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Improper coding
Unskilled coder
Inappropriate environment
Insufficient bandwidth
The preceding are just a few examples. And each cause can be further explored for a more
elaborate cause-and-effect diagram, also known as a fishbone diagram (because when drawn, it
looks like a fish) or an Ishikawa diagram (named for the person who developed it).
Flowcharts. A flowchart can help you see the relationship between the process steps. You can
use this information to optimize the process and to see where problems and defects can occur.
Flowcharts are useful in process improvement projects or to document any process.
Checksheets. Used to ensure that a series of steps are followed consistently. Checksheets (also
known as tally sheets) can be used to organize data around a quality problem. For example,
you can tally the number of times that a specific cause is the source of a defect, and then use that
when creating a histogram or Pareto chart to prioritize quality problems.
Pareto diagrams. A vertical bar chart that creates a graphic display of events (such as causes of
defects or types of defects) in descending order. The objective is to rank problems based on the
frequency of occurrence to determine the order in which to resolve them.
Histograms. A vertical bar chart (like the Pareto diagram), but a histogram is arranged to show
the shape of distribution of an event: for example, the shape of distribution of calls coming into a
call center. It can show the spread of results (dispersion) and the median (or mean or mode).
Control charts. Used to determine whether a process is stable and predictable. The planned
value of a process is the centerline. For many processes, the upper and lower control limits are
+/3 standard deviations from the plan, or the mean, depending on the circumstances. The upper
and lower specification limits are the limits specified in the quality requirements.
If a measurement is getting close to the control limit, you should take action to get it back toward
the midline. Here are the definitions from the PMBOK Guide:
Control chart. A graphic display of process data over time and against established control limits,
and that has a centerline that assists in detecting a trend of plotted values toward either control
limit.
Control limits. The area composed of three standard deviations on either side of the centerline,
or mean of a normal distribution of data plotted on a control chart that reflects the expected
variation in the data.
Specification limits. The area, on either side of the centerline, or mean, of data plotted on a
control chart that meets the customers requirements for a product or service. This area may be
greater than or less than the area defined by the control limits.
Although control charts were developed to track manufacturing and repetitive processes, they
can be used to track defects, cost and schedule variance, or any other predictable event on a
project. For example, it is predictable that you will have cost and schedule variances on your
project.
However, you want to make sure they are within an allowable limit. You can track the variances
using a control chart to spot trends and to monitor the quality of cost and schedule performance.
When planning for quality, establish the items that you will measure via a control chart and also
set the upper and lower control limits as well as upper and lower specification limits.
Scatter diagrams. An X,Y matrix that plots the relationship between two variables to determine
whether a relationship exists: for example, the number of hours worked in a week and the
number of errors made. A positive correlation would show that the more hours were worked, the
more errors per hour occurred.
Each of these seven basic quality tools can be used in the Control Quality process. During the
planning process, the team meets and determines which tools to use, the parameters and
measurements that should be used, and under which circumstances they will be used.
==================
1. Check sheet
The check sheet is a form (document) used to collect data
in real time at the location where the data is generated.
The data it captures can be quantitative or qualitative.
When the information is quantitative, the check sheet is
sometimes called a tally sheet.
The defining characteristic of a check sheet is that data
are recorded by making marks ("checks") on it. A typical
check sheet is divided into regions, and marks made in
different regions have different significance. Data are
read by observing the location and number of marks on
the sheet.
Check sheets typically employ a heading that answers the
Five Ws:
2. Control chart
Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts
(after Walter A. Shewhart) or process-behavior
charts, in statistical process control are tools used
to determine if a manufacturing or business
process is in a state of statistical control.
If analysis of the control chart indicates that the
process is currently under control (i.e., is stable,
with variation only coming from sources common
to the process), then no corrections or changes to
process control parameters are needed or desired.
In addition, data from the process can be used to
predict the future performance of the process. If
the chart indicates that the monitored process is
not in control, analysis of the chart can help
determine the sources of variation, as this will
result in degraded process performance.[1] A
process that is stable but operating outside of
desired (specification) limits (e.g., scrap rates
may be in statistical control but above desired
limits) needs to be improved through a deliberate
effort to understand the causes of current
performance and fundamentally improve the
process.
The control chart is one of the seven basic tools of
quality control.[3] Typically control charts are
used for time-series data, though they can be used
for data that have logical comparability (i.e. you
want to compare samples that were taken all at
3. Pareto chart
A Pareto chart, named after Vilfredo Pareto, is a type
of chart that contains both bars and a line graph, where
individual values are represented in descending order
by bars, and the cumulative total is represented by the
line.
The left vertical axis is the frequency of occurrence,
but it can alternatively represent cost or another
important unit of measure. The right vertical axis is
the cumulative percentage of the total number of
occurrences, total cost, or total of the particular unit of
measure. Because the reasons are in decreasing order,
the cumulative function is a concave function. To take
the example above, in order to lower the amount of
late arrivals by 78%, it is sufficient to solve the first
three issues.
The purpose of the Pareto chart is to highlight the
most important among a (typically large) set of
factors. In quality control, it often represents the most
common sources of defects, the highest occurring type
of defect, or the most frequent reasons for customer
complaints, and so on. Wilkinson (2006) devised an
algorithm for producing statistically based acceptance
limits (similar to confidence intervals) for each bar in
the Pareto chart.
wish to see how two comparable data sets agree with each
other. In this case, an identity line, i.e., a y=x line, or an
1:1 line, is often drawn as a reference. The more the two
data sets agree, the more the scatters tend to concentrate in
the vicinity of the identity line; if the two data sets are
numerically identical, the scatters fall on the identity line
exactly.
5.Ishikawa diagram
Ishikawa diagrams (also called fishbone diagrams,
herringbone diagrams, cause-and-effect diagrams, or
Fishikawa) are causal diagrams created by Kaoru
Ishikawa (1968) that show the causes of a specific event.
[1][2] Common uses of the Ishikawa diagram are product
design and quality defect prevention, to identify potential
factors causing an overall effect. Each cause or reason for
imperfection is a source of variation. Causes are usually
grouped into major categories to identify these sources of
variation. The categories typically include
People: Anyone involved with the process
Methods: How the process is performed and the
specific requirements for doing it, such as policies,
procedures, rules, regulations and laws
Machines: Any equipment, computers, tools, etc.
required to accomplish the job
Materials: Raw materials, parts, pens, paper, etc.
used to produce the final product
Measurements: Data generated from the process
that are used to evaluate its quality
Environment: The conditions, such as location,
time, temperature, and culture in which the process
operates
6. Histogram method