant level controlling and optimizing controlling.
2.2 Constitution of DEH System
2.2.1 Constitution of DEH System
DEH, steam turbine digital electro-hydraulic control system has shown a lot
advantages, which includes new development of current steam turbine regulation,
concentrating two new fruits new technology of solid electronics and digital
computer system new technology of hydraulic and system of high pressure fire100
resistant oil .
DEH of large capacity power unit is divided 5 parts. (Refer to fig 2-2)
2.2.1.1 Electric controller which mainly includes digital computer, mixed digital
and analog modular, interface, power supply equipment is arranged in the control
cabinet for controlling of set point, receiving feedback signal, logical calculation and
outputting signal.
2.2.1.2 Operation system, which mainly includes operating panel, display and
printer of graphic station, provides services (i.e. Operation information, supervision,
man-machine conversation and operating service).
2.2.1.3 Oil system consists of a main oil pump, a high-pressure startup oil pump, an alternating
current lubricating pump and a direct current lubricating pump.
2.2.1.4 Actuating mechanism mainly consists of servo amplifier, electro hydraulic converter
and unilateral oil servo motor held device of rapid shutting down and non-return in order to drive the
main steam valve and regulating steam valve.
2.2.1.5Protection system consists of shutoff solenoid valve in order to shut down the main and
regulating steam valve when turbine appears the emergency situation (i.e. Overspend, low
lubricating pressure, and low condenser vacuum). In addition, measuring element for controlling and
supervision is required, (i.e. Speed, regulating stage pressure, generator power, main steam pressure
transducer).
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manual stop
turbine oil
system
stop device
electric stop
magnetic force
mechanical disconnector
overspeed emergency
main steam
control
mechanism
TV
governor
reset
TV
start
device
BR
GV
DEH-A
operator
panel
operator
unit
MW
GV
electroservomotoer lever
hydraulic
OPC
converter
solenoid
valve
GV
Controller
BR
engineer
unit
speed(n)
IMP
n
MW.TP
IMP
TV,GV LVDT
Figure 2-2 DEH System Diagram Of Large Capacity Power Unit
2.2.2 DEH block diagram

DEH is a multi-parameter, multi-loop, feedback control system. Refer to fig 2-3.
The system function includes set point, feedback, controller, and power unit object.
2.2.2.1 Setting Mode
Setting mode includes operator, ATC, and logic setting, setting content includes
target value and velocity of speed, power and main steam pressure.
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2.2.2.2 Measuring and A/D Converting

Measuring parameter includes speed (WS), power (MW), regulating stage
pressure (IMP), main steam pressure (TP), latching (ASL), oil breaker (BR). Refer to 24.
Important signal has redundant equipment such as power, regulating stage
pressure, main steam pressure in order to improve the reliability; speed signal is sent the
three MCP modules by three transducers, being sent to control loop after converted with
three selecting two arithmetic in computer. All analog input signals possess isolated
amplifier.
Fig 2-3 DEH Block Diagram
2.2.2.3 Servo Control Loop

There is a servo loop control card- valve control card (VCC) for each valve, refer
to figure 2-5. Output signal of DEH are sent to VCC cards, firstly converted by function
(cam characteristics), secondly transformed to valve demand, and thirdly amplified by
Power Amplifier in order to control the oil servomotor.
2.2.2.4 Regulator
Regulator is a multi-loop cascade stage regulating system using PI regulator.
There are five PI regulator TV regulator (regulator for main steam valve control
loop),GV regulator ( regulator for high pressure regulating valve control loop),MW
regulator (power loop regulator) IMP regulator( regulator for regulating stage
pressure).
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Figure 2-4 Measurement Loop
Fig 2-5 Servo Control Loop Block Diagram
2.3 Functions of DEH

Generally, DEH regulating system includes four functions.
2.3.1 Automatic Turbine Startup or Shutdown Control System (ATC)
The turbine automatic control for DEH is an automatic control procedure which
is realized by monitoring state, calculating the rotor stress, optimizing start-up program,
realizing the power unit start-up with maximal velocity and minimal time.
ATC allows two start-up modes: cold state start-up and thermal state. Cold state
start-up procedure includes hand-turning, increasing speed, synchronization, lading,
which are automatically controller by computer program.
2.3.2 Load Automatic Regulation of Turbine
Load automatic regulation of turbine is adjusted by regulating steam valve. At
load controlling phase, DEH regulating system provides following functions: Operator
automatic, remote and power plant computer control mode, union control mode with
ATC
2.3.2.2 Automatic control (redundant structure), first level manual control and second
level redundant manual control mode
2.3.2.3 Cascade stage or single stage PI control mode; after load higher than 10%,
operator can selects the operation mode- regulating stage steam chamber or generator
power feedback loop so that determines which PI control mode is selected.
2.3.2.4 Fixed pressure or slide pressure operation mode; using fixed pressure operation
mode, system has the valve management ability to ensure that turbine could get the
maximum efficiency.
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2.3.2.5 According to the demand of power grid, frequency adjustment or basic load
operation mode could be selected.
Turbine pressure control (TPC) and exterior load back (RUNBACK) control
mode etc. - otherwise, could be selected, operation control is very flexible.
2.3.3 Automatic Protection of Turbine
To avoid the devastation caused by overspeed or other reasons, the automatic
protection of turbine includes three capabilities:
2.3.3.1 Overspeed protection control (OPC)- this protection only involved
regulating steam valve, when speed reaches 103% n0 shut the regulating steam valve
down when speed reaches 103% n0 <n<110% n0 OPC rapidly shut down the
high pressure regulating steam valve to realize the OPC for turbine.
2.3.3.2 Emergency Trip System (ETS)-ETS shuts down all the main steam valves
and regulating steam valves to ensure emergency trip when ETS system detects the
speed over 110% or other security index reaches to safety limit.
2.3.3.3 Mechanical overspeed protection and manual tripping the former is a
multi-protection for overspeed using for speed over than 110%; the later is a manual
tripping method using for automatic protection system unavailable.
2.3.4 Monitoring Ability for Power Unit and DEH
This system supervises the operation state for power unit and DEH equipment
when turbine starts up or shut down. The system provides following functions:
indication for operation state button, state, and CRT image. The supervision for DEH
mainly includes important channel, power supply, and executing state of interior
program.
2.4 Mode of Operation for DEH
To ensure the reliability of control, DEH possess four allowing mode, power unit
can operates under each mode, which restricts the following sequence and relation:
second level manual control first level manual control
operator automatic
control ATC.
Second level manual operation mode is the lowest operation mode with tracking
system, it only uses for standby mode. This level wholly consists of sophisticated
general analog component in order to ensure the power unit security when system fails.
First level manual is an open loop operation mode. Operators can control the
each valve demand, logical interlock for each button and operate the OPC, TPC,
RUNBACK and TRIPPING by depressing the button on operation panel.
Operator automatic control mode is a basic operation mode. This mode can
realize the closed control for turbine speed and load, and possesses all kinds of
protection functions. The system holds redundant system, the target speed, velocity and
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target load are determined by operator.

ATC is the highest-level operation mode. Under this mode, speed, load and their
velocity are not determined by operator but computer program or exterior device,
therefore, it is an operation mode that located above the operator automatic mode.
2.5 Operating Principal for DEH
There are two functions for turbine DEH, speed control to single operation,
power control to parallel operation. For fixed operation turbine, either speed control or
power control, is mainly controlled by changing opening of regulating steam valve.
2.5.1 Speed Regulating Principle
Before the turbine synchronization, turbine speed must be increased from nil to
rated speed in order to synchronize conveniently. For improving the reliability to
increasing process, economical efficiency, reducing the life spoilage to equipment,
control mode always uses the multi-valve combination mode. Increasing process is
controlled by main steam valve and regulating steam valve sequence turning on
combination.
At the beginning period of startup(0
2900r
high pressure main steam valve(TV) control button

valve fully opened
controller by
min)
min)
operators press the
high pressure regulating steam
speed is controlled by main steam valve opening which is
high pressure main steam regulator. At speed (2900r
operators press high pressure regulating steam valve button(GV)
system automatically switches to high pressure regulating steam valve control loop,
high pressure main steam valve fully opened, control loop to high pressure main steam
valve is located into open loop, control loop to high pressure regulating steam valve is
located into closed loop, speed is controlled by high pressure regulating steam valve.
According to the above content, the valve state varies with different speed; at each
period, only one control loop is in control condition, refer to the following table 2-1.
Period Valve
Before rolling
0 2900r/min
Valve switch
2900r/min
2900
3000r/min
TV
Fully closed
Control
Controlfully
opened
Fully opened
GV
Fully closed
Fully opened
Fully opened
control
Control
Table 2-1 cold state high pressure cylinder startup BYPASS OFF valve state for each period
Speed regulating principal diagram in DEH regulating system refer to fig 2-7.
Speed regulating loop can receive two kinds of speed control signal disturbance, speed
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set value disturbance under automatic control mode, manual speed valve-position
demand disturbance under manual mode.
Fig 2-7DEH-III Speed Regulating Principle Diagram
n '
'
-Disturbance Signal Of Speed Set Value; n m
VT , VG
-Manual Valve-Position Order Signal;
- Valve-Position Deviation Signal; OPC-Electric Overspeed Protection Control

Signal; AST-Emergency Governor Protection Signal
2.5.1.1 Speed regulation under speed set value disturbance

Under automatic control mode, both speed regulating loop and two valveposition control sub loops are closed control structure.
If system is located into steady condition, speed set value( n *
speed feedback ( n
speed deviation signal equals 0 (n=O)
) balance with
valve-position
deviation signal equals 0( VT 0, VG 0 ).

a. Speed governing for high pressure main steam valve (n<2900r min):
When use high pressure cylinder to start up the turbine, high pressure regulating steam
valve are all fully opened before turbine rolling, rolling and increasing speed are
controlled by main steam valve.(n=2900r min).
b. Switch control for high pressure main steam valve high pressure
regulating steam valve: when turbine speed reaches to 2900r min in accordance
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with demand speed control changes from high pressure main steam valve to high
pressure regulating steam valve. When valves are changing, high pressure
regulating steam valves close down rapidly from fully opened position; When actual
speed declines certain value (i.e. 30r min) it illustrates that high pressure
regulating steam valve has generated throttling action and replaced the high-pressure
main steam valve to control the speed. And then, when speed reaches to 2900r min
that is controlled by high pressure regulating steam valve the high pressure main
steam valve gradually open to fully opened position.
c. speed control of high pressure regulating steam valve(n>2900r min):
when speed over 2900r min speed is located into the period of high pressure
regulating steam valve, speed control principal is basically similar to high pressure main
steam valve control principal.
Whether high pressure main steam valve or regulating steam valve controls,
actual speed is completely controlled with high precision by speed set value because
main or sub-loops all adopt closed-loop architecture, speed deviation is under 2r
min.
2.5.1.2 Speed regulation under manual speed valve-position demand disturbance
Under manual control mode, speed-regulating loop is broken at the auto/manu
switch point, so is open loop architecture. The two valve-position regulating sub-loops
must be closed loop control architecture.
2.5.2 Power Regulating Principle
Table 2-2 loop operation mode selections
Mode
WS
M
W
Explanation
Valve travel control
OUT
OU
T
Set valve position
Constant power operation
OUT
IN
Power-frequency operation
IN
IN
Only speed regulating
IN
OU
T
Participate in primary frequency regulation
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P
Pm'
-Disturbance Signal of Outer Power;
P '
- Disturbance Signal of Power Set Value;
- Manual Power Regulating Order Signal; OPC-Electric Overspeed Protection Control Signal; ASTEmergency Governor Protection Signal
Fig 2-8 DEH-III Principle Diagram for Power Regulation

Power regulating system includes three cascade stage loops. Refer to fig 2-8.
Power is controlled by governing the high pressure regulating steam valve. These three
loops are inner loop (regulating stage pressure loop), intermediate loop (power
regulating loop)-MW and outer loop (speed regulating loop)-WS. Load set value is
converted to power set value by correction with first frequency adjustment, than it is
corrected by power corrector to set value of regulating stage pressure, finally it is
transformed to valve-position demand signal by valve manager. There are two
operations mode for three-control loop. Refer to table 2-2.
2.5.2.1 Power control strategy
a. Adopting multi-loop comprehensives control
From the view of hydraulic regulating system strategy and system composition,
the main reason of poor load adaptability is only using a single main loop (speed
regulating main loop) to be the first frequency adjustment loop. According to the first
frequency adjustment characteristics, power static deviation could be expressed as the
following formulation:
P Pn00 n
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n n n 0
P P P *
n0 Rated speed
nSpeed static deviation
Speed variance ratio
P0 Rated power
Power static deviation
P * Power set value
The difference of power dynamic deviation and static deviation is high; it reflects
that the dynamic characteristics of power regulation of hydraulic regulating system are
very poor. To avoid the problems that single main loop possesses, DEH always set 2~3
main loops, inner loop, intermediate loop, outer loop.
The purpose for intermediate loop is that system can correct the deviation value
that is compared the actual power dynamic deviation signals with the exterior static
deviation demand signals, so that system can inclines the dynamic and static deviation
value and improves the dynamic characteristics of power regulation.
b. Adopting multi-signal comprehensive control
The centralized control of large-scale capacity power unit demands flexible and
various operation mode, it is a well conditions that the application of the electric
technology.
a). Set value signal comprehensive control- it can be flexibly executed various
comprehensive controls by changing the power set value signal source.
b). Intermediate link limited signal comprehensive control- sometimes, system is
limited by power unit actual operation condition cannot reaches to the designated
operation requests, therefore, the limited value signals that reflect the power unit
operation conditions are sent to a certain intermediate link to execute the low limit
processing.
c). Direct valve-position control- When emergency situation occurs, a lot of
special signals such as emergency shutoff signal, electrical overspeed protection signal
are directly sent to valve-position control device in order to ensure the valve quick
action.
c. Adopting Valve Management Technology
Valve management program converts the flow adjustment signal into valveposition control signal and selects the start-up/shutdown control mode according to the
demand. #6 turbine in AL-HISWA is adopted single valve control, all high-pressure
regulating steam valve are controlled by single signal so that it is suitable to throttle
governing. Throttle governing can result in the turbine approaching complete cycle feed
steam mode, turbine is heated symmetrically so that rotor thermal stress in process of
speed variation and load variation will be reduced. Generally, adopt Throttle governing
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at turbine increasing speed, low load warming-up, slide pressure operation, big range
load variation and normal shutdown process.
2.5.2.2 Power regulating principle
System can receives 4 power disturbance signals- environmental load disturbance
signals, load set value disturbance signals under automatic control mode, interior steam
parameter disturbance signals, manual power valve-position demand disturbance signal
under manual control mode. Refer to fig 2-8.
a. Power Regulation Under Environmental Load Disturbance
The three main links (three main loops) and its sub-loops (valve-position control
loop) are all closed loop control architecture so that system is located into power
regulating mode.
System is at original steady state. (n= n0
P= P * ) When environmental
load disturbance signals occur such as load increase, generator electromagnetism antitorque will increase, arising M e >0 M t =0
therefore M = M t
M e <0. According to the motion characteristics, speed is inclined; speed deviation
signal is occurred ( n <0). System output the power static correction signal x1 by
power corrector. Power static deviation request signal isREF1>0, because of P * =0.
And then intermediate link, power correction loop, is disturbed by REF1
so that static deviation signal(MR>O) occurs it is corrected by power corrector
P4 I 4 the power correction request signal(REF2>O)is sent
it is converted to
regulating stage pressure request signal(IPS>0) by parameter conversion, inner link

regulating stage pressure loop will be disturbed by IPS regulating stage pressure
deviation signal(IMP>0) is occurred it is corrected by regulating stage pressure
corrector and limited by valve-position limit program ( P5 I 5 ), main steam flow request
signal(FEDM>0) is generated
it is processed by valve management
program regulating demand signal ( VGP >0) is generated

sub-loop is disturbed by( VGP
valve-position
) valve-position deviation signal( VG >O)is
generated it is converted to regulating oil pressure signal by electro-hydraulic

converter in order to drive servomotor. When regulating steam valve opening increases,
main steam flow increases, steam energetic torque, power, regulating stage pressure
increases. With the process that mentioned above, valve-position feedback signal (
VGL
) which is obtained from servomotor piston rod, regulating stage pressure
feedback signal(IMP), power feedback signal(MW) and steam energetic torque

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signal( M t ) are increased.

Steady conditions are listed below:
VG VGP VGL 0
IMR IPS IMP 0

MR REF1 MW 0
M M t M e 0
b. Power Regulation Under Power Set Value Disturbance

The three main loops and sub-loops are all closed loop control structure when
system locates into automatic control mode. Refer to fig 3-9. When power set value
disturbance occurs, power set value ( P *
) is changed , for instance,( P * >0) power
deviation signal MR>0 is generated, it is converted by power corrector, regulating

stage pressure corrector, valve-position limiter, valve management program and valveposition control device into a drive signal that increases the regulating steam valve
opening, increases the steam quantity and power. With the variation described above,
valve-position feedback signal, regulating stage pressure feedback signal and power
feedback signal will be changed in accordance with the trend. When actual power of the
power unit reaches to the power set point, the state of power unit reaches to a new
steady condition.
c. Power regulation under interior steam parameter disturbance
Hydraulic regulating system not possess anti-internal-disturbance capability,
when steam parameters vary such as main steam pressure, main steam temperature,
exhausted steam pressure, the power for power unit will change automatically. For
electro-hydraulic regulating system, when inner loop, intermediate loop is in operation,
system possess anti-internal-disturbance capability, the variation of steam parameter
will not affect the power stability. When system intermediate loop is broken, although
system can prevents the inner disturbance by inner loop, it cannot maintains the power
precision; When system inner loop is broken, although system can prevents the inner
disturbance by intermediate loop, it can maintains the power precision but the transition
process time of regulation will be prolonged. In valve management program, a flow
characteristic for valve is amended in accordance with main steam pressure. Power
control precision is under 0.5% 0.67%.
d. Power regulation under manual power valve-position demand disturbance
signal
Under manual control mode the three main loops of system are all broken at
the auto/manu switch point, therefore, all main loops are open loop structure, valveposition regulating sub-loop must be closed loop structure.
Power demand signal is sent directly by operator manual mode. The valveposition demand is the power set value disturbance signal sent directly by operator
manual mode because the power unit is located in parallel operation mode.
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2.6 Automatic Turbine Startup or Shutdown Control System (ATC)

2.6.1 ATC Control
When turbine starts up or load varied, if steam temperature varies rapidly, the
internal temperature difference of turbine will increases, thermal stress will be generated
tremendously; the thermal stress will damage the power unit security. Cycle index is
related to thermal stress magnitude, cycle index represents the life of power unit.
2.6.2 Control Measure
We can control the thermal stress for turbine by controlling the various speed of
the first stage to turbine, which can be carried on by adjusting load variance and
variance ratio.
2.6.3 Thermal Stress Calculation
The turbine rotor thermal stress should be controlled at the period of startup,
shutdown, and increasing or decreasing load. For thermal stress measurement is
immature, so thermal stress control bases on the thermal stress calculation. The thermal
stress magnitude is related to diameter, shape, main axial surface temperature variance
ration, and temperature variance range. The formula is:
S aE (T Ta )
Main axial thermal stress

Elastic modulus
Linear expansion coefficient
Poisson's ratio
Surface or bearing hole temperature to main axes
Ta Cubage means temperature to main axes
E ,a ,
is a constant after the turbine has completely constructed, so
thermal stress magnitude is determined by effective temperature difference ( T Ta ).

E
1
T T Ta
S T
The formula has shown that the key procedure for thermal stress calculation is
getting the effective temperature difference T
. The main axes surface temperature
and cubage mean temperatures are estimated by rotor temperature field. Rotor
temperature field is determined by steam temperature in steam chamber, initial surface
temperature to rotor, thermal transmission coefficient from steam to rotor. Rotor initial
surface temperature is replaced by inner wall temperature in steam chamber. The result
for theory and experiment has shown that thermal transmission coefficient from steam
to rotor is a function of condenser pressure and speed under speed control mode. At the
initial period of 5 min under load control mode, the coefficient is a function of time,
after that it is a constant.
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2.6.4 Control Loop Block Diagram

ATC possesses perfect logical control and interlock loop for hand turning,
warming up, valve switch, synchronization, and also monitors the eccentric, differential
expansion, vibration, bearing metal temperature, thrust position and motor cooling
system for turbine. ATC control task consists of a scheduler and 16 subprograms. Refer
to fig 2-9. For large-scale power unit, rate of raising speed from 50~500 r/min is divided
into 10 levels that each level is 50r/min; temperature difference (t) represents the
thermal stress. When actual temperature difference is below 72F, rate of raising speed
will increases a level per 3 min; the maximum rate of speed is 500r/min. When actual
temperature difference is over 72F, rate of raising speed will decreases a level per 3
min; the minimum rate of speed is 50r/min. Rate of speed is a constant when
temperature difference equals 70F.
Rate of raising load from 1.395~13.95 MW/min is divided into 10 levels that
each level is 1.395MW/min, increasing and decreasing rule is similar to rate of raising
speed. When actual temperature difference is below 72F, rate of raising load will
increases a level per 3 min; the maximum rate of speed is 13.95MW/min. When actual
temperature difference is over 72F, rate of raising speed will decreases a level per 3
min; the minimum rate of speed is 1.395MW/min. Rate of speed is a constant when
temperature difference equals 70F.
3 Digital System of Digital Electric-Hydraulic Control System (DEH)

Electronic controller is a key part for DEH system; it consists of digital system
and analog system. Digital system primarily performs functions including input signals
processing and checking, set value calculation and control calculation etc. The output
signal of the digital system is converted to analog signal by analog system; it is sent to
servo loop and drive the servomotor.
3.1 Set Value Processing and Control Calculation
3.1.1 Set Value Processing
Set value represents the speed that turbine will reaches under speed regulating
mode; set value represents the load value that turbine will reaches under load regulating
mode. When DEH system operates in different mode, the processing of set value is
different. The fig 3-1 is the logical processing diagram for set value.
3.1.1.1 When TPC is in operation, if main steam pressure is below a certain set value
and the opening of regulating steam valve is over to 20% to full span, DEH will incline
the load set value according to the rate of speed defined by operator until the main
steam pressure increases or equals to the set value. Main steam pressure control is a
protection item, digital system will set the set value in priority according to TPC
whether DEH are on/off automatic state.
3.1.1.2 When EXTERNAL REFERENCE RUNBACK occurs, including generator main
breaker tripping DEH will reduce the set value for rate of speed according to the
external rate of speed or scheduled rate of speed until the load equals the set value.
3.1.1.3 When DEH is MANUAL state automatic control function is disabled. The
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output of Digital system tracks the manual operation system so that the output demand
signal of automatic system equals the output signal of manual operation system,
therefore, control system can realizes switch without disturbance from menu mode to
auto mode.
3.1.1.4 When DEH is AUTO state the load of power unit is determined by operator.
Operator can set the load value and variance rate they want, then press the GO button;
DEH will change the load set value according to the operator demand until the set value
reaches the load demand value.
3.1.1.5 If DEH is ATC state power unit can realize automatic startup. ATC
program can output different target rate of arising speed and speed in dissimilar period,
the basic DEH programs change the speed set value according it and realize the
automatic arising speed process through the conversion program.
3.1.1.6 If DEH is PIANT COMPUTER or DATA CHAIN state, it could adjust the
system set value according to the power unit demand and load variance rate that are sent
by control source.
3.1.1.7 On power unit starting phrase, when speed reaches the rated speed range(+10
50r min) automatic synchronizer control mode could be put in operation.
DEH receives the speed demand signal sent by automatic synchronizer and adjust the
system speed set value to realize the automatic synchronism and synchronization for
power unit and power grid frequency.
3.1.1.8 If DEH is in AUTO DISPATCH SYSTEM state the load to power unit is
determined by dispatching center. DEH receives the speed demand signal and load
speed variance rate sent by dispatching center to adjust the set value for load control
system.
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Fig 3-1 Logical Processing Block Diagram For Set Value

All operation selection program what I have mentioned are adopted inquiring
mode, system determines the prior level in accordance with the inquiring sequence. TPC
and ERR is prior to all other operation mode whether system is any state.
3.1.2 Control Calculation
Set value processed by calculation program is sent to control calculation loop,
which process the deviation between set value and feedback signal (speed, power,
regulating stage pressure signal), and output a value-position demand signal to
servomotor. Refer to fig 3-2.
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Fig 3-2 Control Calculation Valve Requirement Calculation Logical Block

Diagram
3.1.2.1 DEH in Load Control

At normal operation condition, load is controlled by DEH, high-pressure main
steam value is fully opened, and servomotor received the opening signal sent by control
system.
Control calculation loop corrects the frequency (speed) deviation calculated by
fig 3-1. (For power unit that attends in the first level frequency adjustment, when it
operates in normal load condition, the speed feedback is cut off.) Because power grid
frequency represents the power grid load, if frequency is over rated value(50Hz) it
reflects the load decreasing, DEH must inclines the power unit output load in order to
reduce the power grid frequency; on the contrary, if frequency is lower than rated
value(50Hz) it reflects the load increasing, DEH must rises the power unit output
load in order to increase the power grid frequency.
3.1.2.2 DEH In Speed Control
If DEH is operates in speed control mode
set value is required
speed set value and speed feedback signal constitutes the feedback control loop. If
speed is lower than 90% of rated speed(2900r min) speed adjustment task is
executed by high pressure main steam valve, high pressure regulating steam valve is
fully opened, so the output for DEH is demand signal of high pressure main steam
valve; If speed equals 90% of rated speed(2900r min) DEH will switch to
high pressure regulating steam valve control mode.
In speed control program, if system is in high-pressure regulating steam valve
control state, it also needs to judge the control mode (single valve mode or sequence
valve mode) for high pressure regulating valve. If operates in sequence valve mode,
signal would be processed by valve management program first and then be sent to
analog servo loop.
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3. 2 Digital System for High Pressure Main Steam Valve

3.2.1 Operation Mode to High Pressure Main Steam Valve
If power unit is in high pressure main steam valve control state, DEH has two
operation mode AUTO or ( AUTO and MANUAL). Refer to fig 3-3.
Fig 3-3 Operation Mode To High-Pressure Main Steam Valve

3.2.1.1 AUTO mode
Under auto mode, control is realized by computer operators can set the set
value of the speed control system through the operating board. Under this
mode ATC can be put in operation
the whole procedure is realized by
computer, speed set value of each phrase is provided by ATC program. Set valve
provide by ATC or OPERATOR is sent to high-pressure main steam valve control
system. The output signal of main steam valve control system is converted by D/A and
is set to servo amplifying loop as high-pressure main steam valve control signal (TV
CONTROL). Output of D/A converter is also sent to analog system as a tracking signal
(TRACKING) in order to preserve the equation for analog output and D/A converter
output.
3.2.1.2 Manual mode ( AUTO or MANUAL)
Under manual mode digital system is bypassed, operators control the power
unit via analog control system. Analog system directly sends the operating demand sent
by operators to servo amplifier as control signal for high-pressure main steam valve.
Three signals are sent to high-pressure main steam valve servo loop, including
(TV, high pressure main steam valve close bias signal-TV CLOSE BIAS, high pressure
main steam valve test signal-TV TEST) and combine the valve-position demand for
high-pressure main steam valve. TV CLOSE BLAS signal is generated by analog
system, if the turbine protection system acts, TV CLOSE BLAS signal can ensure that
the high-pressure main steam valve would be close tightly whether how many TV
demand signal is. TV TEST signal is produced by digital system, it is sent to servo loop
via D/A converter of analog system, if the high-pressure main steam valve is needed to
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test, using it to close the main steam valve that is selected down. TV TEST and TV
CLOSE BIAS will occur under abnormal operation condition, so in normal operation
condition, the two signals are nil.
3.2.2 Control System for High Pressure Main Steam Valve
3.2.2.1 Digital system constitution of high pressure main steam valve
Digital system for high-pressure main steam valve refer to fig 3-4, it is composed
of high-pressure main steam valve control loop and logic for speed set value
generating.
Generating Logic for Speed set value received the signal sent by set value
calculation program, including:
a. Speed set value and variance rate sent via ATC program
b. Speed set value and variance rate sent via operating board
Fig 3-4 Digital System For High-Pressure Main Steam Valve

High-pressure main steam valve control loop also receives the following 3
input signals except the two setting singles that have mentioned above.
a. turbine rotate speed signal (SELECTED SPEED): DEH possesses 3 speed
channel used for control purpose. Two of them channel Aand channel
B are digital channel, they are sent to Speed Selection function block in digital
system directly. Another analogy quantity speed signal generated by turbine supervision
instrument is sent to Speed Selection function block via analog quantity input device
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of digital system. Speed Selection function block is a software program, which is used
judging the validity for speed signal and select one of them for the speed feedback
signal of high pressure main steam valve control loop.
b. Tracking signal for manual output(TRACKING): If DEH operates under
manual mode, manual control signal sent by analog system will be sent to digital system
via analog input device, and TRACKING module will obtain a tracking input signal
called TV Control Loop that can ensure the output of digital system equals to the
analog system.
c. Open bias signal for high pressure main steam valve (TV OPEN BIAS): If
turbine rises speed to rated speed (2900r min) DEH will switches the control
mode from high pressure main steam valve control to high pressure regulating steam
valve. High-pressure main steam valve must be fully opened, therefore, there is a highpressure main steam valve OPEN BIAS signal in digital system. This bias signal will be
sent to TV control loop and open the main steam valve once the switching procedure is
finished.
This shows that digital system for high-pressure main steam valve possesses a
few input signals, but which one will be selected for TV control loop is determined by
its operation state. If system is under automatic operation mode (AUTO=1) and
power unit is controlled by high pressure main steam valve ( GC =1)
system will
select the speed set value, which is produced by ATC or operating board operated via
operator. TV control loop compare the set value with the speed feedback generated by
turbine and engender a main steam valve control signal in order to realize the speed
control. If system is in manual operation mode ( AUTO =1) it will track the output
of analog signal. If the switching for high pressure regulating steam valve has finished
(TRRCOM=1) it will fully open the high pressure main steam valve.
3.2.2.2 Speed set value analysis Logic
Actually, Logic part generating speed set value is a software program. Refer to
block diagram 3-5, it represent speed set value forming procedure to TV control
programs of high-pressure main steam valve.
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Fig 3-5 TV Speed Set Value Forming Block Diagram For Digital System
Set value required by TV control or sent by operator, demand value sent by ATC ,
these two signals are selected by their own state logic switch (AUTO=1 or
ATC=1) and are sent to comparator. Comparator compare the set value required by
system with the current set value, if the result is 0, it represent the current set value is
the set value required by system and the input signal of set value counter (integrator) is
0. If the result is not 0, integrator will increases or decreases in order to rise or reduce
the integration signal until the comparison result is 0.
Fig 3-6 Integration Tracking Principle For Set Value

Variation principle for integrator set value is an exponential curve. (Refer to fig
3-6). The tracking speed of integrator is decided by integration speed, which is selected
by operator on operating board or by ATC program.
There are a few logic switches between the comparator and counter in fig 3-6, if
required set value comes from ATC program, the output instruction of comparator
(RAISE or LOWER) will be instantly sent to set value counter. If required set value
comes from instruction of control, the output instruction of comparator (RAISE or
LOWER) will not be instantly sent to set value counter because the holding signal
(HOLD) is automatically set (HOLD=0) when input the New Target Value; and if this
light is brightened, it represents the controller has accepted the target demand inputted
by operator; therefore, operator must depresses the (GO) key, the (GO) key is set to 1
(GO=1), holding signal (HOLD) is reset (HOLD=1); finally, counter can receive the
signal and start to count.
3.2.2.3 Control Loop Analysis For High Pressure Main Steam Valve
High-pressure main steam control loop is a key part of the control system, it is a
control program, refer to fig 3-7.
TV control loop, actually, is a speed loop( starting loop), it controls the turbine to
increase speed until the speed equals 2900r min and system switch to high
pressure regulating steam valve control mode. The rising speed curve is generated by
ATC program or set by operator on operating board. Speed set value signal produced by
generating logic of speed set value is sent to TV control loop, speed signal selected by
system is a control feedback signal. Control loop is a calculation affected by proportion,
integration principle according to the deviation of the set value and feedback signal.
TV speed control loop can realizes the non-static-deviation control for speed if
the speed set value is a constant. At the starting process of turbine, speed set value is a
continuous variable. There is a deviation between the speed and the set value. If the
121
deviation varies slowly, especially for digital system, because system adopts
noncontinuous control mode and sampling time gap is longer than dynamic process
time, the result of each time for sampling control can ensure that the speed equals to set
value.
Output from proportion and integration calculation is interlocked by logic switch
AUTO and
TRCOM
,refer to fig 3-7, if power unit is in high pressure main steam
valve control state (AUTO=1 TRCOM
=1 TV-GV unswtiched)
control
output can transmits to servo loop via D/A converter. If the switch between the high
pressure main steam valve and high pressure regulating steam valve complete (
TRCOM
=O), output is disabled. High pressure main steam valve open biassignal is
transmitted to servo loop and open the main steam valve fully. If high pressure main
steam valve is in manual control mode, tracking signal is sent to D/A converter through
logic switch
AUTO
=1 TRCOM
=1
so that the output of TV control can
track the output of manual output for analog system.
Fig 3-7 Control Logic Diagram For High-Pressure Main Steam Valve
3.3 Digital System of High Pressure Regulating Steam Valve
3.3.1 Operation mode to high pressure regulating steam valve (HPRSV)
If power unit is in HPRSV operation mode, there are two operation modes for
DEH. Refer to fig 3-8.
122
Fig 3-8 Operation Mode To High Pressure Regulating Steam Valve (HPRSV)
3.3.1.1 Auto Mode(AUTO)
Under AUTO mode, system is controlled by computer, digital system receives
the following signals
a. Input signal from (PLANT COMPUTER)
b. Input signal from remote control system (automatic dispatch system or boiler
control system) (REMOTE)
c. Signal from automatic synchronizer (AUTO SYNC)
d. Operation result of automatic turbine startup or shutdown control system
(ATC)
e. Return command from power plant (PLANT RUNBACK)
f. Operating command of operator (OPERATOR)
REMOTE and AUTO SYNC is controlled by logic switch of exciter, AUTO
SYNC can output if the exciter disconnect with the power supply, at the same time,
REMOTE is disabled.
HPRSVs control logic is similar to HPMSVs. These input signals are
transmitted to digital system, calculated by arithmetic unit, converted by D/A converter,
sent to servo loop as the control signal (GV CONTROL), so it can drive the HPRSV.
Also, the output of the D/A converter will be sent to analog system so that the system
can realizes switch without disturbance.
123
3.3.1.2 MANUAL mode ( AUTO
or MANUAL)
Under manual mode, computer is disabled for HPRSV; operating command of

operator (OPERTOR) and the return command from power plant is transmitted to servo
loop as Horses control signal. The output of the analog system, otherwise, is sent to
digital system for tracking of digital system.
Valve-position demand signal to HPRSVs servo amplifier is similar to
HPMSVs; it also includes HPRSV close bias signal (GV CLOSE BIAS) and HPRSV
test signal (GV TEST). GV CLOSE BIAS signal is provided by analog system, when
tripping signal in turbine tripping system occurs, it will ensure the HPRSV closing
tightly. GV TEST is generated by digital system, sent to servo loop via D/A conversion;
it will ensure the HPRSV when test the HPRSV. In normal operation condition, GV
TEST and GV CLOSE BIAS are nil.
There is a sequence valve control signal for a single HPRSV control loop that is
different to HPMSV control loop.SEQ1POS SEQ6POS is generated by valve
management software and sent to D/A converter for each valve.
3.3.2 Selection Logic of Operation Mode for HPRSV Control System
The management process for HPRSV not only includes speed control, but also
goes through varies periods-synchronization, load control-. If system is under load
control mode, also, control system is affected by boiler control system, automatic
dispatch system or power plant computer, Horses operation mode is divided into the
following modes in detail except AUTO and MANUAL mode.
3.3.2.1 Automatic operation mode (AUTO)
Namely, operator automatic mode(OA=1) refer to 3-9. If DEH is in AUTO
operation, system is under operator automatic mode, speed or load set value is modified
by operator. This operation mode can back to MANUAL mode or advance to ATC
mode, REMOTE mode automatic synchronization operation mode(AS) and
PLANT COMPUTER mode.
124
Fig 3-9 Selection Logic of AUTO and ATC Mode

3.3.2.2 Automatic turbine startup or shutdown control system (ATC)
Refer to fig 3-9.If power unit is under speed control mode logic switch for
exciter is broke, namely BR=0. If operators press the ATC button, DEH will enters into
turbine automatic control mode. The variation of speed control set value, namely rising
speed curve, is generated by ATC program. If power unit is under load control
mode(BR=1) DEH can turn into ATC mode via two approaches.
a. Under AUTO mode if set value demand not equals to current set value,
operator can provides the set values and press the ATC button.
b. Under remote control mode (REMOTE=1) or power plant computer control
mode (PIANT COMP=1) operator can depress the ATC button, the speed set value
is offered by ATC program.
3.3.2.3 Remote Control Mode (REMOTE)
Remote control mode represents DEH that receives the control signal from boiler
or automatic dispatch system controls turbine load. This operation mode always uses for
realizing boiler-turbine coordinated control; demand variation is offered by boiler or
dispatch system. Refer to fig 3-10.
Under load control mode(BR=1)
AUT0 mode(OA=1) or ATC mode
(OA=1 ATC=1),power plant computer system not in operation ( PLANT
=1)
COMP
if operator presses the REMOTE button system can enters into this mode.
Fig 3-10 Selecting Logic For Remote Control Mode

3.3.2.4 Power Plant Computer Control Mode (PLANT COMP) Refer to 3-11.
125
Fig 3-11 Selecting Logic For Power Plant Control Mode

Under load control mode(BR=1) AUTO mode (OA=1) or ATC mode
(OA=1
ATC=1) remote control not in operation( PLANT
COMP
=1) if
operator presses the PLANT COMP button DEH will enters into the power plant
computer mode. Under this mode, DEH receive the control command from the power
plant computer system.
3.3.2.5 Automatic Synchronization Operation Mode (AS)
When speed rises to 90% of rated speed, HPRSV is switched to main control
mode, turbine speed must equal or over the power grid frequency in order to realize the
synchronization. After synchronization, speed is determined by frequency of the power
grid. Refer to fig 3-12. If system is under speed control mode (BR=1) and speed rises to
90% of rated speed, system will enter into the synchronization mode when operator
press the AS key.
Fig 3-12 Selecting Logic For Automatic

Synchronization Mode
Fig 3-13 Selecting Logic For Power

Plant Return Control mode
3.3.2.6 Return Control Mode For Power Plant (PLANT RUNBACK)

Under AUTO mode, DEH also receives the power plant return signal in order to
reduce the load. Refer to fig 3-13. If system is in load operation mode, namely
BR=1 system will enters into power plant return reducing load mode when
operator press the RUNBACK key.
If DEH is under the either mode described above, the relevant logic switch in
digital system will be set.
3.3.3 HPRSV Control System
3.3.3.1 Composition For HPRSV Control System
Refer to fig 3-14. The core part of the digital system is HPRSV control loop (GV
control loop) which is a program that calculate the demand value for HPRSV
according to input signal.
a. Set Value For Speed Or Load (SPEED OR LOADER FERENCE)
This signal is set if HPRSV is under AUTO operation mode, this is to say the set
value for GV control loop is likely to come from six different external sources, it will be
transmitted to a logic function block that is a software in order to judge which signal
is the most needed.
b. Speed Signal (SELECTED SPEED)
This signal is a feedback signal to GV control loop, which includes digital channel A
and B the other is a analog signal. Speed analog signal is generated by turbine
monitor instrument, it is entered into the digital system via A/D converter, and it is
selected by speed selector a program-, and then is sent to GV control loop.
126
127
Fig 3-14 Digital System For HPRSV

c. First Stage Chamber (Regulating Stage) Pressure Signal (TP1)
This signal is an analog signal, it is transmitted to GV control loop through
analog input device, and it is a turbine feedback signal for HPRSV.
d. Generator Power Signal (Mw)
This signal is an analog too, it is transmitted to GV control loop through analog
input device, and power signal is a feedback signal.
e. HPMSV Pressure Signal (TP)
This signal is an analog signal, which is limited to a certain value if the system is
in load operation mode. If TP is below a certain set value, HPMSV pressure controller
will be sent a signal to reduce the load set value. HPMSV pressure controller is included
into HPRSVs digital system; TP is the feedback signal for this control loop.
f. Tracking Signal Of Analog System
It is a tracking signal that digital system affect the analog system if under manual
operation mode, it can ensue the switch without disturbance.
3.3.3.2 Set Value Selecting Logic of HPRSV Control System
128
Fig 3-15 Set Value Forming Logic For HPRSV Control System
In HPRSV control system, set value of speed or load is generated by different
signal source; finally, it is decided by a function block, refer to fig 3-15. Set value is
produced by a software called set value counter, which is actual an integrator that
controlled by three signals- RAISE, L0WER, RATE.
RAISE or LOWER signal is produced by comparator or external signal
source, which is determined by operation mode of DEH.
a. AUTO and ATC Operation Mode
Under AUTO and ATC operation mode the set value request for speed and
load is produced by the deviation comparing the current set value with request. If DEH
under other operation mode, the purpose of external signal is to change the set value
129
variation, so it is must not sent to comparator, it is directly transmitted to set value

counter. Under auto mode, either speed control or load control is set by operator on
operation board, then press GO key, function will be executed.
Under ATC mode, AS=0, REMOTE=0, PLANT COMP=0, ( BR =1), the set
value variance ratio of speed is produced by ATC, dont need the operator selection. If
under load control mode (BR=1), load set value is set by operator on operation board
and control the set value counter after processed by comparator. Low signal selector of
ATC selects the speed of counter, namely set value variance ratio. The permissible load
variance ratio in ATC program is calculated by relevant parameters about the power
unit.
b. The External Signal That Change The Set Value
Remote control comes from automatic dispatch, coordinated control system and
power plant compute. Automatic synchronization system is available in speed control
mode ( BR
=1). DEH increases or decreases the set value according to the automatic
synchronizer. If the contact state changes, function of contact scanning and logic and
records the changing, DEH will vary the set value increasing/decreasing speed ratio.
DEH requires the minimal pulse width is 0.1s, the minimal pulse cycle is 1s, and the
maximal variance rate for set value is 1r/min. Remote control system and power plant
computer system can provides three ways to input the set value-analog input signal,
pulse continuous width contact signal, pulse sequence contact signal. Pulse continuous
width contact signal is load set value variance expressed by variable pulse width for
remote control system request. If set value is generated by remote control system, load
set value contact- INCREASE/DECREASE CONTACT INPUT will close, DEH will be
interrupted by the signal (INCREASE/DECREASE CONTACT INPUT), DEH
distinguishes the interrupt source via contact input and logic function. Contact input will
start up a software timer, if contact disconnects, timer will stop, the resolution of the
timer is 0.1s, so the variance of load set value is a function of time of closing contact.
The interface of pulse sequence contact is a counter, which is applied to count for the
input pulse and amend the set value 1 time per second and is controlled by interrupter
program too. DEH requires the minimal pulse density is 0.25s. The gap between the
pulses must great than 0.5s, every pulse correspond with 0.1% of rated load variance.
Remote control mode and computer control mode is not compatible, the former is
selected the latter is disabled, vice versa. Its signal can be transmitted by either ATC
mode or NON-ATC mode, if ATC holding state (ATC HOLD=1) equals 1; the request
signal of set value from external source is disabled.
c. Reducing Load Signal For DEH
a). Signal comes from HPMSP
If power unit is in operation condition HPMSV pressure is required to
maintain a constant. Actually, HPMSV pressure controller is a comparator, it compares
the HPMS pressure signal with the set point, if the actual measurement value lower than
the set point, comparator will generates a reducing load signal, meanwhile, rate of
speed selected by TPC is transmitted to set value counter, counter will reduce the
130
number according to rate of speed. When set value equals the measurement value,
controller will stop output signals.
Table 3-1 Change In Load Rate And Minimal Load for Return Request Signal
Return code
Load change ratio (%/min)
Minimum load (percent of rated load)
200
20
100
20
50
20
b). Return Request Signal

In automatic mode, DEH also can receive the three contact signals sent by power
plant, generate 1 3 mode of reducing load refer to table 3-1.
c). Turbine Trip Signal
Once turbine occurs tripping signal(AST=1) a reset signal will be sent, set
value counter will be reset, power unit will reduce the load to nil and HPRSV will be
closed. All signals will be processed by High Load Limiter and Low Load Limiter, these
limit value can be adjusted by operator.
3.3.3.3 HPRSV Control Loop
HPRSV control loop refer to fig3-16. Set value transmitted GV control loop
come from the set value selective logic introduced above, if HPRSV execute the speed
regulating tasks( BR
=1)
set value is speed, it and speed feedback will be sent to
proportion integration speed controller, proportion integration speed controller produce

a controlling output and be sent to GV servo loop. When power unit is in load control
mode( BR =0)
speed controller is disabled.
When GV control loop execute load regulating tasks(BR=1) input set value
is load set value feedback of power unit is generators output power(MW), first
stage chamber pressure(TP1) and turbine speed signal(n). Meanwhile, GV loop actually
is a three loops cascade regulating system, it regulate the power unit load through
HPRSV.
Fig 3-16 HPRSV Control Loop

131
Analysis Of Steam Power Unit Dynamic Characteristics (DC)

DC of power unit is not only determined by its structural parameter, but also
related with operation mode and load characteristics.
Power unit have two input signals and two output signals, one input signal is
turbine inlet steam flow, which is the input power of power unit and controlled by
turbine regulating steam valve, namely control input. The other input signal is variation
of the load for power grid; it is the disturbance for load, namely external disturbance.
Speed and output power reflect the two output variables of unit; under steady power
grid frequency, with dynamic process, if the input power unbalance with the output
power, speed occurs deviation Output power represents the energy sent to power
grid in unit time.
Analysis For DEH Load Control System
In fig 3-16 load set value represent load required by power unit, this is to
say, when power unit is under steady operation condition, load required by operator or
dispatching center. For power unit attended first level frequency adjustment, it can vary
its output according to the load variation with power grid. Consequently, there is a
signal, frequency difference signal, can reflect the power grid requirement in set value,
which represent the variation of load magnitude and direction.
Power set value corrected by speed deviation is transmitted to load control
system, cascade system; the feedback signal of control system is electric power
signal(MW) and regulating stage chamber pressure(TP1) (speed signal is a feedback
signal under speed control mode, is a external disturbance input signal under load
control mode.).
4 DEH Regulating Protection System

4.1 Overview
Regulating protection system (RPS) is an actuating mechanism for DEH, it
receive the demand sent by DEH in order to complete the tasks about latch, driving
valve and emergency shutoff the power unit.
The RPS system for this power unit must satisfy the following basic
requirement:
4.1.1 Latch.
4.1.2 RPS can maintain the power unit operate under no-load condition and not trigger
the emergency shutoff device action when turbine operate under rated steam parameters
and reject the full load under rated vacuum condition.
4.1.3 Adapting the online requirement for main steam valve and emergency shutoff
device.
4.1.4 Possessing overspeed protection functions rapid, reliable shutting the feed
steam off, close time is less than 0.3 Sec, meanwhile, close the all HPRSV and
extraction line non-return valve.
a. Mechanical overspeed protection: Acting value is 110% ll2% of rated speed
(3300r min 3360r min) at this time, fly-ball is trigger, and the power
132
unit feed steam is shut off.

b. Electric overspeed protection: When detect the speed reach 110% of the rated
speed(3300r
min) electric shutdown signal occur, emergency tripping
solenoid valve is triggered, pressure oil under emergency shutoff device is discharged,
the power unit feed steam is shut off.
c. Manual tripping button: Manual tripping button is mounted on the head of
turbine when encounter the emergency situation, press the tripping button, main
steam valve and regulating steam valve will be closed.
4.1.5 Low lubricant oil pressure and low vacuum protection
a. Low lubricant oil pressure shutoff device
a). If lubricant oil pressure <0.049mpa alarming signal occurs and start up the
alternating current (AC) lubricant oil pump.
b). If lubricant oil pressure <0.039mpa tripping signal occurs (two-thirds logic)
and start up the direct current emergency pump.
c). If lubricant oil pressure <0.029mpa stop turning gear.
b. Condenser vacuum shutoff device
a). If condenser absolute pressure>0.0177mpa alarming signal occurs.
b). If condenser absolute pressure>0.0197mpa tripping signal occurs (two-thirds
logic)
4.2 Protection System
Protection system realizes the open loop control through measurement loop,
judgment device, converting device and actuating mechanism. To improve the
reliability, the emergency shutoff solenoid valve adopts redundant architecture.
4.2.1 latch
The DEH reset solenoid valve is used for latch. Latch procedure is listed below:
press the latch button( mounted on the DEH operating panel) reset solenoid valve
acts upper chamber pressure oil of emergency tripping device is discharged, slide
valve of emergency shutoff device is lifted to upper stop point by lower chamber oil
pressure, security oil pressure of regulating system is established, if the pressure switch
of shutoff state module detect the security oil pressure is established, sent a signal to
DEH and reset the reset solenoid valve, upper chamber oil pressure of emergency
tripping device restore to 1.96mpa pressure switch 1PS represents the
Latch procedure completed.
4.2.2 Shutoff
Protection system has three redundant shutoff measurements, electrical,
mechanical and manual mode.
4.2.2.1 Electric Tripping
This function is actuated by shutoff solenoid valve. Once tripping signal occurs, lower
chamber oil pressure of emergency tripping device is discharged, emergency shutoff
device slide valve is triggered, prevent the power unit feed steam.
4.2.2.2 Mechanical Overspeed Protection
133
Mechanical overspeed protection composes of double channels emergency shutoff

device, lever and slide valve. Acting speed is 110% 1l2% of rated speed(3300r
min 3360r min).
4.2.2.3 Manual Shutoff
Manual tripping button is mounted on the head of turbine. Operator can press the button
to shut down the turbine.
4.2.2.4 Low Lubricant Oil Pressure Protection
System possesses low lubricant oil pressure protection device, if oil
pressure<0.049Mpa alarming signal occurs and start up the AC oil pump; if oil
pressure <0 .039Mpa tripping signal occurs(two-thirds logic) and start up the DC
oil pump; if oil pressure<0.029Mpa cut off the power supply of turning gear.
4.2.2.5 Low Vacuum Protection
System
holds
vacuum
protection.
If
condenser
absolute
pressure>0.0177mpa
alarming signal occurs ;if condenser absolute
pressure>0.0197mpa tripping signal occurs(two-thirds logic).
4.2.2.6 Emergency shutoff device is the most important device in the overspeed
protection devices. To prevent block, this device should be always tested and acted.
4.3 Regulating System
Introduction
Turbine regulating system is consists of speed measurement component,
amplifying component, actuating component and turbine rotor (controlled object). It
regulates the valve opening according to the external load variation caused by load or
speed.
5 Failure disposal for DEH

General Failure For DEH
Fig 5-1 General Failure And Treatment
Seq
Phenomenon
Reason for failure
Failure treatment
Redundant
operation light on
DEH operating
board
extinguished
1.Failure for communication of

A, B computer inside the DEH
control cabinet
2.Either computer quit to
operate
Switch the DEH to first level

manual mode, restart A,B
computer switch to auto
mode, restore the system
Analog parameter
in DEH-CRT is
incorrect temp
erature vacuum
1.Control board in DAS-SC

station is abnormal
2.Analog
quantity
input AI
board
1.Restart the computer

2.Replace the AI board
134
damaged
Regulating steam
valve fully opened
or closed under
operating state
1. Oscillation frequency to
valve displacement sensor or
secondary instrument drifts.
2. Valve control card (VCC)
fails.
3. Servomotor fails.
1. There are two redundant

sensors in LVDT, quit the
failure one.
2.Quit the failure valve and
replace the VCC card
3.Replace the servomotor
Actuating
mechanism failure
to actuate
1.Servomotor failure
2.Unloading valve failure
3.Cable between DEH cabinet
to actuator failure
1.Replace the servomotor

2.Replace the unloading
valve
3.Checking
the
cable
between DEH cabinet to
actuator failure
Actuating
mechanism slow
Filter or servomotor failure
Replace the
servomotor
filter
or
Chapter 4 Turbine Supervisory Instrument

1. The Basic Concept of Turbine Supervisory Instrument
1.1 The concept and function of turbine supervisory instrument
Turbine supervisory instrument is concisely named TSI. With the capacity
enlarged, the steam parameters become higher and higher, the thermal system becomes
more complex. To develop the thermal economy, the inter stage gap gland seal gap
all be selected little. As the rotating speed is very high, while the sets
starting running or stopping, if the operation is error, it is easy to produce friction
and jumping between the rotating parts and the still parts, so as to make the blade
damage the big shaft curve contact bearing pad burn, etc. For guaranteeing
the sets safety starting and stopping and running, it is necessary to monitor and
abnormal protect with turbine parameter of curve shaft displacement thermal
expansion differential expansion rotating speed vibration main shaft
eccentricity. When those parameters are over, we must start the protective device and
close the main steam valve, carry out urgent stopping.
135
1.2 The usual measuring classification of TSI system

The usual measuring parameter of TSI system as:
a. Monitor and protector axial displacement
b. Monitor to cylinder expansion and differential expansion
c. Monitor and protect to rotating speed
d. Monitor and protect to vibration
e. Monitor to main shaft eccentricity
2. Measuring Principle of TSI System Parameter

2.1 Shaft displacement measurement
2.1.1 Destination of shaft displacement measurement
For
the
sets
safe economic running, the gap
between
rotating
parts(rotor
blade
big
shaft)and
still
parts(baffle
plate
turbine
cylinder
nozzle)must be set
very
little.While
the
sets
starting running and stopping, Figure2-1 the structure of mechanical instrument
the moving still parts relatively measuring displacement
expanse contract very much, if 1-sliding contact2drive axle3-drive bar4-regulating
rod 5-segment gear 6-pointer shaft 7- pointer 8those parts frit beat, it will cam 9- signal contact 10- tripping on tact 11produce shaft seal worn blade screw 12- adjusting screw 13-cable service
broken even the whole sets entrance14- connecting terminal
damaged, so, we must seriously
monitor those parts. This instrument
is usually used in measuring the
rotor shaft displacement the
relative expansion displacement
between cylinder and rotor, and the
cylinder
thermal
expansion
amounts.
According to the different principle, the machinery displacement instrument is
usually as: machinery hydraulic inductive and vortical.
2.1.2 The measuring principle
2.1.2.1 The machinery displacement measuring principal
The structure of machinery displacement measuring instrument is as the picture
2-1. The instrument is fit in fixed body[example: the turbine bearing cover], the sliding
contact 1 touch the specifically flange of the measured body [example: rotor].When the
136
measured body displace, it move along with the sliding contact, and make the drive axle
deflect, again the drive axle move along with the regulating rod, and the regulating rod
make the segment gear deflect, through the segment gear to make the center gear and
the pointer deflect, throughout a series of mechanical enlargement, make the pointer
show the amounts of displacement, complete the monitoring to the turbine rotor.
When measured displacement value are over set point, the cam synchronism
deflecting with pointer close contact 9 10, the instrument send emergency signal
while, output relative operating signal of protection. this kind of instrument usually only
fit into local measuring display the signal don ' t send far, for long period, moving
contact easy to wear and tear, influence measuring precision, usually only used in
measuring rotor shaft displacement and rotor cylinder heat expansion displacement of
small size turbine set.
2.1.2.2
Hydraulic
displacement
measuring
principle
As
figure
2-2
displaying are hydraulic
displacement
detecting
device hydraulic follow - up
valve structure drawing.
Hydraulic
displacement
measuring
fig
device utilize clearance
ure 2-2 hydraulic follows - up valve structure drawing
between oil nozzle and 1-measured object flange2-oil nozzle3-pistin4-regulating
turbine shaft end plane (or screw 5-index gauge 6-displacement sensor 7-tracer valve
rotor shaft flange plane) oil cylinder8- lever9- throttle orifice
change with rotor shaft axial
displacement, and then
arouse oil pressure change to
realize displacement measuring and protection.
Known as figure 2-2, the working process as: the oil with pressure P1 enter the
oil cylinder, through follow - up valve piston throttle orifice enter into piston left side,
then through oil nozzle to measured parts (for example: turbine rotor) spurt at flange.
when the clearance between nozzle and flange keep one certain value, the operating
force of follow - up valve left and right oil pressure Pa and Pb to piston are equal, the
piston keep balanced state, this time have
p a A1 pb A2
in formula A1 follow - up valve piston left side oil - pressure area

A2 follow - up valve piston right side oil - pressure area.
When measured object produce displacement,
as move left, clearance

137
enlarger,
oil discharge capacity increase, p a
p a A1 pb A2
decrease,
this time in the force
produced by oil pressure difference working, follow - up valve piston
will move left, make recover primary value, p a
again increase, make the follow
- up valve piston keep new balanced state.

Follow - up valve piston displacement through lever make index gauge
(percentage gauge) locally indicate displacement value, while, through displacement
probe turn into electronic signal, after amplifier enlarge send into displaying instrument
to indicate. follow - up valve piston displacement will change oil draining clearance of
right side oil drain port, so make oil pressure p1' change. let p1'
hydraulic pressure protection control device, if p1'
signal send into
are over large (object left moving
over large), protection device will open.

Because hydraulic displacement measuring device contact don 't happen straight
mechanical touch with measured object, so don 't exist wearing problem, make the
measuring precise and reliable, but the oil supplying pressure must be stable. this device
used extensively.
2.1.2.3 Inductive displacement measuring principle
Inductive displacement measuring, it is a measuring way that make the
mechanical displacement signal turn into the inductive signal. as figure 2-3 displaying,
it is a kind of inductive displacement measuring probe with extensive application.
This measuring probe transmitter structure usepattern silicon steel plate
fold to iron core, in iron core middle pillar wound a unit of primary grade coil W0, two
side pillars each wound a unit of second coil W1 W2.in installation, make notice
that measured displacement parts (for example: turbine rotor) flange lay inpattern
the iron core up body notch. there are three clearances between flange and transmitter
iron core, the clearance dimension differentially are a b c.
138
Figure 2-3 inductive displacement

measuring probe structure drawing
1-flange 2-transmitter 3-regulating
device 4- 5-magnetic saturation
voltage regulator
Figure 2-4 inductive displacement detecting

transmitter structure drawing
1-iron core 2-hard lead rod head 3-rod
tail 4- pointer 5-spring 6supporter 7-scale disk 8-supporting
point 9- differential transformer
After coil primary input the alternating voltage 0

0 ), main flux is divided into left
, it will produce main flux (
right two parts ( 1 and 2 ) differently
penetrate through two side iron core, in second coil W1
W2 induce voltage 1
2 .when measured object displace towards left or right, air clearance a
between transmitter and flange will produce variation to opposite direction, so make
1 2
change, coil W1
W2 output voltage 1
also produce
variation.
Transmitter output voltage 1
are differently send to two bridge rectifier
circuits, after rectifier compare send to display device, in the display device scaled by
displacement can read the displacement numerical value of measured object.
In figure 2 -3, RP1 is zero potentiometer, used as regulating the primary scale of
display device. RP2 is full potentiometer, used as regulating the full - scale value of
display device. RP3 is used as regulating signal magnitude send to recording instrument
or other protection device.
Figure 2 - 4 is a kind of contact inductive displacement detecting transmitter
structure drawing.
139
This transmitter is mainly used in steam cylinder thermal expansion displacement

measuring. the transmitter is fixed on retaining table, hard lead rod top head in support
device set in steam cylinder, when steam expand to left, push hard lead rod top move to
left, pointer 4 then deflect to anti - clockwise, indicate displacement valve (steam
cylinder thermal expansion valve).at the moment because the iron core of differential
voltage transformer move to left, t he second coil of differential voltage transformer will
produce differential voltage output.
2.2Eccentricity big shaft deflection measurement

2.2.1 Function of eccentricity measuring instrument
When turbine starting running and stopping, if operation are not correct, it is
easy to arouse turbine rotor heating non - uniform, t hen arouse turbine main shaft bend,
make rotor gravity centre deflect rotating centre, add the set vibration, seriously, can
arouse friction between turbine moving still parts, produce serious end. so, at the
running period we must strictly monitor the condition of main shaft bending. usually
specify turbine main shaft bending value less than 0.05 0.07mm. Cold base value
are about eccentric value when cold turning.
2.2.2 Eccentricity measuring method
2.2.2.1 Permillage instrument measuring method
Permillage instrument measuring method is the simplest way to monitor bend
extent. The method as: install a permillage instrument in the turbine main shaft head.
When the main shaft rotating, shaft head jitter up and down can make the permillage
instrument pointer rocking left and right. Main shaft eccentricity value is equal to half
of the differential value (main shaft jittering extent) which the pointer oscillates left and
right. this method mainly used in turbine mounting repair and checking to shaft
eccentricity after turbine stopping.
picture 2-5 eccentricity measuring method

ainstrument (b)electric eddy flow(c) inductive
Figure 2-5(a) is permillage instrument measuring method drawing.

2.2.2.2 Electric eddy flow measuring method
Figure 2-5(b) is electric eddy flow measuring drawing.
140
In main shaft top side install a plane coil, when the coil pass by a certain
frequency alternating current, the producing magnetic flux i
will produce eddy flow
at the surface that main shaft close to coil side. eddy flow producing magnetic flux e
reversely reject i
producing action with plane coil, make the coil efficient magnetic
flux produce change. so, when main shaft rotate because it has eccentricity, the distance
d between coil and main shaft will produce cyclic magnitude change, then also arouse
the coil efficient magnetic flux produce cyclic change, also the change of coil
inductance. this change through transmission amplification turn into relative voltage
signal and current signal, send to display device to indicate.
2.2.2.3 Inductive measuring method
As figure 2-5(c) is inductive measuring method transmitter principle drawing.
The principle as: let two
pattern iron core install in
main shaft up down body.
when main shaft rotate,
because main shaft has
eccentricity,
between
main
shaft and iron core up, down
air
clearance
magnitude
alternating produce change,
the coil wound in pattern Figure 2-6 schematic diagram of measuring eccentricity
iron core will induce out
potential that react this change
magnitude, then test out the main shaft eccentricity.
The block diagram of turbine main shaft eccentricity measuring system which
utilizes inductance surveying principle is as figure 2 - 6.
Two pattern iron core coil parallel, up and down two units of parallel coil
series, then constitute bridge circuit with the resistance R1 and R2 in amplifier, supply
electricity by 220V 400Hz power, the amplitude which bridge circuit output voltage
signal is decided by main shaft eccentricity magnitude, and the fresequence is decided
by main shaft rotating speed. after amplifier enlarge, this signal output to indicating and
recording instrument.
2.3 Rotor speed measurement
Turbine speed keep constant by governor system. If turbine speed are higher or
lower than rating value, it will arouse electric frequency wave, reduce power supply
quality. If turbine speed exceeds a certain limit, it will seriously influence turbine safe
operation. Now steam electric plant mainly adopt digital display speed device to
measure turbine speed.
141
2.3.1 Rotor speed transducer

According to different function principle the rotating speed transducer can be
divided into four kinds of magneto electric optoelectronic Hour type and eddy
flow, steam electric plant usually adopt magneto electric and eddy flow rotating speed
transducer.
2.3.1.1 Magneto electric (magnetic resistance) rotating speed transducer
Structure of magneto electric rotating transducer is showed in figure 2 - 7.
It works according to the principle that the change of magnetic path resistance
arouses the change of magnetic flux then producing inductive EMF. When measured
shaft bring gear rotating, the clearance between iron core and gear tooth occur cyclic
variation, make the magnetic path resistance also produce relative change, then arouse
magnetic flue change. in induce coil produce alternating inductive EMF. if set gear
tooth number as z , measured shaft speed as n , then the frequency of inductive EMF
producing in coil is f
n
60
When transducer measuring speed gear number is 6 0, then f n .it state that
transducer output pulse voltage frequency is equal to measured speed n
(r
min).
2.3.1.2 Optoelectronic rotating speed transducer
Figure2-7
magnetoelectric rotating
speed transducer structure
1-gear 2-coil 3-iron core
4- magnet steel 5- a shaft to be
measured
Figure 2-8 optoelectronic rotating speed

transducer structure
1-light source 2 4 5-lens 3-glass 6tube 7-photoelectron encoding disk
figure 2 - 8 are optoelectronic rotating speed transducer drawing.

The working process: light source 1 beam through reflection translucid glass,
light code device is fixed in measured rotating shaft. there are some light reflected or
non - reflected surface stripe with radial form and separation installed. so, when shaft
rotate, in light code device there is reflected light separately through lens
4 reflection translucid glass 3 lens 5, shine on the light - sensitive tube,
make the light - sensitive diode produce alter variation. the changing frequency n is
n
60
in formula
n rotating shaft speed, r min z light code
device reflected stripe number.

Light - sensitive diode resistance changing signal, through switching circuit
change into voltage signal send into display device to reveal.
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2.3.1.3 Eddy flow rotating speed transducer

The fixed situation of eddy flow transducer resemble with magnetoelectric
rotating transducer. transducer end head gear tooth, when gear rotate, tooth top and
tooth root alternating pass transducer end nearby, at this time the preposition amplifier
of eddy flow transducer output one by one pulse, measure pulse number per unit time
Figure 2-9 Schematic diagram of JSS-2 type digital display tachometer
passing, can know speed of rotating machine. this transducer measuring range is very
wide, speed in 1 10000r min range all can measure up three kinds of rotating
speed transducer all can adopt digital tachometer to display rotating speed.
2.3.2 Normal digital display or tachometer
Digital tachometer type have too many, working principle are almost the same
here only take steam electric plant normal used JSS - 2 type digital tachometer to
introduce.
Figure 2 - 9 displaying is digital tachometer principle block diagram.
Rotating speed signal through transducer turn into pulse signal, by amplifying
and shaping circuit make the pulse
signal send from transducer amplify
and shape to become the same
frequency square - wave signal.
main door circuit receive open door
circuit command control, time start,
make the square - wave signal after
amplifying and shaping can pass
main door send to counter. door
Figu
control circuit in a measuring
re2-10
Structure
of
bidirectional
vibration
pickup
period, at a certain time order, the
1- casing211- magnetizer312- magnet steel
return and register control system
4- coil 5- damping coil support 6-sensibility
transmit second signal (open door regulating resistance716- spring piece8- upper
signal )
register signal and cover9- ground terminal10- terminal lead13zero signal. when control system side cover 14- screw 15- fixed claw 17-active
transmit second signal, main door circuit open, after the transducer output pulse signal
amplify and shape to pass main door circuit, count by counter. after second signal end,
main door circuit close, counter stop, while, control system transmit register signal,
143
make the pulse number counted by counter store in register display unit, display the
counting numerical value (measured rotating speed value).then zero signal make the
counter clean, prepare for next measuring period, so cycle and cycle crystal oscillator
then is used as producing standard time pulse, as supplying whole device control pulse.
by formula f
n
60
z known, when z=60, then rotating speed transducer inductive
EMF frequency f is equal to measured shaft speed n. While, also because counting
value f t , and rotating speed device main door open time t is usually as 1s, so,
counter value fitly is measured rotating speed value.
2.4 Vibration Measurement
Turbine vibration has very big influence with steam electric plant sets safe
operation. Big vibration will enlarge shaft seal wearing, make the fatigue strength
decrease, regulating speed system are not stable, seriously will arouse big emergency.
So, I n steam electric plant prescribes turbine vibration amplitude must be less than
0.05mm.
Vibration measuring device usually consists of pick - up vibration device
integral amplifier and display instrument.
2.4.1 Pick - up vibration device
The function of pick - up vibration device is that make the turbine level vibration
and vertical vibration amplitude turn into relative voltage.
Figure 2 - 10 display is two ways pick - up vibration device structure drawing. In
two ways pick - up vibration install a level coil and a vertical coil, so it is named as two
way pick - up vibration device. The vertical pick - up vibration part magnetic steel 3 and
magnetizer 2 glue together, between them form air gap with constant magnetic strength.
Among air gap coil 4 by active system core rod 1 7 the damp coil frame 5
and matching weight object 1 8 connect together, also by two spring strip 7 16
hang in space. With vertical external force, in air gap coil 4 can make up down
reciprocating motion. because magnetizer is fixed in out casing, outer casing is
fixed in measured object (for example: turbine), so, when object vibrate vertically,
magnetic steel also vibrate. But the active coil system hanged by spring strip, because of
spring absorbing vibration function, in a certain frequency is in still condition, make the
coil engage in non - blocking motion of cutting magnetic flux line, so produce inductive
EMF E, the magnitude is
E BLv
(2-1)
In formula B magnetic induction strength among air gap
L coil winding length
v coil and magnetic steel relative motion speed.
Set vibration is sinusoidal, and then vibration amplitude is
a A sin t
(2-2)
In formula ainstantaneous vibration amplitude
144
Athe biggest vibration amplitude.

vibration speed is primary differentiating of vibration amplitude to time, as
da
dt
d ( A sin t )
dt
A cos t
take the maximum, as cos t
=1, then
v max A 2fA
take v max
substitute formula (2-1), and then have
E max BLv max 2fABL
(2-3)
When B and L is constant, coil inductive EMF is direct ratio with multiplying
max vibration A and vibration frequency.
In pick - up vibration put in series sensitivity regulating resistance R, by R can
regulate output variation because magnetic steel performance is not all the same. Damp
coil brace is made of pure copper, it produces a damp force because of cutting magnetic
flue line in field, can improve device performance.
The structure and principle of pick - up vibration level measuring vibration parts
are equal to vertical measuring vibration, their distinction only is that one is vertical set,
another is level set.
2.4.2 Integral Amplifier
By formula (2-3) known, inductive EMF have relationship with vibration
amplitude A and frequency f, for making output EMF only show single value relative
relationship with vibration, must diminish frequency f influencing inductive EMF,
integral amplifier fitly realize this function.
Speed integrate time, then get vibration amplitude
a
vdt A cos tdt A sin t
(2-4)
Integrating inductive EMF in the coil can get
Edt BLvdt BL vdt
(2-5)
Make formula (2-4) substitute into formula (2-5) then have
Edt BLA sin t
(2-6)
get the max value then set sin t =1, then have
max
dt BLA
By up formula known, when BL is constant, pick - up vibration output EMF

integration show single relationship with vibration amplitude.
As figure 2-11 displaying are integral amplifier circuit. amplifier adopt
integration operational amplifier IC1 IC2, in which IC1 be used as integral
operation, by capacitor C9 the output couple to IC2, engage in ratio amplifying
operation. After IC2 amplifying output signal is rectified by V9 V10 two diodes and
capacitor C12 filtering wave, get the direct current voltage at the two tops of R25 and
145
the diode V11, this voltage add in R27 R28 R29 RP3 resistance, from
R29 R30 get voltage sent to display device M. In circuit V11 is linear compensation
diode, RP3 is regulating full scale potentiometer. When K2-1 K2-2 switch set in
check, by instrument power source send into a stable pulse voltage, this time display
device should point at a prescribe situation, if don 't point, then regulate RP3. When
instrument working, K2-1 K2-2 should set in measure .
Display parts can adopt moving - coil instrument or electric automatic
potentiometer.
Figure 2-11 integral amplifying circuit
3 Install of transductor
Measurement Principle
The transducer input DC voltage level is directly proportional to the gap between
the face of a proximity probe and the surface being monitored.
Keyphase transductor
Rotate speed transductor
146
Shaft displacement
Differential Expansion
Events Per Revolution (EPR)
The number of pulses in a speed transducer signal for each shaft rotation. If the
speed transducer is observing a multi-tooth gear, set the Events Per Revolution to the
number of teeth on the gear. Enter the desired events per revolution either as a decimal
value (0.0039 to 255) or as a fractional value by entering the Events Per Revolution
numerator (1 to 255) and denominator (1 to 255). A fractional value is always calculated
and displayed because the Tachometer uses the fractional value in its calculations. If
you enter a non-integer Events Per Revolution, the software will determine which
fractional value most closely approximates this value and display the associated
numerator and denominator. The software will also calculate and display the percentage
of error between the desired decimal value and the approximated fractional value.
147
1) RPM
2) Events Per Revolution
3) Upper RPM limit is 99,999
4) Upper Frequency limit is 20kHz
148
In this example, both probes are observing an 18-tooth gear on the same shaft
with an 11-tooth gear. The 11-tooth gear is driven from a 24-tooth gear. The Tachometer
is to indicate the speed of the shaft on the 24-tooth gear. In this case, the events per
revolution must be calculated:
EPR = (24 / 11) x 18 = 39.2727
To set the Tachometer to proper EPR, enter the decimal value into the Desired
EPR box. The software calculates the closest fraction found which is EPR = 157/4 =
39.25. Since 157/4 = 39.25 and not 39.2727, a slight error will result. In this particular
example, the error is 0.0578 % or 2 rpm at 3600 rpm.
4 TSI signal
Alarm
Trip
Shaft Vibration
H1
H2
Bearing Vibration
H1
H2
Rotor speed
H1
H2
Shaft displacement
H1
H2
H1
H2
Differential
Expansion
Eccentricity
H1
149
Chapter 5 Distributed Control System (DCS)

1. The Basic Conception of Distributed Control System
1.1 Summary of the Distributed Control System
Since the first set of collecting and distributing control system in the world was
born in 1975, industrial control automation entered a brand-new period. After more than
20 years of development, its system structure brings in constant renewal, the function is
perfect day by day, having already developed in the integrated direction of the
computer. Generally speaking, development of the course computer controlled system,
have gone through several stages of the direct digital control system, centralized
computer control system, hierarchical computer control systems and distributed control
system adopted extensively at present.
1.1.1 DCS
Distributed Control System, is abbreviated as DCS. The DCS system is one of
the most advanced control system, which combines with current technologies of
computer, communication, CRT (cathode ray tube), process control and man-machine
interface (MMI).
The meaning of distributed stress on two main points:
a. Every kind of production equipment is distributed both by the geography
location and the control equipment.
b. The functions of control system are distributed, which means such as data
acquisitionprocess control, display, supervisory control etc. are distributed to a number
of microprocessors according their functions.
Every sub-system of DCS is designed to control associated equipment of itself
.In the mean time the danger of all system lowers. Based on it, the DCS is able to
concentrate displaying and operating by computer network
1.1.2 DCS Organization
DCS is based on microprocessor technology and it consists of basic control unit,
data acquisition station, data highway (DHW), and upper computer of supervisory and
CRT display operator. The following figure (Fig.1-1) shows the basic structure of DCS.
According the different function the system also can be divided into following three
units:
150
1.1.2.1 Process control unit (PCU)

Process control unit (PCU) is the combination of hardware and software, which
controls production process directly. It is the basic element of DCS, which can perform
real-time acquisition of data processing, noise filter, compensation calculation, nonlinear emendation and scale conversion from all kinds of meters, and then transfer them
to data communication system. Meanwhile, it can receive command from upper
communication network to drive the field device according to the configuration in
process control, so that the requirement of analog and digital control can be satisfied.
1.1.2.2 Control and management level
It includes CRT display operator console, optional upper supervisory computer.
The former includes Operator Interface Station (OIS), Engineering Work Station
(EWS).
It is the equipment for exchanging information between client and system. It can
supply the function for operating order input, graphic display, configuration of control
system, system simulator and so on.
1.1.2.3 Data communication system is the bridge between PCU and Control and
management level; meanwhile, it is the nerve center in DCS.
There are three communication media: two twisted wires, coaxial cable and fiberoptic cable. All nodes on the communication network such as PCU, OIU(operator
interface unit) or MCS(management command system) and CIU (computer interface
unit) etc are connected with DHW by interface circuit .There are three common
network structures: star, ring and bus, corresponding three different technologies for
media visiting: inquiring way, broadcasting way, memory and transmitting way.
1.1.3 Features of DCS
Every kind of DCS owns the three main features:
a. Powerful all-purpose use and flexible configuration
The collocation of whole system is very flexible because of the hardware of DCS
adopting structure of building block and the software achieving modules. It forms all
kinds of process control systems by choosing various function modules according
different requirement of configurations.
b. By adopting digital communication technology, the system has enough ability
of rapid data processing, centralized operating and displaying, convenient contact
between man and machine.
151
c. Dispersive control systems improve the operation on the safe side.

Because of each control system has isolated control system itself, the danger of
whole system is separated. Meanwhile, the system software complexity of central
computer is avoided.
1.2 Main subsystem of the DCS
According to different function, the DCS can be divided into the following
several main subsystems: Data acquisition system (DAS); coordinated control system
(CCS); sequence control system (SCS), etc.
1.2.1 Data Acquisition System DAS
1.2.1.1 Overview of Data acquisition system
Data Acquisition System (DAS) is the main important component of the system
for automatic control, especially in DCS system which microprocessor-based personal
computers (PCS) are extensively used to implement direct digital control in the process
of power plant. These familiar desktop computers are designed the system using a bus
that consists of the data high way.
All communication with the processor via the bus-line includes essential
equipment, such as, RAM, ROM, DISK, and CD-ROM. The PC also connect the bus
lines to a number of printed circuit board sockets which called module mounting unit
(MMU) in SYMPHONY system.
DAS system has been developed for the purpose of providing for input and
output of process data first and now it performs more important roles in power plants.
The following paragraph provides general information about the DAS system.
1.2.1.1 System Organization
The components of DAS system can be divided into following sections as:
Operator station
Redundant CRT
Redundant EWS
Redundant Printer
Historical database station
Cabinets of modules, include redundant MFP and NPM.
Cabinet of terminal unit
The following figure (Fig.1-2) show general structure of DAS:
152
CRT
CRT
CRT
K EY BO A RD
O IS
O IS
K EY BO A RD
EW S
K EY BO A RD
P R IN T E R
P R IN T E R
P R IN T E R
H ,C O P Y
DHW
PCU
I /O
PCU
I /O
P R O C E SS (C O N T R O L O B JE C T )
Fig.1-2
System Features
Open data access:
Ethernet
Dynamic data exchange
Multiple client platforms supply the clients (severs in bus terminology) can be
NT based PCs or bus terminal processors
Ease to use:
Intuitive point-and-click navigation
Operator configurable displays
Display assignment to annunciation display panel
Integrated utilities
Data share: all data share the only one database
1.2.1.3 Main function
a. Display:
a). Static graphic display used for online help and operating guide.
b). Dynamic graphic display used for operator one-second display call-ups.
c). Alarm summary display including historical and current alarm.
d). System condition display supplies system level diagnostics.
e). Dynamic data group display.
f). Histogram display directly describe process variable.
b. Alarm:
If analog or digital inputs from process or system analog outputs are excess of
the setpoint it will alarm. It also can be used to alarm for the equipment malfunction
such as module fault by self-diagnosis system of supervisory system.
c. Print:
153
a). Alarm print;

b). Log print;
c). Sequence of events print;
d). Accident looking back printing
d. Memory:
Local memory
Ecdemic memory
Step memory
e. Statistical analysis
There are three main ways for statistical analysis according to the unit type or
different client:
Thermal part
Electrical part
Fuel part
f. Process monitoring and management.
Alarm management
Data historian and archiving
Parameter and event logging
g. Sequence of events (SOE)
1.2.2 Coordinated Control System CCS
Coordinated Control System (CCS) is a sort of system, which can control or
operate the steam generator and turbine generator as an integrated unit in order to
maintain the process control variables (unit generation, steam pressure, and steam
temperatures) within acceptable limits. As you know, safety system improves unit
availability by preventing improper operating sequences and by automatically shutting
down equipment before damage can occur. But acceptable availability can only be
achieved by installing control systems to prevent the plant-controlled variables from
reaching the deviation from normal values, which result in safely system action. The
continuous, automatic regulation of controlled variables is the function of the process
control system.
A Coordinated Control System approach to process control has proved to be the
most effective technique to achieve optimum boiler performance. When the
sophisticated CCS system is employed, the steam generator and turbine generator act as
a coordinated unit to further improve unit transient response and productivity. The CCS
also provides several layers of limit systems designed to improve unit availability by
preventing a process deviation from reaching a safety-system limit. Todays modern
designs implement the CCS using computerized distributed systems.
Main subsystems of process controls include:
A.HP Heater. Level control system
B.Deaerator pressure control system
C.Deaerator level control system
D.Condenser control system
1.2.3 Sequence Control System SCS
1.2.3.1 Summary
154
There are two major control types according the data of the process: 1)
modulating control (analog data), 2) sequence control (on/off data).
The function of the SEQUENCE CONTROL SYSTEM (SCS) in a large fossilfiring unit is to start/stop or open/close main auxiliary equipment including such as
motors, valves and dampers in thermal system.
As power plants began to grow in size and complexity many years ago, the
number of the thermal system increased very much, meanwhile, the multiplicity of
operating steps for on/off control would leave considerable latitude for operator error
especially during unit start up and shut down. When we employed the SCS system the
only things for operator is to depress a button and watch the sequence of operating step.
So the systems such as SCS are commonly used in large power plant to avoid the
operators error and protect both the thermal system and the associated auxiliary
equipment.
1.2.3.2 Basic Types
There are three basic types of SCS according the latitude of operating steps.
a. Element or components control means:
Operating a device with a simple command from associated key in computer
keyboard
b. Equipment level control
Equipment level control means every auxiliary equipment, such as motor, valve
and damper, owns the circuit of equipment level itself and normally operated on the
console of central control room and monitored its associated controlling condition.
c. Function level control
Function level control means that the main auxiliary equipment served as the
nucleus in order to performance a special function. The function level control accepts
not only the commands from the unit level including start, stop, interlock and trip but
also the signals such as interlock and trip of other function levels, then judging and
computing them according the need of itself logic, finally transfer the operating
command to the equipment level.
There are three operating ways for function level:
a). Start/stop and auto/manual switch
b). Lock/release: when the switch is put release the operating to function level
can be performed. Contrarily when it have been put lock the operating forbidden
c). Primary control select means to the auxiliary equipment which are the
redundant design can choose which one is prior and can run the redundant one
according the need of current logic from system..
d. Unit control level:
It is the final control in the SCS. It is able to perform the start up ant shut down
nearly without operator intervention. When the command of start/stop is given to the
SCS, it can choose the way to start up or shot down the unit according to logic judgment
to the current work condition and then make the commands to every function level by
start/on way until the unit carrying a certain load or from a certain load to shut down.
The unit control does not mean all steps of the start up and shut down are
automatic. In fact the operator proper intervention to the unit automatic start up and shut
155
down is needed. In order to confirm the command or give another new command and
ensure the procedures correctly go on we often set interrupting point after or before the
important steps.
1.2.3.3 Operation Measure Design
a. The auxiliary equipment which be controlled by the main control device must
be designed to be operated in the centralized room without field control devices.
b. The smaller sequence control device which not be controlled by the main
device would be design to keep the field control panel and its controlled signal would be
put into main control device.
c. The important auxiliary equipment, without emergency operating such as FDF
(forced-draft-fan), IDF (induced-draft-fan), would set the field panel for testing or
debugging. For the sake of preventing operator error and ensure safety of equipment, it
only be supplied the measure and the actual executing would be performed by the main
control device.
d. The important auxiliary equipment need to be operated emergency, must be set
operating device in console of the centralized control room.
1.2.3.4 Equipment Protection, Block, Safety and Devices
a. The protection and block
Once the emergency condition would hurt both personnel and equipment, the
SCS must be automatically trip or run the associated equipment.
Equipment block means: setting some block condition between equipment level
and function level according the requirements of operation and the relations of
equipment in order to avoid unsafely conditions happen by improper operating.
It must be noted that the interlock protections between systems in the unit, such
as the protection between the boiler and turbine, is not the role of SCS. That is a special
protection.
The principle of design for protection and block of the equipment must be:
a). Protection signal prior
b). Protection trip command must be forced which means the command will
last until the equipment have been shut down.
c). The transducer of protection must be independently and never be mix with the
other system.
d). Protection block must be the component of the SCS logic.
e). The contacts of protection must be energized (normally open) preventing the
power loss.
b. Devices and function
a). Sequence controller
Sequence controller is the special device to achieve the function of sequence
control. It is able to run after accepting the command from operator or up level. It also
runs as the special condition emerging from outside.
b). The type of sequence controller
The type of sequence controller can be classified into three types: relay, transistor
and integrated types according the elements. And they are also classified the
programmable-logic (PLC) controllers and sub-computer types. Now the common used
156
type is the PLC .it is a minicomputer with a built-in compiler (translator) that makes it
possible to program the system directly from logic diagrams. It is also configured to be
strong in logic capability and can be packaged ruggedly enough for the power-plant
environment.
c). Sequence control station:
The auxiliary system or equipment being divided into many specific function
groups according their feature. Such kinds of function groups we called SCS station,
which we used to control start/stop, open/close, the associated auxiliary equipment, both
remote and sequence control.
c. The role of SCS
The role of SCS in the distributed control system is multiplicity, which include
the following systems:
a). Motor-driven feed water pump system
b). Auxiliary steam system
c). (Steam) condenser vacuum system
d). Condensate (extraction) pump system
e). Turbine gland seal system
f). High pressure heater system
g). Low pressure heater system
h). De-aerator system
i). Turbine drain system
j). Turbine oil system
k). Turbine low pressure casing system
l). Generator hydrogen & seal oil system
m). Other motor-driven dampers valves and solenoid control valves that remotes
in the centralized control room
1.3 SCS for Example
Interlock, protection and sequence control of IDF A (or B)
1. Program controlled startup procedure of IDF A: (Any one air preheater is in
service)
Step one: Start the auxiliary oil pump of IDF A
Step two: Open the motor operated shut-off valve at the outlet of IDF A, close the
motor operated shut-off valve at the inlet of IDF A
Step three: Close the hydraulic coupling of IDF A
Step four: Close the inlet adjusting damper of IDF A
Step five: Start IDF A
Step six: Open the motor operated shut-off valve at the inlet of IDF A
Step seven: Startup is over
2. Program controlled shutdown procedure of IDF A
Step one: Close the hydraulic coupling of IDF A
Step two: Close the regulating damper at the inlet of IDF A
157
Step three: Shutdown IDF A, Start the auxiliary oil pump of IDF A
Step four: Close the inlet damper of IDF A
Step five: Shutdown is over
3. Permissive conditions for startup of IDF A(following conditions accord AND
relation):
3.1 Any one air preheater is in service
3.2 Auxiliary oil pump is in service
3.3 Hydraulic coupling is at minimum position
3.4 The inlet regulating damper of IDF A is at closure position
3.5 The motor operated shut-off valve at the inlet of IDF A has been closed
3.6 The motor operated shut-off valve at the outlet of IDF A has been opened
3.7 Temperatures of various bearings of IDF A are normal, they are80,
temperature of motor bearing is normal, it is70, temperature of motor coil is normal,
it is95, oil temperature at the outlet of coupler is100, the inlet oil temperature of
working oil cooler of coupler is95, the outlet oil temperature of working oil cooler
of coupler is80, the inlet oil temperature of lube oil cooler of coupler is80 , the
outlet oil temperature of lube oil cooler of coupler is60
3.8 Pressure of lube oil is0.15MPa
4 Shutdown(trip) conditions of protective interlock of IDF A(following
conditions accord OR relation):
4.1 Bearing temperature of IDF A is high high, it is 90 1/2
4.2 Bearing vibration of IDF A is high high 1/8
4.3 Temperature of motor stator of IDF A is high high, it is 105
A B C phases are respectively 2/2
4.4 Bearing vibration of motor of IDF A is high high 1/4
4.5 Bearing temperature of motor of IDF A is high high, it is 80 1/2
4.6 Bearing temperature of the coupler of IDF A is high high, it is 105 1
3 4 are respectively 2/2
4.7 Both two air preheaters are stopped, time delay is 300 seconds
4.8 MFT actuates, and the furnace pressure is low low, time delay is 20 seconds
4.9 The inlet oil temperature of working oil cooler of coupler is 100
4.10 The outlet oil temperature of working oil cooler of coupler is 90
4.11 The inlet oil temperature of lube oil cooler of coupler is 90
4.12 The outlet oil temperature of lube oil cooler of coupler is 60
4.13 Temperature at the outlet of coupler is 110
4.14 Pressure of lube oil is 0.14 0.014 MPa (use analog variable of
lube oil pressure at the outlet of filter)
5. Auxiliary oil pump of IDF A
5.1 Conditions of automatic startup
5.1.1 The IDF A has been started and the pressure of lube oil is 0.17MPa (use
analog variable of lube oil pressure at the outlet of filter)
5.1.2 The IDF A stopped (3 seconds of pulse)
5.2 Condition of automatic shutdown
5.2.1 The pressure of lube oil of IDF A is 0.23MPa (use analog variable of lube
158
oil pressure at the outlet of filter), time delay is 3S (impulse signal)

6. The motor operated shut-off valve at the outlet of IDF A
6.1 Conditions for automatic open
6.1.1 FSSS required signal of ventilation comes,
6.1.2 A side IDF starts, interlock is open
6.2 Condition for automatic closure
6.2.1 A side IDF is out of service, B IDF is in service, interlock is closed (3
seconds of pulse)
6.3 Condition for prohibition of closure
The IDF A is in service, it is prohibited to be closed
7 The motor operated shut-off valve at the inlet of IDF A
7.1 Conditions for automatic open
7.1.1 FSSS required signal of ventilation comes, interlock is open
7.1.2 A IDF starts, interlock is open
7.1.3 Startup signal of sequence control comes
7.2 Conditions for automatic closure
7.2.1 A IDF is out of service, interlock is closed (3 seconds of pulse)
7.2.2 A side IDF is out of service, B IDF is in service, interlock is closed (3
seconds of pulse)
7.3 Condition for prohibition of closure:
A IDF is in service
2. Sequence of Event System

As an important component of DAS, the Sequence Event Recorder (SER) used
for realizing Sequence of Event (SOE ) function in unit operation course. Depend on
SER
operator can make sure accident cause facilely and rapidly, then
adopt step to dispel unit fault or accident in time.
2.1 Primary function of SOE
2.1.1 Event Record
Event record is a basic function of SER, in time record input signal with 1ms
distinguish ability, and printout. according to importance degree of input signal,
commonly can design non-trigger signal (non-trigger event) and trigger signal (trigger
event).
2.1.2 Event trigger
SER should according to setup of configuration, automatically prints all of events
some times when trigger event occur. It provides the first cause which operator find
fault or analyses accident.
Input signal of trigger events approximately include: turbine trip, electric trip and
loss of control power supply, etc. When trigger events occur, not only need record all of
capable factors perfectly before it happen, but also need record a series of operation
perfectly after trigger events happen, in order to assure correctness of check. At the
same time drive SOE of DAS with trigger event.
159
2.1.3 Accident retrospection

Accident retrospection is a function which DAS can realize with trigger event of
Seitz task is that records variety circs of user defined analog input signal before and
sifter import information. Normally circs of SER cannot provide all of things to
operator analyses reason, so that must recur to other process variable to analyses.
3 DCS Overview
3.1 Network Architecture
Control Network
HSI
Control Network
Control Network
PCU
Central Ring
Control Network
Plant Loop
ICI
Remote Ring
Cnet-Cnet
HSI: Human System Interface

HSI include conductor and power generation portal.
PCU: Process Control Unit
ICI: Network Computer Interface
Cnet-Cnet: Network-Network Interface
Control Network Architect
160
161
3.2 Communication Mode
Redundant mode
1
C.W
X.B
X.B
I/O
I/O
I/O
Network I/O module

Main module
I/O
I/O
I/O
Network main module

I/O module
I/O
162
C.W: Control Way

X.B: I/O Expander Bus
Chapter 6 Emergency Trip System ETS

1 Basic Concept of Turbine Protection System
1.1 The Concept and the Function
Since the early days of remote operation, the generation of electricity has become
a very complicated business. High energy costs demand that as much electricity as
possible be exceed from the fossil fuel consumed. Higher availability of equipment is
needed to stem rising operating and maintenance costs. Protection of both personnel and
equipment must be achieved, and unscheduled shutdowns have to be dept to a
minimum.
While obviously instruments and controls cannot of themselves satisfy such
concerns, the problems have resulted in a substantially increased requirement for
automatic protection and interlock systems.
Such a system is able to supply the capability for operator to monitor and to offer
the process parameters continuously during the unit operation. If the abnormal condition
occurs the system would annunciate by light and sound alarming, even more the system
would shut down the unit if necessary.
1.2 System Feature
1.2.1 The automatic protection system is the supreme method to protect both personnel
and equipment.
1.2.2 The command of the automatic protection system is the supreme, which means we
can not retreat the system whenever during the normal operation.
163
1.2.3 The automatic protection system must be used to control combining with the other
automatic control system. For example, if all FDF stopped, the boiler would shut down.
1.2.4 The detecting information of the automatic protection system is the most reliable.
1.2.5 The automatic protection system has the capability to supervise and to test.
1.2.6 The automatic protection system has the independent recording system which be
used to record and to analyze the malfunction of the equipment.
2 Automatic Protection System

Automatic Protection system of Turbine
There are five main automatic systems associated with turbine:
2.1. Turbine Overspeed Protection
Normally, the speed of turbine maintain at 3000 r/min and fluctuating little
because the speed only influenced by the frequency and the load of the grid system.
Although the speed would raised or even exceed the limit of turbine due to the failure of
governing system while the abnormal condition such as load dump happens. If such
condition happens the blades of the turbine would be separated into pieces from the
rotor and fly from the turbine casing which could hurt both equipment and personnel.
In order to avoid such terrible condition happens, an automatic protection system
called turbine overspeed automatic protection adopted in the large unit.
As we know the turbine speed high or low decided directly by the amount of
admission steam and the amount can be controlled by the throttle valve position, the
valve position can be directly control by the hydraulic servomotor supplied the oil by
the main oil pump of turbine. Here the oil path for the throttle steam valve we called
safety oil system. The oil pressure can be dropped down by closing the sliding valve of
the path if necessary, so that the throttle valve will shut off swiftly. The emergency
governor which can perform such function as Fig. 2-1 shows.
164
Figure2-1
The centrifugal fly-weight2 located in the turbine axial, strikes and opens the
sliding valve 5 of hydraulic servomotor by fleeing out from the axial from pressure of
the spring 3. Then the oil pressure drops so that the hydraulic servomotor 6 closes the
throttle valve. And another oil valve, installed a solenoid coil to control the oil pressure
by electric signal that associated with other protection term, we called turbine solenoid
trip valve 7.
The action value of centrifugal fly-weight2 can be changed by the tuning of the
spring 3, normally we choose two setpoint 3300 r/min and 3330r/min (110 and 114
percent of the rated rev 3000r/min).
2.2 Unit load dump protection
As we know, if load dump, especially all load dump happened during normal
operation, the turbine speed would rise immediately, even more, could exceed the limit
that might cause the unscheduled shut-down...
So it is very necessary to install the load dump protection on the large unit to
handle the abnormal status.
When the generator current depress to 25 percent of the rated current, the
protection actions close the throttle valve automatically, then delay a certain time, will
open the valve due to purpose of preventing the turbine from the second overspeed.
165
2.3 Condenser vacuum low protection

If the turbine vacuum depressed, the turbine load must be reduced, or the stress
between the rotor and the blade will change that might cause increasing both the
vibration and axial displacement of turbine, so we need the Condenser vacuum low
protection to deal with it.
When the vacuum value of condenser depress to the limit, for example
0.0197MPa the trip signal to the turbine would send off to shut-down the turbine.
2.4 Bearing oil low protection
As we know, the bearing neck of turbine is contact the bearing by oil film. If the
oil pressure drops to the limit the film will be destroyed and then the damage for
bearing neck and bearing bush would happen by high speed inter-scrubbing. The lube
oil low protection show can deal with the problem.
During the running period, if the lube oil depresses down to the value L
(normally 0.049 MPa), the interlock system will start the AC auxiliary oil pump; while
it downs to the value L (normally 0.039 MPa), will start the DC auxiliary oil pump
and the signal will send off to shut down the turbine; while it downs to the value L
(normally 0.029 MPa), the turning gear motor must be stopped.
2.5 Axial displacement limiting protection
The purpose of such system is to avoid by the inter-scrubbing between the rotor
and the stator bearing due to wear and tear on the thrusting bearing of turbine.
The Axial displacement-limiting device must be less than +/-1.0 mm (positive
means generator direction, negative means the direction to turbine head).
In cold condition, to move rotor to the end of the work surface (generator
direction), which is the zero point of the axial displacement limiting.
The distance between the thrusting bearing and Axial displacement limiting
device must be install as shortly as possible in order to preventing rotor from the
influence of thermal expansion.
The Fig. 2-2 shows the axial displacement-limiting device working principle:
There is salient point on the axial, both sides of point installed a same oil nozzle
each other. The nozzle is supplied oil by orifice at turbine oil system. The oil pressure
before the nozzle will change if the distance between the salient point and the nozzle,
less distance higher pressure. So, if the axial displacement of turbine rotor brings to the
fixed position of nozzle, the changing oil pressure could indicate the distance of axial
displacement. Therefore, while we know the corresponding connection of them, the
device installed the oil pipe, such as oil meter, oil pressure switch, can detect the axial
displacement and supply the on/off information for protection.
166
3 Common faults of the ETS system and dealing with

The reason analysis of some common faults of ETS system and equipment and
treatment method are tabulated as follows:
Serial
Fault Phenomenon
Fault Reason
Fault Disposal
The ETS acts when the
It may be that the periphery
Check the periphery
parameter
measured equipment acts of
measured equipment
Numb
er
1
has
not
reached set value
the inaccurately or the circuit
and circuit
present situation of shortcircuit or disconnection

2
The ETS does not act
It may be that circuit break
Check circuit, if the
167
when the parameter has
or relay can not act.
reached set value
relay has a question,

should
change
the
relay.
3
When the parameter has
The EST input module has
reached set value and the
been damaged.
Change input module
signal send to input.

4
The
CPU
module
monitors is seen red
The reserve power of the
Change the battery
power module breaks down
alarm signal on the

power battery indicator
lamp
Chapter 7 Primary Control System Describe (BMS)

BMS is including burner control system (BCS) and fuel safety Supervisory
system (FSSS), boiler main protection, burner management system, and mill sequential
control system.
1 BCS Concrete Function

BCS including following four functions:
a. Boiler ignition preparation
b. Ignition gun ignition
c. Oil gun ignition
d. Coal burning
1.1 boiler ignition preparation
1.1.1 After purging in the furnace successfully, starts the boiler ignition preparation by
the operator.
1.1.2 Puts the boiler in the ignition standby mode, took starts the first ignition gun
automatically the precondition. This time the operator reset MFT, opens the greatest
time limiting value timer that establish flame, when cannot establish the flame in the
168
time, the system trips, and returns to the condition which blows sweeps needs.
1.2 ignition gun ignition
When the boiler ignition standby mode permission condition had been established, may
allow an ignition gun to put in. In addition, confirmed whether ignition system
equipment usability and system condition was satisfies.
1.3 oil gun ignition
1.3.1 BCS inspects the following permission condition at least before the operation in
the oil gun:
a. The boiler amount of wind achieved the purge value
b. The flame detectors cool wind pressure to satisfy
c. All burners valve closure
d. All burners are in the working position
e. The windbox/furance different pressure satisfies
f. Not have MFT or the oil system and so on trips the signal existence
g. The oil system leak test complete
h. The fuel oil pressure satisfies the ignition request
i. The ignition system has prepared
j. The oil temperature is normal
k. Any flame detector examines does not have the flame
1.3.2 When these above permissions condition satisfies, on the LCD screen displayed
permit lights the oil gun, also after each oil gun ignition condition satisfies, the oil
gun may put into the operation.
1.3.3 Operator put an ignition gun into operation. The system design provides the
investment single oil gun or a group of oil guns flexibility to the Operator.
1.3.4 Operator assigns out the relative display picture, and through the keyboard starts
one burner group the which assigns to carry on the ignition, the system can accord the
time order, opens the shutting valve and the drive ignition transformer .After the oil gun
is lit, the transformer disappear energy. If some oil gun has not been confirmed in 10
seconds lights, closes its shutting valve, and sends out the ignition defeat reporting to
alarm.
1.3.5 The permission condition loses or not to be able to complete the operating
procedure in the time, then interrupts this procedure.
1.3.6 Operator can through the LCD/keyboard interrupts operating procedure, stop the
operating procedure the process being able to monitor and was confirmed. In the
situation that any valve cannot shut down, produces one to break the oil is not
successful reporting to alarm.
1.3.7 Besides the consideration debugging, the local ignition gun operation is restrained
by the system logic and the permission condition, the ignition gun trip signal block all
local system operate, and the fuel cutoff, the ignition transformer shutdown.
1.4 Coal burning
BCS carries on the program control and monitor the pulverizer, the feeder and
the relative air valve start/stops, opens/closes, and trips.
In starts of each operation step, the system guarantees satisfies with this step
permission condition, and satisfies the safety condition in the entire start process.
169
Loses the permission condition or not to be able to complete the operating

procedure in assign time, then operator interrupt this procedure.
The coal burning start order request starts the pulverizer first, after proved the
pulverizer is running, and then starts the relative feeder.
1.4.1 Pulverizer starts procedure
Besides in the boiler ignition preparation period satisfied condition, the pulverizer
started still needs satisfies the following condition:
1.4.1.1 Has the permission to burn the coal burner signal (come from ignition logic)
1.4.1.2 All relative ignition energy is enough
1.4.1.3 All relative air valve opens or in the suitable position
1.4.1.4 Does not have the pulverizer trip condition and MFT
1.4.1.5 The pulverizer lubricating oil and the seal wind system satisfy the operation
request
1.4.1.6 The coal burner related to the pulverizer has not examined the flame
1.4.1.7 Cold wind, hot wind, fuel wind and seal wind damper in appropriate position
1.4.1.8 Does not have other pulverizers in the start style
1.4.1.9 Pulverizer damper and valve in appropriate position
1.4.1.10 The pulverizer outlet temperature satisfies
1.4.1.11 This pulverizer has the power source
1.4.1.12 Magnet separator equipment is in running status
1.4.1.13 Factory request other conditions
1.4.2 The pulverizer stopping
Before starts the pulverizer stopping procedure, confirmed the feeder already
stop, and the feeder stopping procedure already to complete. After completed the feeder
stopping procedure, and started the pulverizer stopping procedure by the automatic
procedure or by the operator. Once started the pulverizer stopping procedure, carried on
the following procedure automatically:
1.4.2.1 After the pulverizer stopping, provides its outlet temperature low signal
1.4.2.2 The oil gun puts the operation
1.4.2.3 After confirmed the pulverizer stopping, closes the pulverizer outlet valve and
the seal air damper
1.4.2.4The cold wind damper set in the cool degree.
1.4.3 The feeder starts procedure
Besides satisfies the pulverizer to start the condition, the feeder starts the procedure also
to have to satisfy the following condition:
1.4.3.1 The pulverizer is in operation
1.4.3.2 Amount of primary wind to pulverizer satisfies the smallest coal amount request
1.4.3.3 Feeder rotational speed command signal in minimum value
1.4.3.4 The feeder import and export valve opens, and exports not stops up
1.4.3.5 Does not have the feeder stop command
1.4.3.6 Does not have the pulverizer trip condition and MFT
1.4.3.7 The coal burner related to the pulverizer has not examined the flame
1.4.3.8 After satisfies all permissions condition, the automatic logical program or starts
the feeder by the operator through the LCD/keyboard.
170
1.4.4 The feeder stopping

Before starts the feeder stopping procedure, guarantee relative ignition energy is
normal. Once the operator started a feeder stopping procedure, carried on the following
procedure automatically:
1.4.4.1 The feeder quit from the original automatic control way, and reduces its
rotational speed to the minimum value. At this time closes the import coal valve.
1.4.4.2 As feeder at smallest rotational speed, opens the cold wind damper, and closes
the hot wind damper.
1.4.4.3 After pulverizer temperature cooling, stop the feeder.
2 FSSS Concrete Function

The FSSS function completes by the following three subsystems:
a. The furnace purge
b. The oil fuel system leak test
c. The fuel trips
2.1. The furnace purge
2.1.1 After MFT, blows in the furnace and the flue fuel mixture sweeps, in order to
allow the next fuel ignition. To this, provides purge procedure which the time may
adjust. The oil fuel leak test is a part of the furnace purge procedure.
2.1.2 Before start the furnace purge, at least satisfies the furnace purge permission
condition, the content is as follows:
2.1.2.1 Block system all fuels enters the furnace.
2.1.2.2 Stop all the equipment that provides the fuel.
2.1.2.3 The forced draft fan entrance to the furnace, the flue rear part and the chimney
channel is unimpeded
2.1.2.4 The forced draft fans and the induced draft fans have one to operation at least.
2.1.2.5 Air preheater is in running status.
2.1.2.6 At least some 30% amount of wind.
2.1.2.7 Furnace negative pressure in normal limiting value.
2.1.2.8 The precipitator tripped.
2.1.2.9 The drum level is normal.
2.1.2.10 Oil leak test successfully.
1.3 The entire purge process satisfied the purge permission condition, until the first oil
gun is in ignition.
2.1.4 In the purge process if any condition loses in the permission condition. Causes the
purge time reset. Only all permissions condition reestablishes, the operator can restart
the purge procedure.
2.2 The fuel oil system leak test
2.2.1 When the furnace purge is going, the oil system leaks test subsystem to start to
carry on the fuel oil system to leak test. The goal of leak test is confirmed each part of
oil system is strict. For example, the oil system safety shut valve and between every oil
guns shut valve is airtight. If has leak, it will pointed out leak reason.
2.2.2 Before the furnace purge finished, completes the oil system leak test successfully.
2.2.3 The oil system leak test including the following content:
171
2.2.3.1 In the period of furnace purge, press to oil system each part.
2.2.3.2 Exam all the leak situation measuring appliance and the logic.
2.2.3.3 Provides the testing process and the result to the operator the information and/or
reports to alarm.
2.2.3.4 Leak test success to complete is a successful condition for the furnace purges
completes
2. 3 The fuel trips
Provides the multi-level fuels to trip, guaranteed only stop the fewer fuels equipment,
reduces unsafe factor of the system or the boiler furnace has unsafe operating mode.
Provides the oil gun to trip, the pulverizer trips, and the feeder trips. When MFT, shuts
off boiler all fuels.
Provides the following situation the fuel to trip:
a. The main fuel trips (MFT)
b. The oil fuel trips (OFT)
c. The pulverizer trips
2.3.1 MFT
MFT shuts off all the fuel enters the furnace fast, when the following situation
has (is not restricted in these conditions), sends out the MFT command:
a. Manual MFT: On the main control console, has the MFT action and
confirms the button.
b. All forced draft fan trip
c. All induced draft fans trip
d. In when the furnace has the powdered coal firing, all primary fans trips
e. The furnace pressure is higher than or is lower than the setting value
f. The total amount of wind is lower than the setting value
g. After the relay of MFT reset, in scheduled time furnace ignition fail
h. Has not examined the flame of the oil gun and the coal burner
i. The angle flame loses
j. The fuel loses
k. The burner stops not successfully
l. The superheater or the reheater lose the protection
m. The turbine trips
n. The generator trips
o. The steam drum water level exceed limits 3 seconds
p. Other must the trip condition
When MFT happens, automatic execution following operation:
a. The large screen monitor sends out the urgent alarm, LCD appears reports to
alarm display and the printing
b. Oil system shutting damper quickly
c. All ignition gun excision and react
d. All oil guns damper close
e. All pulverizers electric motor trips, the pulverizer outlet valve shutting down
f. All feeders trip
g. All primary fans trips
172
h. MCS obtains the following instruction:

The FDF adjustment control cut from auto to manual, maintains two times of
amount of wind in front of tripping the level.
The IDF adjustment control cut from auto to manual, adjusts the transient furnace
negative pressure.
Close superheater spraying of water regulating valve and shut-off damper.
Close reheater spraying of water regulating valve and shut-off damper.
Block system easy system operation, investment operation soot blowers react.
Trips the signal start furnace to purge procedure (purge time could be
adjust).After completes furnace purge, the permission stop the air fan .If when furnace
purge, furnace pressure is too high or too low, immediately the air fan trips.
The turbine trips.
The generator trips.
2.3.2 The oil fuel trips (OFT)
A OFT signal shuts off the fuel of all oil guns rapidly, the following any
condition is tenable, produces the OFT signal:
a. The oil trip valve close. The oil system trip valve to close after opening in any
time;
b. The fuel oil pressure is low: When all oils system valve opens, the fuel oil
pressure is low;
c. All oils system valve close: Any oil valve is shut down after opening;
d. The operator trips:
e. MFT: Any time MFT relay operation.
When has OFT, carries on the following operation automatically:
a. The fuel oil trip valve rapid close;
b. Every oil guns oil valve close and the ignition gun exit;
The large screen monitor sends out the urgent alarm, and in LCD display and
printing;
d. The fuel oil return valve opens.
2.3.3, the pulverizer trips
The pulverizer and its the relative equipment will trip, to each pulverizer, will
quit the coal burner related to this pulverizer. Some pulverizer trips do not affect other
pulverizer operation and ignition gun. When the following any condition satisfies,
causes the pulverizer and the related equipment trips:
a. MFT;
b. The operator trips the command;
c. Start procedure fail;
d. Pipeline is stops up from the pulverizer to the relative coal burner;
e. The feeder trips;
f. The amount of primary wind is low;
g. The amount of secondary wind is blocked;
h. The ignition gun flame loses; the pulverizer starts the procedure stage, the
ignition energy loses, or the coal powder firing in the furnace is lower than the request;
i. The pulverizer servo system, like the lubricating oil, the seal wind and so on
173
loses;
j. Does not bring the igniter the burner group flame to lose.
When the pulverizer happen trips, automatically carries on the following
operation:
a. Stop the feeder
b. Feeder excision automatic way
c. Stop the pulverizer
d. Close the cold wind and the hot wind damper.
e. The steam protection system is in operation
The large screen monitor sends out the urgent alarm, and in LCD display and
printing. The pulverizer trips prompt operator the causes trips.
174

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I&C

Electric Engineering Technical Service Subsidiary of

2. Automatic control system...............................................................................................................

3. Automatic control Principles........................................................................................................... 55

4 DEH Regulating Protection System.............................................................................................. 125

2. Measuring Principle of TSI System Parameter............................................................................ 129

Chapter 5 Distributed Control System (DCS)................................................................................

1. The Basic Conception of Distributed Control System................................................................... 143

Chapter 6 Emergency Trip System ETS ............................................................................

1 Basic Concept of Turbine Protection System................................................................................ 156

3 Common faults of the ETS system and dealing with................................................................... 160

2 FSSS Concrete Function............................................................................................................... 163

Chapter 1 Measuring Instrument in Thermal Power Station

Though the measuring system of thermal technology has nothing in common

1.2.1.2 Relative error

In the equation Relative error.

Corrected error is generally used for comparing the quality of measuring

. It is a common measuring means that measures

with potential meter, then measures U 0 voltage of I on R0

. Assume I do not change, because of U x = IR x , U 0 = IR0 , can get result

.If measures U x1 , measures U x 2

again, so we can get a result:

It shows that voltage of R x

does not influence by electric current change, thus

dispels system error which produce by electric current linear change.

1.2.4.1 Accuracy of instrument

the reading value of the checked instrument;

the reading value of the standard instrument.

Fig.2-2 shows a disassembly view of a pressure indicator employing a

A cutaway view of a typical pressure indicating recorder with a spiral element is

2.1 Resistance Transducers

Instrumentation is a common term for describing devices or procedures used in

temperature is a key factor in nearly all manufacturing operations regardless of the

2.3. Non-electrical Instrumentation

freezing point of -38 (-38.8) to its boiling point of 1000 (537.7).

2.5 Bimetallic Thermometers

commercially available instruments used by industry.

The display or readout of a thermo-resistive instrument is ordinarily obtained by

The resistance relationship of a bridge circuit (Fig.2-13) when it is balanced is

An automatic self-balancing Wheatstone bridge resistance thermometer circuit is

The operation of a self-balancing bridge thermometer is based upon the dc

A rather recent addition to the thermoresistant measuring device family is the

A simplified block diagram of a representative digital thermometer is shown in

Thermocouple indicators respond to the electrical property that a dc voltage is

An indicating recorder circuit diagram for a continuous balance thermocouple

When more accurate thermocouple measurements are desired, it is a rather

2.9 Thermistor Instrumentation

Two additional thermistor measuring circuits are shown in Fig.2-23. In these

A permanent-magnet float-actuated liquid-level switch with pneumatic control is

Capacitance Level Sensors By definition a capacitor is considered as two or

When conducting liquid levels are to be measured by the capacitance method,

The advantages and disadvantages of capacitance level determination should be

3. Flow Process System

restriction placed in a flow path. The resulting difference in pressure or head is

industry for a number of flowmeter applications. These instruments in general are

The paddle-type of orifice plate of Fig.3-2A is available with a concentric bore,

The general theory of operation and performance of a venturi tube is similar to

The construction of a venturi tube is designed so that it has no sudden changes in

3.3.5 Pitot Tube Flowmeters

or water in a secondary measuring element such as a manometer. See the simplified

locating, recording, or controlling equipment at remote locations. This particular

Where: Tk is the time constant in gallons or liters per minute,