Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol. 156, 1999, pp. 817–826. Printed in Great Britain.

The late Miocene climate of northeastern Africa: unravelling the signals in the
sedimentary succession

DAVID L. GRIFFIN
17, Helsall Court, Sorrento, WA 6020, Australia (e-mail: dgriffin@iinet.net.au)

Abstract: Examination of the depositional profile of the Miocene/Plio-Pleistocene succession at two

locations in the Gulf of Suez and seven locations in the Red Sea leads to the conclusion that the Messinian
(Zeit Formation and equivalent) sedimentary rocks were deposited at a rate greater than other units of the
Miocene/Plio-Pleistocene in these areas. The Zeit Formation contains a significantly higher clastic content
than the underlying South Gharib Formation. These two aspects of the stratigraphy are taken to indicate
that the Messinian was a time of high rainfall and high sediment yield rates. This period, named the Zeit
Wet Phase, stands in marked contrast to the arid conditions of the preceding Tortonian Stage. The latter
stage is represented in the Gulf of Suez and Red Sea area by the halite-bearing South Gharib Formation
and its equivalents.
Physical evidence for a humid Messinian is provided by five lines of evidence involving four sites around
the Red Sea and two sites offshore. It is suggested that the Zeit Wet Phase was marked by high monsoonal
activity as demonstrated by drilling sites of the Ocean Drilling Program. It is probable that the wet phase
peaked in the late Messinian at the time of the low-stand of the Mediterranean during the Messinian
Salinity Crisis.

Keywords: Red Sea, Mediterranean, Messinian, evaporites, palaeoclimatology.

This paper questions why the Messinian Zeit Formation of the
Gulf of Suez/Red Sea differs from the underlying highly
evaporitic Tortonian South Gharib Formation. It is well
known that the evaporites of the Mediterranean are Messinian
in age and associated with the drying of that sea (Hsü et al.
1973, 1978; Benson 1991). Less well recognized is the fact that
the main evaporitic halite-bearing phase of the Gulf of Suez is
Tortonian in age (Richardson & Arthur 1988). The Messinian
of the Gulf of Suez (the Zeit Formation), on the other hand, is
composed of anhydrite and clastic sediments and has tradition-
ally been grouped with other evaporitic formations of mid- to
late Miocene age (SS/GSE 1974) and sometimes seen as
transitional to the overlying open marine Pliocene (Fawzy &
Abdel Aal 1984). One might reasonably ask: what is the source
of the thick Messinian evaporites and clastics of the Gulf of
Suez when the connection of the Gulf of Suez with the
Mediterranean had been cut by the fall in sea level during the
Messinian Salinity Crisis? Partial connection with the Indian
Ocean is a possible explanation but does this explain the high
clastic content of the Zeit Formation? When attention is
focused on the Zeit Formation in addressing questions such as
these, a broadening picture emerges of a Messinian climate
over North Africa drastically different from that which
preceded it.
The findings of this study bear directly on the understanding
of the late Miocene climate of the Red Sea area but also invite
speculation on the relationship between late Miocene climate
changes and the low-stand of the Mediterranean. In addition
the results should assist in separating climatic from tectonic
influences at various Red Sea and Mediterranean sites where
late Miocene rocks are exposed. The basic method employed in
the study involves a comparison of the relative rates of
sedimentation for four Neogene time intervals together with a
consideration of the clastic content of the two main intervals
investigated. Relative sedimentation rates are derived from
estimated sedimentary volumes at nine locations along the
Gulf of Suez/Red Sea rift.
For the Gulf of Suez a basic source of information used in
this paper is derived from the published reports stemming
from the work of the petroleum industry (e.g. Schütz 1994;
Hughes et al. 1992; Richardson & Arthur 1988). In the
case of the Red Sea the 1989/1992 World Bank sponsored
study of the petroleum geology of that area has been an
invaluable source of information (Beydoun 1989; Beydoun &
Sikander 1992).
Stratigraphy
The Zeit Formation
The Zeit Formation of the Gulf of Suez has for the past 30
years or so, been grouped with the South Gharib and Belayim
formations in the Ras Malaab Group (Figs 1 & 2) to form a
Middle to Upper Miocene group with strong evaporitic affini-
ties (SS/GSE 1974). A traditional view has been that the South
Gharib represents the deposits of a restricted sea, with thick
halite beds being laid down while the Zeit deposits are the
products of a less restricted sea with clastics and anhydrite
being dominant (e.g. Fawzy & Abdel Aal 1984). This view has
a persuasive classificatory aspect to it as it groups together
rocks with a distinctive aspect (evaporites). It is now suggested
that this focus has obscured an important aspect of the Zeit
Formation: its relative thickness in relation to the time span of
its deposition when compared to other Miocene units of the
Gulf of Suez.
The Zeit Formation in the Gulf of Suez varies in thickness
from zero in the north to 1000 m in the south. The formation
is thickest in the offshore areas of the southern, southwestern
and east-central Gulf, where it ranges in thickness between
750 m and 1000 m, with a typical thickness of about 900 m

817
818 D. L. GRIFFIN
Fig. 1. Map showing the locations of the cross-sections and
locations mentioned in the text.
(Ouda & Masoud 1993). The thickness decreases rapidly
toward the north both in the offshore and along the eastern
coastal strip. The formation consists of alternations of
anhydrite, shale, sand and sandstone with very thin beds of
halite. Evaporites dominate in the lower part of the succession
while clastic sediments are typical of the upper part of the
formation (Ouda & Masoud 1993).
The general absence of index fossils in the Zeit Formation
makes the formation difficult to date by palaeontological
means. The many recent workers who have examined the
problem converge in their views and reach an understanding
based on the position of the Zeit Formation in relation to
dated overlying and underlying deposits. The most recent
comprehensive review of the literature relating to the age of the
Zeit Formation was carried out by Richardson & Arthur
(1988) and they reached the conclusion that the formation is
Messinian in age. More recent workers (Ouda & Masoud 1993;
Schütz 1994; Bosworth et al. 1998) agree with this assessment
but would include some Tortonian deposits in the Zeit Forma-
tion. In the present study a clear position relating to chrono-
logical age has to taken; because it is unambiguous in this
regard, the position of Richardson & Arthur (1988) is fol-
lowed. In the event that the Zeit Formation does include some
late Tortonian deposits, it would not materially alter the
findings of this study. The age of the Zeit Formation in
the Red Sea is not well constrained, but if the thesis of this
paper is correct (and its main elements can be drawn from the
Gulf of Suez alone where the age relationships are better
understood) deposits within the Gulf of Suez and Red Sea
showing Zeit Formation aspects will be approximately
contemporaneous.
Precise oxygen isotope stratigraphy is now available for
dating the Messinian/Pliocene boundary and indicates that
this event can be placed at 5.34 Ma (Berggren et al. 1995;
Shackelton 1995). The age of the Tortonian/Messinian bound-
ary is taken at 7.04 Ma following Hodell et al. (1994). The
work of these authors on the drill core from Salé Briqueterie
(northwestern Morocco) established for the first time an
oxygen isotope record of the Messinian down to 6.935 Ma.
This is very close to the Tortonian/Messinian boundary which
they correlate with the base of Chron C3Bn.
The Miocene of the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea
The Miocene sequence of the Gulf of Suez is traditionally split
into two parts: the Gharandal Group and the overlying Ras
Malaab Group (Fig. 2). The Gharandal Group is the pre-
evaporitic mainly open marine sequence dominated by the
medial Rudeis Formation (Globigerina Marls) which reaches
up to 1050 m in thickness, comprising abundant marl and
shale. The lowermost unit of the group, the Nukhul Formation
consists mainly of limestone and sandstone, while the upper-
most unit, the Kareem Formation is of mixed lithology
(anhydrite, limestone, dolomite, shale, marl and sandstone).
The microfossil zonation of the pre-evaporitic Miocene of the
Gulf of Suez is considered in great detail by Hughes et al.
(1992). Unfortunately such detail cannot be applied to the
overlying evaporites.
The evaporitic Ras Malaab Group is dominated by the
medial South Gharib Formation, a thick interval of halite and
anhydrite. Hassan & Dashlouty (1970) quote a clastic/non-
clastic (evaporite) ratio of 0.21:1 for this unit and a salt/
anhydrite ratio of 2.06:1. The South Gharib Formation
reaches up to 1700 m in thickness and is Tortonian in age
(Richardson & Arthur 1988; Ouda & Masoud 1993; Schütz
1994). The lowermost unit of this tripartite group, the Belayim
Formation, like the underlying Kareem Formation, is of mixed
lithology with anhydrite and halite occurring as significant
parts of the succession. The top unit of the Ras Malaab
Group, the Zeit Formation, has been discussed above.
The post-Miocene succession of the Gulf of Suez reaches up
to 2000 m in thickness. Generally it is about 1000 m thick and
consists of coarse grained siliciclastics with subordinate car-
bonates. Rare interbedded evaporites occur in the northern
part of the rift. The post-Miocene rocks record more normal
marine conditions than was evident during the deposition of
the Ras Malaab Group.
The stratigraphy of the Red Sea has many features in
common with that of the Gulf of Suez. Often however, in
different sections of the Red Sea, different names are used for
correlative units, which may have distinctive local characteris-
tics. As appropriate, reference will be made to the stratigraphy
presented in Fig. 2 and any specific local conditions of interest
are noted.
In this paper the Tortonian/Serravallian boundary is taken
at the base of Chron 5n.2 as defined by Berggren et al. (1985)
and it is assigned the more recently indicated GPSM age of
10.8 Ma of Cande & Kent (1992). The chronological age of the
 LATE MIOCENE CLIMATE OF NE AFRICA 819

Fig. 2. Correlation chart for the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea. After Beydoun & Sikander (1992)1, Bosworth et al. (1998)2, Evans (1988)3, Haq
et al. (1987)4, Miller et al. (1987)5, Richardson & Arthur (1988)6, Said (1990)7 and Savoyat et al. (1989)8.

Miocene–Oligocene boundary is taken at 23.8 Ma following The cross-sections

Cande & Kent (1992).
Neogene–Quaternary sedimentation rates of the Gulf of
Suez and the Red Sea
In order to investigate the thickness variations of the main
sedimentary sequences of the Gulf of Suez/Red Sea and in turn
derive relative rates of sedimentation, the Miocene to
Pleistocene succession is divided into four intervals (Fig. 2).
Interval 1 comprises the Pliocene–Pleistocene deposits, Inter-
val 2 the Zeit Formation, Interval 3 embraces the South
Gharib Formation while the deposits of the Gharandal Group
and the Belayim Formation comprise Interval 4. The focus of
this paper is intervals 2 and 3, and as will become apparent,
they are probably the products of a specific climatic and
tectonic environment. Intervals 1 and 4 in all probability
record a more variable climatic and tectonic environment.
Nine published cross-sections selected from various parts of
the rift system (Fig. 1) are a basic source of information in the
investigation of interval thickness variations and comparative
sedimentation rates. The sections have been redrawn to a
consistent horizontal and vertical scale and the stratigraphic
sequence has been divided in a consistent way in keeping with
the intervals described above (Fig. 3).
Similarities are noted between the Gulf of Suez and the
northern Red Sea cross-sections and the depositional profile is
consistent throughout this whole area. The cross-section off-
shore northern Sudan (Fig. 3, EE ) reflects the different
circumstances that prevailed to the south of the Egyptian Red
Sea. In the offshore of Sudan and Eritrea local drainage basins
developed around approximately north trending shear zones
(Mitchell at al. 1992). During the Messinian and Pliocene,
sediments were discharged into substantial deltas. The most
northern of these is the Halaib depocentre where Wadi Odib
820 D. L. GRIFFIN

Fig. 3. Geological cross-sections for the Gulf of Suez and the northern Red Sea. The intervals 1 to 4 shown on the cross sections are defined
in Fig. 2. Shown in the lower part of the figure are the time/stratigraphic diagrams for the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea.
 LATE MIOCENE CLIMATE OF NE AFRICA
drains the Odib–Hamisana Suture Zone (Figs 1 & 3, EE ). In
the well Halaib-1 a thick deltaic Zeit Formation is developed
overlying an evaporitic South Gharib Formation several
hundred metres in thickness, the latter probably thinned as a
consequence of basinwards salt flow.
The late Miocene/Plio-Pleistocene Tokar Delta is another
product of a local drainage basin centred around an approxi-
mately north-trending shear zone, in this case the Baraka
Suture Zone. The Zeit Formation of the Tokar Delta (Fig. 3,
FF , GG ) is an impressive sequence, with some 2000 m of
sands, shales and evaporites (Nagati 1992). A third drainage
basin of this type occurs offshore Eritrea, but there it has been
disrupted by salt flow and possible tectonic uplift.
Savoyat et al. (1989) employed the concepts of seismic
stratigraphy to divide the Miocene/Plio-Pleistocene of offshore
Eritrea into seven seismic sequences numbered S1 to S7. The
equivalence of these sequences to intervals 1–4 is shown in
Fig. 2.
It is assumed that the area of each of the intervals 1 to 4 on
a particular cross-section is proportional to the volume of
sediments deposited along a corridor, say 1 km wide, centred
on the line of section. A 40 km section of each cross-section,
starting close to the coast and extending seawards, was selected
to provide consistency for the purposes of comparison, and the
areas of intervals 1 to 4 on the selected 40 km section of the
cross-section were calculated. For each cross-section the four
areas calculated from the 40 km section were then plotted on a
horizontal time scale representing the period from the begin-
ning of the Miocene at 23.8 Ma to the present (Fig. 3). The
histogram-like diagrams so derived are referred to as time/
stratigraphic diagrams.
Each of the nine time/stratigraphic diagrams represents a
cross-section at some point along the Gulf of Suez/Red Sea,
and each shows in a proportional way the volume of sediments
belonging to each of the four defined intervals at that particu-
lar location. Because a standard 40 km section has been used in
the calculations direct comparisons can be made from one
cross-section to another. Further, the data are presented in
such a way that the height of the column representing each
interval is proportional to the average rate of sedimentation
for the sediments of the particular interval at the site of the
cross-section.
Interpretation of sedimentation rates and clastic content
Rate of subsidence is not likely to have been a determining
factor in the thickness (and therefore the derived relative
sedimentation rates) of the formations embraced by the time/
stratigraphic diagrams (Fig. 3). The continental scale of the
Gulf of Suez/Red Sea Rift has led to the development of a
deep, largely underfilled rift. Further, the lack of major
unconformities in the Miocene succession indicates that the rift
system accommodated the detritus and chemical precipitates
that were generated within its confines.
The most conspicuous feature of the time/stratigraphic
diagrams (Fig. 3) is the peak in the sedimentation rate corre-
sponding to the Zeit Formation. Moderate sedimentation rates
are evident for Interval 1 (Aquitanian to Serravallian) in
keeping with the figures of Ouda & Masoud (1993). An
increased rate is evident for the South Gharib Formation
which may in part be explained by the fact that it is composed
of evaporites rather than clastics. It is reasonable to expect that
the South Gharib Formation would be quite thick because of
821
the long time interval available for its deposition (3–4 million
years) and the potential high rates of deposition for evaporites,
especially halite (Schreiber & Hsü 1980). Some of the forma-
tion at the site of the cross-sections has probably been lost by
salt tectonics and dissolution. The Interval 1 sedimentation
rates are higher than those of the other unit made up mainly of
terrigenous clastics, Interval 4, probably because of tectonic
influences as suggested by Purser & Philobbos (1993).
Several authors have drawn attention to the different sedi-
mentation rates in the Miocene and Pliocene of the Gulf of
Suez/Red Sea area. Purser & Philobbos (1993) noted that the
importance of post-Miocene sedimentation and tectonics in
the northern Red Sea appears to have been underestimated.
They considered that the data suggested that the rates of
terrigenous supply during the Pliocene were about three times
that of the Miocene. They suggested that the difference prob-
ably reflected greater tectonic activity during the Pliocene than
during the Miocene. It is now apparent that the jump in
sedimentation rate occurred with the deposition of the Zeit
Formation rather than at the beginning of the Pliocene.
Ouda & Masoud (1993) calculated the sedimentation rates
for the Gulf of Suez as follows:
post-Miocene 33 cm ka
1
South Gharib+Zeit Fms 23.5 cm ka
1
Serravallian (Kareem+Belayim Fms) 19.5 cm ka
1
Langhian 20.5 cm ka
1
Burdigalian 15 cm ka
1
Aquitanian 21 cm ka
1
Again a high sedimentation rate for the Plio-Pleistocene is
indicated, but the high sedimentation rate for the Zeit
Formation has been obscured by including it with the South
Gharib Formation. If the sedimentation rates of the Zeit and
South Gharib formations are recalculated using the thickness
of the units as quoted by Ouda & Masoud (1993) (940 m for
Zeit Formation and 660 m for South Gharib Formation) then
a sedimentation rate of 55.3 cm ka
1 is obtained for the Zeit
Formation and 12.7 cm ka
1 is obtained for the South Gharib
Formation.
The Zeit Formation has a high siliciclastic content (Hassan
& Dashlouty 1970; Bunter & Abdel Magid 1989a; Savoyat
et al. 1989; Mitchell et al. 1992; Ouda & Masoud 1993)
whereas the South Gharib Formation has a low siliciclastic
content (Hassan & Dashlouty 1970; Mitchell et al. 1992).
Before proceeding to interpret this observation it is appropri-
ate to consider briefly the influence of tectonics and climate on
sediment yield rates and the relationship between the latter and
the relative sedimentation rates shown in the time/stratigraphic
diagrams. A strong global relationship has been found to exist
between local relief and the yield of suspended sediment
(Walling & Webb 1983). A study at a local level has shown a
very high positive correlation to exist between denudation rate
(potentially related to sediment yield rate) and local relief
(Ahnert 1970). Climate on the other hand does not offer such
a clear cut relationship. Based on a large data set, Ohmori
(1983) examined the relationship between mean annual pre-
cipitation and denudation rate, and showed a positive relation-
ship with a two maxima curve due to the influence of
vegetation at intermediate levels of precipitation. Seasonality
of rainfall can also have a crucial effect on rates of mechanical
denudation (Summerfield 1991). This is a consequence of the
marked increase in sediment carrying capacity in peak flows
and the reduction of protective vegetation during the dry
season. It is concluded that precipitation (rainfall) is positively
correlated with denudation rate (sediment yield rate when the
822 D. L. GRIFFIN

appropriate lithology is eroded), although the relationship

is not as straightforward as in the case of relief and denudation
rate.
Turning now to the relationship between sediment yield
rates and the relative sedimentation rates shown in the time/
stratigraphic diagrams. In a quantitative assessment of the
relationship between sediment yield rate and rainfall or run-
off, only clastic sediments should be considered. Also, decom-
paction of the sediments should be taken into account if
precise sedimentation rates are required. However, the ap-
proach here is essentially comparative and is in keeping
with the type of data available and the time spans involved.
The sedimentation rate differences observed in the time/
stratigraphic diagrams are of sufficient magnitude that they
would be clearly apparent even if it were possible effectively to
make all the mentioned adjustments.
Returning to the South Gharib Formation, in addition to its
low clastic content, in the Gulf of Suez the formation has a
lower unit consisting of halite with only minor streaks of
anhydrite, shale and sand, and an upper unit characterized by
a sequence of halite and anhydrite interbeds (Fawzy & Abdel
Aal 1984). Further, Said (1990) demonstrates that in Egypt the
Tortonian was a time of sea withdrawal and mainly evaporite
deposition. The abundance of halite in the South Gharib
Formation of the Gulf of Suez/Red Sea area taken together Fig. 4. Stages VII–X of the suggested stages of syn-rift
with the above observations, points to the Tortonian being an sedimentation, emergence and karstification in the vicinity of the
arid time in the area of consideration. Essel Mine, Egyptian Red Sea coast. After El Aref (1993).
The sharp lithological contrast between the South Gharib
and Zeit formations indicates that the formations are the the presence of a closed forest of 1000 m elevation with strong
product of different climatic and/or tectonic regimes. The Guineo-Congolian affinities, as late as post-8 Ma as far north
genesis of the Zeit Formation can be viewed in terms of sea as 12N on the northwestern Ethiopian Plateau. It is here
level change, tectonics and climate. Sea level has direct control suggested that the deposits record conditions that prevailed at
on accommodation (space available for sedimentation), but its the time of the Zeit Wet Phase. Some 700 km to the north of
influence on sediment supply is remote (Schalger 1993). Turn- Chilga on the Red Sea coast occurs the Tokar Delta. Bunter &
ing to tectonics, there was a Messinian phase of rim uplift and Abdel Magid (1989b) have determined that at this location the
basin subsidence in the Gulf of Suez (Montenat et al. 1988), Zeit Formation is distinctive in its preserved land-derived
but it was not different from other Miocene/Pliocene tectonic humic material. This implies rapid deposition from vegetated
events (for example, the mid-clysmic event at about 16.5 Ma, areas in keeping with the concept of high rainfall.
see Fig. 2) and these events are not associated with a sedimen- Near the town of Quseir on the Egyptian Red Sea coast,
tary pulse of Zeit Formation proportions. Also tectonic uplift about 850 km to the northwest of the Tokar Delta, outcrops of
in the arid climatic regime of the South Gharib Formation the Upper Miocene Abu Dabbab evaporites and overlying Um
would not produce a major clastic pulse, without associated Gheig carbonates occur (El Aref 1993). This is the area of the
climatic changes. Therefore climatic change, involving high lead–zinc Essel mine; the relevant stratigraphy is shown in Fig.
rainfall, is the interpretation adopted to explain the high 2. The thin evaporites (50 m) of the Abu Dabbab Formation
siliciclastic content of the Zeit Formation and its high sedimen- correlate with the South Gharib Formation (Said 1990, fig.
tation rate. Because of the sedimentation rate contrast with 24.11). The Um Gheig Formation lies directly above the Abu
other Miocene/Plio-Pleistocene intervals, parts of the Zeit Dabbab evaporites or unconformably above older formations,
Formation at least, probably record very high rainfall. The and consists of up to 30 m of interbedded limestone and
period of high rainfall at the end of the Miocene, correspond- dolostone. It has undergone intensive dolomitization and
ing with the Messinian Stage, is referred to as the Zeit Wet subaerial karstification (Fig. 4), resulting in the K3 palaeokarst
Phase. of El Aref (1993). The profound K3 karstification occurred
mainly during the Messinian Zeit Wet Phase. This differs
slightly from the interpretation suggested by El Aref (1993) as
Supporting evidence shown in Fig. 4. In the absence of precise dating, this interpret-
ation is as plausible as that of El Aref (1993) and has
Chilga, the Tokar Delta and the Essel mine the advantage that it offers a coherent explanation of the
The three above named localities, spanning the western side of karstification.
the Red Sea rift (see Fig. 1), each in a different way provides
evidence of the Zeit Wet Phase. About 100 km northwest of
Lake Tana on the Ethiopian Plateau occurs a small north– The River Nile
south graben (13 km by 2 km) which contains 34 m of post- The fascinating history of the origin of the Nile is documented
8 Ma late Miocene lignites, clays and silts. The current by Said (1981, 1993). The river has a complex c. 6 million year
elevation of the deposits is between 1900 and 2000 m. Yemane history starting with the Eonile (Said 1981). This arose in
et al. (1985) in their study of these deposits find evidence for response to sea-level lowering during the Messinian Salinity
 LATE MIOCENE CLIMATE OF NE AFRICA
Fig. 5. The Qawasim Formation in the Nile Delta. The type section
and subsurface extent of the formation, the northernmost occurrence
of the Zeit Formation and the location of the Essel Mine are shown.
After Barber (1982) and Said (1993).
Crisis. The lowering of the base level as a result of evaporation
enabled the Eonile to cut deeply into bedrock and as a
consequence a canyon rivalling in scale the Grand Canyon of
Arizona was formed, reaching from Aswan to the sea. It had a
width varying between 10 and 20 km and had a depth of 170 m
at Aswan, 800 m at Assuit and 2500 m north of Cairo (Said
1993).
Evidence points to the fact that the Western Desert was
subject to a number of wet periods during the Tertiary, but
much of this evidence has now been obscured by collapse, wind
erosion and deposition during intermittent and subsequent dry
periods (Said 1993). It is not unreasonable to suggest, based on
current knowledge, that the main channel of the Eonile was fed
by subsidiary drainage systems, parts of which are still evident
in the Eastern Desert but which in the Western Desert have
been modified by collapse and buried by the wind blown debris
of later arid times.
The deposits of the Eonile are substantial. They occur as the
Qawasim Formation (Fig. 5) in the Nile Delta and are mapped
by Barber (1982) and Harms & Wray (1990) and discussed by
Barber (1981, 1982) and Said (1981). The Qawasim Formation
overlies earlier mainly marine Miocene deposits (Sidi Salem
Formation). The average thickness of the Eonile sedimentary
rocks is 700 m which represents close to 20% of the deposits of
the Nile since its inception (Said 1993). The fact that this huge
volume of sediment (70 000 km3) was deposited mainly during
the Mediterranean sea-level fall indicates the vigorous erosion
that accompanied its deposition. The cutting of the Eonile
Canyon naturally required substantial rainfall. The water
could have been derived from the evaporating Mediterranean
(Said 1993) or from monsoonal rains from the south as is the
case today. Results from the Ocean Drilling Program (see next
823
section) and a review of the forcing factors which influence
North African climate (Griffin 1997) favour the latter.
Dust flux records
The deep-sea sediment cores derived from Ocean Drilling
Program Sites 721/22 and 659 have been analysed for aeolian
dust content over a period extending from the late Miocene to
the present. The resulting records reflect the varying degrees of
aridity or humidity that the adjacent land areas have experi-
enced over the time period considered (Fig. 6). The data
compiled from Sites 721/22 constitutes a continuous, com-
posite aeolian record covering the period 7.3 Ma to the present
(deMenocal & Bloemendal 1995). The record has a 1500 year
resolution. Prior to 2.6 Ma the record shows strong character
(23–19 ka cycles). By examining the relationship between these
precessional aeolian cycles and indexes of Arabian sea
upwelling it has been demonstrated that the precessional
variation prior to 2.8 Ma was due to changes in the Asian
monsoon intensity (deMenocal & Bloemendal 1995). The latter
authors also demonstrated a marked increase in aeolian varia-
bility in the period 7.3 Ma (base of record) to about 5 Ma. The
dust at Sites 721/22 is considered to be derived from Arabian
and northeast African sources during the peak months of the
summer monsoon, June, July and August.
Off West Africa, Sites 659 (1805 N), 660 (1001 N) and 661
(927 N) provide a dust flux record over the period 8.0 Ma to
the present. Dust fluxes from Africa to the Atlantic were low
during the final 3 million years of the Miocene and increased
markedly during the Pliocene and Pleistocene (Ruddiman et al.
1989). At summer plume Site 659 the terrigenous flux slowly
decreases from 8 to 5 Ma; a similar situation is evident at
winter plume Site 661. At winter plume Site 660 it remains
relatively constant from 6.5 to 5 Ma. Ruddiman et al. (1989)
conclude that the African climate was relatively moist and
becoming more so between 8 and 5 Ma.
There are therefore two sets of deep sea drilling sites, one set
off West Africa and the other off the coast of Oman both
indicating a wet climate for subtropical latitudes during the
late Miocene (Fig. 6). The high resolution eastern sites show a
strong influence of monsoonal intensity on the precessional
aeolian variations prior to 2.8 Ma with an especially strong
aeolain variability in the period 5–7.3 Ma (base of record).
Also the percentage of terrigenous material in the Messinian
interval more consistently reaches lower levels than in later
times. These features suggest a wetter, but more variable,
climate for the late Miocene. Off West Africa, at Site 659, a
medium resolution site, the dust fluxes decrease between 8 and
6.7 Ma, are low and decreasing in the period 6.7–4.6 Ma and
then they increase markedly. The low readings are in keeping
with those from the Arabian Sea suggesting that the whole of
subtropical Africa experienced a wet climate during the late
Miocene.
Conclusions
The five lines of evidence discussed above all point to the
existence of a wet phase in northeastern Africa at the end of
the Miocene. The question remains: are they indicative of a
single climatic event or several? The evidence favours the
former concept, if it is seen as an essentially Messinian wet
phase coming to a culmination in the latest Messinian. The
single climatic event arises from the initiation of the Asian/
824 D. L. GRIFFIN
African monsoon at about 8 Ma (Molnar et al. 1993), the
culmination is associated with the strengthening of the
African monsoon related to the drying of the Mediterranean
(Griffin 1997).
The pulse of sedimentation recorded by the Qawasim
Formation and at least part of the Zeit Formation, in all
probability records the same event because of the proximity of
these formations in time and space (they are separated by the
approximate 200 km of the Suez Canal, see Fig. 5). Indeed, if
the Zeit Formation records a rainfall event the proximity of
the formation to the Essel Mine would suggest that the effects
of this event would be recorded there, as seems to be the case
in the K3 palaeokarst. Southwards along the western shores of
the Red Sea occur the Halaib and the Tokar deltas, again
recording in the Zeit Formation a period of late Miocene high
rainfall. The continuity of the Zeit Formation and its equiva-
lents in this whole area, from the Gulf of Suez to the Tokar
Delta and beyond, strongly suggests a response to a single
climatic event. Precise faunal/floral dating is not available for
the Chilga deposits, but again their late Miocene age fits well
with the wet phase recorded from more northern sites.
The information from ODP Sites 721/22 and 659 is particu-
larly informative because it shows that North Africa in general
Fig. 6. Comparison of dust flux records
from Site 659 and Sites 721/22 of the
Ocean Drilling Program.
had a relatively humid climate during the Messinian and that
in the east the Messinian was strongly monsoonal (see Fig. 6).
It is known that the Tortonian was arid in the Red Sea area
because of the nature of the South Gharib Formation. This
leads to the conclusion that the Zeit Wet Phase was mainly a
Messinian event which must have an expression in the sedi-
mentary record, an event manifest for all the Messinian Stage
and probably initiated in the latest Tortonian. It is also
reasonable to conclude that the wet phase was accentuated in
the latest Messinian because of the evidence of the initiation of
the Nile River system and its very active erosion at the time
of the low-stand of the Mediterranean. Because maximum
rainfall occurred at the end of the Messinian, the true Messin-
ian sedimentation peak would be more marked and of shorter
duration than shown in the time/stratigraphic diagrams. The
association of the Mediterranean low-stand with enhanced
rainfall suggests that the two events are connected, an idea that
is currently being investigated.
If indeed the major events and deposits are connected as
suggested (high Messinian sedimentation rates, significant clas-
tic input, decreased but more variable dust flux to the oceans)
the dust flux records provide the best dating (biostratigraphy
and magnetostratigraphy in the case of Sites 721/22) of the
 LATE MIOCENE CLIMATE OF NE AFRICA
phenomena. The events and their deposits are mainly
Messinian in age but climatic change and its consequences
were initiated in the late Tortonian and peaked in the late
Messinian.
The Zeit and South Gharib formations of the Gulf of
Suez/Red Sea have traditionally been grouped together in the
evaporitic Ras Malaab Group. This has obscured the fact that
the evaporites of the rift are the products of two very different
climatic environments. The Tortonian South Gharib
Formation records a prolonged dry period while the Messinian
Zeit Formation records a c. 2 million year monsoonal wet
period. The wet period is here termed the Zeit Wet Phase.
This paper benefited greatly from a thorough and enlightening
review by D. Bosence and K.-H. Wyrwoll. Valued comments were
made by Z. Beydoun. The author received helpful insights from
P. Barber, P. deMenocal, V. Forbes, S. Keogh, G. Kernick, M.
Martin, D. and C. Taylor and R. Tiedemann. A review by the
Society’s editor D. Pirrie and the referees R. Butler and B.
McClelland brought further benefit to the paper. Thematic set
co-editors M. Pedley and L. E. Frostick gave valuable and
continuing support. To all these people I say many, many, thanks.
The views expressed are naturally those of the author.
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Received 15 October 1997; revised typescript accepted 24 October 1998.

Scientific editing by Lynne Frostick, Martyn Pedley and Duncan Pirrie.