Ghent Altarpiece

ters. The wings are painted on both sides, giving two distinct views depending on whether they are open or closed.
Outside of Sundays and festive holidays, the outer wings
were closed and often covered with cloth. It was commissioned from Hubert van Eyck, about whom little is
known. He was most likely responsible for the overall design, but died in 1426. It seems to have been principally
executed and completed by his younger and better known
brother Jan van Eyck between 1430 and 1432.[1] Although there have been extensive attempts over the centuries to isolate the passages attributable to either brother,
no separation has been convincingly established. Today,
most accept that the work was probably designed and constructed by Hubert and that the individual panels were
painted by Jan after his return from diplomatic duties in
Spain.

Open view; when opened the altarpiece measures 11ft x 15ft

(3.5m x 4.6m).

The altarpiece was commissioned by the merchant, nancier and politician, Jodocus Vyd, then holding a position in Ghent similar to city mayor. It was designed for
the chapel he and his wife acted as benefactors for, todays
Saint Bavo Cathedral, at the time the parochial church of
John the Baptist, protectorate to the city. It was ocially
installed on 6 May 1432 to coincide with an ocial ceremony for Philip the Good. It was later moved for security reasons to the principal cathedral chapel, where it remains. While indebted to the International Gothic as well
as both Byzantine and Romanic traditions, the altarpiece
represented a new conception of art, in which the idealization of the medieval tradition gave way to an exacting
observation of nature[2] and unidealised human representation. A now lost inscription on the frame stated that Hubert van Eyck maior quo nemo repertus (greater than anyone) started the altarpiece, but that Jan van Eyck calling
himself arte secundus (second best in the art) completed
it in 1432.[3] The original, very ornate carved outer frame
and surround, presumably harmonizing with the painted
tracery, was destroyed during the Reformation; there has
been speculation that it may have included clockwork
mechanisms for moving the shutters and even playing
music.[4]
The outer panels contain two vertically stacked registers (rows). The upper rows show scenes from the
Annunciation of Mary. The four lower-register panels are
Closed view, back panels.
divided into two pairs; sculptural grisaille paintings of St
John the Baptist and St John the Evangelist, and on the
The Ghent Altarpiece (also called the Adoration of the two outer panels, donor portraits of Joost Vijdt and his
Mystic Lamb or The Lamb of God, Dutch: Het Lam wife Lysbette Borluut. The upper register of the opened
Gods) is a very large and complex early 15th century view shows a Desis of Christ the King, Virgin Mary and
Early Flemish polyptych panel painting. The altarpiece is John the Baptist. They are anked by images of angels
composed of 12 panels, eight of which are hinged shut1

1 COMMISSION

singing and playing music, and, on the outermost panels,

Adam and Eve. The lower register of the central panel
shows the adoration of the Lamb of God, with several
groups in attendance or streaming in to worship, overseen
by the dove of the Holy Spirit.
Since its creation the altarpiece has been considered
one of Northern European arts masterpieces and one
of the worlds treasures.[5] Over the centuries the panels have come close to destruction during outbreaks of
iconoclasm, or damage by re. Some panels were sold
and others looted during wars. The panels that had been
taken away by the German occupying forces were returned to St. Bavos Cathedral after World War I. In 1934
two panels, The Just Judges and Saint John the Baptist,
were stolen. The panel of Saint John the Baptist was returned by the thief soon after, but the 'The Just Judges
panel is still missing. In 1945, the altarpiece was returned
from Germany after spending much of World War II hidden in a salt mine, which greatly damaged the paint and
varnish. The Belgian art restorer Jef Van der Veken produced a copy of the stolen panel 'The Just Judges, as part
of an overall restoration eort.

Commission

Jodocus Vijdt (d. 1439)

Lysbette Borluut (d. 1443)

Jodocus (known as Joos) Vijd was a wealthy merchant
and came from a family that had been inuential in Ghent
for several generations. His father, Vijd Nikolaas (d.
1412), had been close to Louis II of Flanders. By the
end of his life Jodocus had become one of the most senior and politically powerful citizens of Ghent. He was
titled Seigneur of Pamele and Ledeberg, and in a dicult and rebellious political climate, became one of the
Duke of Burgundy Philip the Good's most trusted local councilmen. Around 1398 Jodocus married Lysbette
Borluut, who also came from a rich and established city
family.[6] The couple died childless and the endowment
to the church and the commissioning of such an unprecedentedly monumental altarpiece were intended for a number of reasons, chiey to secure a legacy. But, according
to Borchert, also to secure his position in the hereafter
and, important to such an ambitious politician, demonstrate his social prestige, revealing, Borchert believes, a
desire to show o and ... outstrip by far all other endowments to St Johns, if not each and every other church and
monastery in Ghent.[7]
Ghent prospered through the early 1400s, and a number
of local councilors sought to establish a sense of independence from Burgundian rule. Philip was experiencing nancial diculty in the early 1430s, and made strong demands on the city to provide revenue, a burden many of
city councilors felt was unreasonable and that they could
ill aord, nancially or politically. The situation was
tense, and because there was division within the council
over the burden, this led to a mistrust that meant council membership was dangerous and precarious. During
a power play in 1432 a number of councilors were murdered, seemingly for their loyalty to Philip. The tension
came to a head in a 1433 revolt which ended with the beheading of the councilors who had acted as ringleaders.[8]
Throughout all this Vijd stayed loyal to Philip. His position as warden at St. John the Baptists church (now Saint
Bavo Cathedral) reects this; the church was favoured by
the Burgundians for ocial ceremonies held in Ghent.
On the day of the altarpieces consecration, 6 May 1432,
Philips and Isabella of Portugal's son was baptised there,
a strong indicator of Vijds status at the time.[9]
Vijd, as warden (kerkmeester) of St. Johns, between
1410 and 1420 not only nanced the construction of the
principal chapels bay, but endowed a new chapel o the
choir, which took his family name and was regularly to
hold masses in his and his ancestors memory. It was
for this new chapel that he commissioned Hubert van
Eyck to create an unusually large and complex polyptych
altarpiece.[6] He was recorded as donor on an inscription on the original, now lost, frame. The chapel was
dedicated to St. John the Baptist,[10] whose traditional
attribute is the Lamb of God, a symbol of Christ.[11]

Attribution

also have constructed parts of the frames. A number of

diculties present themselves, not least that there is no
surviving work condently attributed to Hubert, and it
is thus impossible to detect his style. Instead, art historians have resorted to comparing individual passages
to known works by Jan, looking for stylistic dierences
that might indicate the work of another hand. Advances
in Dendrochronology have for example established that
parts of the wing panels were felled around 1421. Allowing a seasoning time of at least 10 years, we must assume
a completion date well after Huberts death in 1426, thus
ruling out his hand from large portions of the wings.[14]

3 Style and technique

Woodcut portrait of Hubert van Eyck, by Edme de Boulonois,

mid-16th century.

Attribution to the van Eyck brothers has been established

through the small amount of surviving documentary evidence attached to the commission, and from Jans signature and dating on a reverse frame. Jan seems to minimize his contribution in favor of his brother, who was
dead with 6 years by the time of works completion in
1432. A less explicit indicator is their seeming portraits
as the third and fourth horseman in the Just Judges panel.
Ramsay Homa notes lettering in the central panel of the
lower register that might be read as an early formation
of what was to become Jans well known signature, built
around various formations of ALS IK KAN (As I Can),
a pun on his full name. The lettering is found on the
headdress of one of the prophets standing at the back of
the grouping. It seems to be in a Hebrew script that may
translate, inelegantly, into French as Le chapeau ... orne
de trois lettres herbraiques formant le mot Saboth, or more
likely as Yod, Feh, Aleph, which when transliterated
represents Jans initials, JvE.[12]
Since the 19th century, art historians have debated which
passages were executed by the little-known and obscure
Hubert and which are by Jan, who was famous across Europe by the early 1430s. In the 17th and 18th centuries,
it was often assumed that Jan had found a number of random panels left behind after Huberts death and assembled them into the current format. This view has been
discounted since the early 19th century, on the basis of
the obvious overall design of the work, although there are
obvious stylistic dierences between many passages.[13]
Today it is generally accepted that the majority were completed by Jan, from an overall design by Hubert, who may

View of Utrecht Cathedral from the central inner panel

Although Jan was skilled as a miniaturist, and there is

much evidence of that ability in the details of the Ghent
Altarpiece, the polyptych diers in a number of significant aspects to the other paintings generally attributed
to him, not least in its scale. In addition, it is the only
work thought to be of his hand that was intended for public, rather than private, worship and display.[15] Van Eyck
pays as much attention to the beauty of earthly things as
to the religious themes. The clothes and jewels, the fountain, nature surrounding the scene, the churches and landscape in the background are all painted with remarkable

4 OPEN VIEW

detail. The landscape is rich with vegetation, which is ob- continuously across ve panels.[24] While the individual
served with an almost scientic accuracy, and much of it panels of the upper tier clearly contain separate albeit
non-European.[16]
paired pictorial spaces, the lower tier is presented as
[25]
Of the 12 individual panels,
Lighting plays a central role and is one of the major in- a unied Mise en scne.
eight
have
paintings
on
their
reverse visible when the alnovations of the polyptych. The panels are infused with
tarpiece
is
closed.
complex light eects and subtle plays of shadow, the rendering of which was achieved through a new technique of
handling oil paint as well as the use of transparent glazes.
The gures are mostly cast with short, diagonal shadows
which serve to, in the words of art historian Till-Holger
Borchert, not only heighten their spatial presence, but
also tell us that the primary light source is located beyond the picture itself.[17] In the Annunciation scene of
the outer panels, shadows are depicted in a manner that
implies that they emanate from the daylight within the 4.1
chapel in which they are housed.[18]

Upper register

A further innovation can be found in the detailing of surface textures, especially reections and refractions. This 4.1.1 Desis
is best seen in details such as the eect of the fall of light
on the armor in the Knights of Christ panel, and the ripple of the water in the Fountain of life in the Adoration of
the Mystic Lamb.[19] Yet although the work contains many
individual innovations, it did not emerge spontaneously,
but is rather part of a long tradition of oil painting and
altarpiece design of the southern Netherlands. A great
number of these works were destroyed during the iconoclasm of the mid 16th century, a period in which the
Ghent Altarpiece was twice nearly destroyed; on 19 August 1566, and again in 1576 when a special guard was
put on the work to protect it from rioters.[20] The scale of
destruction in these waves was such that the Ghent historian Marcus Van Vaenewijk (151669) recorded that in
the summer of 1566 the burning pyres on which the works
were thrown could be seen from 10 miles away. Because
of this, art historian Susie Nash points out that the Ghent
work seems so unusual in part because it was one of the
few major examples to survive wholly intact.[21]
The Virgin Mary

Open view

The altarpiece was opened on feast days, when the richness, colour and complexity of inner view was intended
to contrast with the relative austerity of the outer panels. As viewed when open, the panels are organised along
two registers (levels), and contain depictions of hundreds
of gures.[15] The upper level consists of seven monumental panels, each almost six feet high, and includes
a large central image of Christ anked by frames showing Mary (left) and John the Baptist (right), which contain over twenty inscriptions each referring to the gures
in the central Desis panels.[22] These panels are anked
by two pairs of images on the folding wings of the altarpiece. The pair of images closest to the Desis show
singers in heaven, while the outermost pair show Adam
and Eve, naked save for strategically placed g leaves.[23]
The lower register has a panoramic landscape stretching The central gure, usually referred to as The Almighty

4.1

Upper register

5
have based the gure on Robert Campin's Virgin Annunicate.[30] She is wearing a crown adorned with owers and
stars, and according to Dhanens is dressed as a bride.
The inscription on the arched throne above reads: She
is more beautiful than the sun and the army of the stars;
compared to the light she is superior. She is truly the reection of eternal light and a spotless mirror of God.[31]
Like Mary, John the Baptist holds a holy book - likewise an unusual attribute, and one of 18 books in the set
of panels.[32] He wears a green mantle over a cilice of
camel-hair. He looks towards the Almighty in the center
panel, also with his hand raised in blessing, uttering the
words most typically associated with him, ECCE AGNUS
DEI (Behold the Lamb of God).[23]

It is often assumed that given the foreshortening seen in

the representation of God the Father, the artist was familiar with the either of the Italian painters Donatello or
Masaccio. However Susie Nash suggests van Eyck was alJohn the Baptist
ready leading toward this development, and it was something he was perfectly capable of producing without such
The three central upper panels show a Desis of monu- models, and believes the technique represents a shared
mental and enthroned gures, each with a halo. They are interest [rather than] a case of inuence.[33]
the Virgin Mary to the left, John the Baptist to the right,
and a central gure whose identity is unclear he is either
God or Christ leading to much debate among scholars. 4.1.2 Musical angels
Theories include that he is Christ in Majesty, dressed as in
a priests vestments,[26] God the Father, or the Holy Trinity amalgamated into a single person Elisabeth Dhanens
believes that the fact he wears a triple tiara lends credence
to this long held view.[27]
The central gure faces the viewer with his hand raised in
blessing, against a panel lled with inscriptions and symbols. Greek inscriptions decorated with pearls are on the
hem of his robe or mantle, which, taken from Revelation,
read REX REGUM ET DOMINUS DOMINANTIUM (King
of Kings, and Lord of Lords).[23] The golden brocade
on the throne features pelicans and vine, probable references to the blood spilled during the Crucixion of
Jesus; pelicans were at the time believed to spill their
own blood to feed their young, while the vines refer
to sacramental wine, the eucharistic symbol of Christs
blood.[28] A crown is at his feet, and on either side the step
is lined with two levels of text. The left hand upper line
reads VITA SINE MORTE IN CAPITE (Life without death on
his head), that on the right LUVENTUS SINE SENECTUTE
IN FRONTE (Youth without age on his forehead). These
are placed above - on the left and right respectively - the
words GAUDIUM SINE MERORE A DEXTRIS (Joy without
sorrow on his right side) and SECURITAS SINE TIMORE A
SINISTRIS (Safety without fear on his left side).[29] The
crown serves as a transition to the Lamb panel directly
below and perhaps serves to symbolize that those gures
in the lower register panels who represent humanity ock
to pay homage to God.[30]

Detail from the Singing Angels.

The two musical panels are commonly known by variants of the titles Singing Angels and Music-making Angels,
and are both 161 cm x 69.3 cm. Each features a choir;
on the left angels gather behind a wooden carved music
stand positioned on a swivel, to the right a group with
stringed instruments gather around a pipe organ, played
by a seated angel, shown full-length. The presence of the
two groups on either side of the Desis reects a by then
well-established motif in representations of the heavens
opening; that of musical accompaniment provided by celestial beings.[34] As was common in the Low Countries
in the 15th century, the angels are dressed in liturgical
robes, a custom that migrated from Latin liturgical drama
To the left Mary reads from a girdle book draped with to the art of the period.[35]
a green cloth. The book is an unusual attribute for
The angels are attendant to the King of Kings, that is,
Mary, according to Pcht, who writes that van Eyck may
to God the father in the central Desis panel. This idea

6
reects a motif popular in the hagiography of the early
15th century.[19][36] They are presented without many of
the attributes usually associated with depictions of angels
in northern art of the time. Most obviously, they do not
have wings, while their faces are unidealised and show a
number of dierent individual expressions. Music historian Stanley Boorman notes that their depiction contains many earthly qualities, writing that the naturalism
is so seductive that the viewer is tempted to consider the
scenes as depictions of contemporary church music.[37]
Yet he concludes that the inscriptions reinstalls them in
the heavenly sphere.[38] In both panels the angels stand
on maiolica tiles decorated with the IHS Christogram,
representations of the lamb and other images.[19] The
frame of the left hand panel is inscribed with the words,
MELOS DEO LAUS (Music in Praise of God), the frame
of the right with LAUDATE EUM IN CORDIS ET ORGANO
(Praise him with stringed instruments and organs).[23]
A number of art historians have dened the gures as angels based on their positioning and role within the overall context of the registers. They are sexless and possess
cherub faces, which contrast with the realistic depictions
of the other full-sized non-divine females in the work;
Eve in the same register[19] and Lysbette Borluut in the
outer panels. The angels are dressed in elaborately brocaded ecclesiastical copes or chasubles, mostly painted
in reds and greens. Their robes indicate that they are intended as representative of the celebration of mass before
the altar in the lower central panel.

Detail from the Music-making Angels.

The left-hand group shows eight fair haired angels wear-

4 OPEN VIEW
ing crowns and gathered in front of a music stand singing,
although none of them looks towards the score on the
stand. As in a number of the other panels, here van Eyck
used the device of the open mouth to give a sense of life
and motion to his gures. Borchert writes that the emphasis on the open mouths is specically motivated by
the desire to characterize the angels facial expressions according to the various ranges of polyphonic singing. To
that end the position of the angels tongues are carefully
registered, as are that of their teeth.[39] Art historian
Elisabeth Dhanens notes that One can easily see by their
singing who is the soprano, who is the alto, who is the
tenor and who is the bass.[32] The panel deviates from
common performance practice, however, with its wavelike order in body height, and the orientation of all eight
faces in dierent directions. A number of scholars have
written on their physiognomy. Their cherub faces and
long, open, curly hair are similar but also show a clear
intention by the artist to establish individual traits. Four
angels are shown frowning, and three of these have narrowed eyelids which give the appearance that they are
peering, a trait also seen in some of the apostles in the
Adoration of the Lamb register. Pcht sees this as
highly unusual in Jan van Eycks presentation of gures
and speculates that their expressions are remnants of Huberts initial design.[40]
In the right-hand panel, the only angel fully visible is
the organist around whose instrument the others gather.
Although a larger group is suggested, only another four
angels faces can be seen in the closely cropped huddle. These other angels carry stringed instruments, including a small harp and a type of viol.[32] The instruments are shown in remarkable detail. The organ at which
Saint Cecilia sits is detailed with such precision that in
places its metal surfaces show reections of light.[19] Until the Trecento, when the idea of orchestration was introduced, music playing angels were typically winged, depicted holding stringed or wind instruments as they hovered on the wing around on the edges of images of
saints and deities.[41] In French illuminated manuscripts
of the rst two decades of the 1400s, winged angels often
seemingly oated on the margins of the page, as illustrations to the accompanying text. Art historian Otto Pcht
notes however, that here the angels are not expected to
simultaneously y, sing and play, and that their musicmaking seems to be conducted on a more professional
level ... [more] in accordance with all the rules of church
music.[40]

4.1

Upper register

4.1.3

Adam and Eve

Eve
The two outer panels show near life-sized nudes of Adam
and Eve standing in stone niches. They are the earliest
treatment in art of the human nude with Early Netherlandish naturalism,[42] and are almost exactly contemporary with the equally ground-breaking pair in Masaccio's
Expulsion from the Garden of Eden in Florence of about
1425. The Ghent gures face inwards towards the angels
and the Desis, separating them. They self-consciously
attempt to cover their nakedness with a g leaf as in the
Genesis account, indicating that they are depicted as after
the fall of man. Eve holds a fruit in her raised right hand;
not the traditional apple but a small citrus, most probably a citron. Erwin Panofsky drew particular attention to
this element, and described it as emblematic of the disguised symbolism he saw running through the work as a
whole.[43] Both gures eyes are downcast and they appear
to have forlorn expressions. Their apparent sadness has
led many art historians to wonder about van Eycks intention in this portrayal. Some have questioned if they are
ashamed of their committal of original sin, or dismayed
at the world they now look upon.[43]

Adam

The realism with which Jan approached his gures is especially evident in these two panels. The depiction of
Eve exemplies the Late Gothic ideal for the female gure, as developed in International Gothic art around the

8
start of the century, and pioneered in nude form by the
Limbourg brothers, especially their Adam and Eve in the
Trs Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Comparing the Limbourgs Eve to a classical female nude, Kenneth Clark observed that her pelvis is wider, her chest narrower, her
waist higher; above all there is the prominence given to
her stomach.[44] Clark describes the Ghent Eve as a
proof of how minutely 'realistic' a great artist may be in
the rendering of details, and yet subordinate the whole to
an ideal form. Hers is the supreme example of the bulblike body. The weight-bearing leg is concealed, and the
body is so contrived that on one side is the long curve of
the stomach, on the other downward sweep of the thigh,
uninterrupted by any articulation of bone or muscle.[45]

4 OPEN VIEW
trompe-l'il become more pronounced when the wings
are turned slightly inwards,[47] an especially interesting
fact when it is considered that the polyptych was wider
than the original chapel it was executed for and could
never be opened fully.
Above Adam is a grisaille depiction of Abel making a
sacrice of the rst lamb of his ock to God and Cain
presenting part of his crops as a farmer to the Lord, and
above Eve is one showing the murder of Abel by his
brother Cain with an asss jawbone because, according
to the Bible, Cain was jealous of the Lords acceptance
of Abels oering over Cains. Van Eyck gives the gures
a statuesque look, adding depth to the picture.[32]
Both Adam and Eve are depicted with a navel. Paintings
of naked human beings without navels look unnatural and
given the level of detail in the panels this was probably a
deliberate choice and not oversight.

4.2 Lower register

Detail
Detail showing Eve holding the citrus fruit.

The precision and detail with which their nakedness is

recorded oended many over the years. During a visit
to the cathedral in 1781, Joseph II of Bohemia and Hungary found them so disagreeable that he demanded they
be removed.[46] The couples nakedness further oended
19th century sensibilities, when their presence in a church
came to be considered unacceptable. The panels were replaced by reproductions in which the gures were dressed
in skin cloth; these are still on display in the Saint Bavo
Cathedral. In comparison to contemporary depictions of
Adam and Eve, this version is very spare and omits the
usual motifs associated with the theme; there is no serpent, tree or any trace of the garden of Eden normally
found in contemporary paintings.[43] In contrast to the
other panels in the register, Adam and Eve are positioned
near the edge of each panel, and neither is entirely within
the border of their setting. Most obviously Adams foot
appears to protrude out of the niche and frame and into
real space. More subtly, Eves arm, shoulder and hip appear to extend beyond her architectural setting. These
elements give the panel a three-dimensional aspect. The

A continuous panoramic landscape unies the ve panels

of the lower register,[47] with the center panel showing
the adoration of the Lamb of God (Agnus Dei) in a scene
derived from the Gospel of John.[48] Groupings of people stream in to worship him; four groupings are shown
congregating at each corner of the central panel, while
another four arrive in the two pairs of outer panels the
Warriors of Christ and Just Judges on the left-hand side,
and the holy hermits and pilgrims on the right.[49] Of the
eight groupings only one consists of females. The groupings are segregated by their relationship to the old and
new testaments, with those from the older books positioned to the left of the altar.[50]
Among the pilgrims on the outer right-hand panel is a
giant Saint Christopher, patron saint of travelers. At the
rear of the hermits on the inner right-hand panel is Mary
Magdalene, carrying ungutents. The four wings are over
ten centimeters longer than the central panel, a fact that
has puzzled art historians over the centuries. Theories as
to why this may be so range from speculation that they
were unnished works by Hubert that Jan completed and
assembled, to that the central panel was originally larger

4.2

Lower register

and at some stage cut down. This latter theory has been of the panel, the lamb is placed in the mid-ground, makdiscounted more recently after technical examination.[51] ing the viewer look beyond the foreground gures to see
the central motif of the work.[59]
4.2.1

Adoration of the Mystic Lamb

Measuring 134.3 x 237.5 cm,[52] the center panel has as

its centerpiece an altar on which the Lamb of God is positioned, standing in a verdant meadow, while the foreground shows a fountain. Five distinct groups of gures
surround altar and fountain. In the mid-ground two further groups gures are seen gathering; the dove of the
Holy Spirit is above. The meadow is framed by trees
and bushes; with the spires of Jerusalem visible in the
background. Dhanens says the panel shows a magnicent display of unequaled color, a rich panorama of late
medieval art and the contemporary world-view.[53] In
1495, Hieronymus Mnzer described the piece as the
eight beatitudes, saying of And all of this is painted with
such wondrous ingenuity and skill, that you would suppose this to be not merely a painting but the whole art
of painting.[54] Dhanens speculates one of the groupings
may have been on the lost predella.[55] The iconography,
as suggested by the groupings of the gures, appears to
follow the liturgy of All Saints Day.[56]

The central Adoration of the Mystic Lamb panel. The groupings of gures are, from top left anti-clockwise: the male martyrs,
the pagan writers and Jewish prophets, the male saints, and the
female martyrs.

Lamb of God The lamb stands on an altar, facing the

viewer and is surrounded by 14 angels arranged in a
circle,[57] some holding symbols of Christs Passion, and
two swing censers.[53] The lamb[58] has a wound on its
breast from which blood gushes into a golden chalice,
yet it shows no outward expression of pain, a reference
to Christs sacrice. The angels have vivid multicolored
wings and hold instruments of Christs passion, including the cross and the crown of thorns. The antependium
on the upper portion of the front of the altar is inscribed
with the words taken from John 1:29; ECCE AGNUS DEI
QUI TOLLIT PECCATA MUNDI (Behold the Lamb of God
who takes away the sins of the world). The lappets bear
the phrases IHESUS VIA (Jesus the Way) and VERITAS
VITA (the Truth, the Life).[57] Although the centerpiece

The fountain of life is on the same axis in the pictorial space as

the altar above[53]

The dove of the Holy Spirit hovers low in the sky directly
above the lamb, surrounded by concentric semicircles of
white and yellow hues of varying luminosity, the outermost of which resembles nimbus clouds. Thin golden
beams emanating from the dove resemble those surrounding the head of the lamb, as well as those of the three gures in the Desis panels in the upper register. The rays
seem to have been painted by van Eyck over the nished
landscape, and serve to illuminate the scene in a celestial,
supernatural light. This is especially true with the light
falling on the saints positioned directly in front of the altar. The light does not give reection or throw shadow,[60]
and has traditionally been read by art historians as representing the New Jerusalem of Revelations which in 21:23,
had no need of the sun, neither of the moon, to shine in
it; for the glory of God did Lighten it.[61] This illumination contrasts with the natural and directional lighting
of the four upper interior wings, and of each of the outer

10

4 OPEN VIEW

wings. It has been interpreted as a device to emphasize

the presence of the divine and accentuate the paradise of
the central landscape.[60] The dove as the Holy Spirit, and
the lamb as Jesus, are positioned on the same axis as that
of God The Father in the panel directly above; a reference
to the Holy Trinity.[62]
Fountain of life In the center foreground the fountain
of life joins a stream with a jewel-laden bed. In the
distance, the minutely detailed cityscape recalls New
Jerusalem.[63] The detail and precise attention to landscape and nature is heretofore unseen in Northern European art, far superseding previous art. The recognizable and numerous species of plants, native to Northern
Europe and the Mediterranean, are minutely depicted, reproduced with a high level of botanical accuracy. Similarly, the clouds and rock formations in the distance contain degrees of verisimilitude that evince studied observation. The far landscape contains representations of actual
churches, while the depiction of the mountains beyond
contain the rst known example in art of aerial perspective.[64] Yet the panel does not strive for exact realism;
the sum of the forensically detailed natural elements, in
combination with the apparition of the Holy Spirit and extended beams of light, serve to create a wholly individual
and uniquely creative interpretation of a classic biblical
scene.[60] The fountains rim shows the carved inscription,
HIC EST FONS AQUE VITE PROCENDENS DE SEDE DEI +
AGNI (This is the fountain of the water of life, proceed-

ing out of the throne of God and of the Lamb), symbolizing the fountain of life is watered by the blood of the
Lamb.[23] From its center rises a column with an angel
above bronze dragons, from which streams of water fall
into the fountains basin. A vertical axis forms between
the fountain and altar, where the owing blood testimony
to the spirit as cited in John, 5:97.[53] Similar the altar and
its ring of angels, the fountain is surrounded by gures arranged in distinct groupings.[65]
Prophets, Apostles, and Church gures The semicircle of gures to the left and right of the fountain consist of various biblical, pagan, and church gures, some
crowded around the fountain in what Pcht describes as
two processions of gures [that] have crowded to a halt.
To the left are representatives of gures from Judaism and
prophets who have foretold the coming of Christ; to the
right representatives from the Church.[65] The gures directly to the left of the fountain represent witnesses from
the Old Testament;[57] dressed in pink robes, kneeling,
reading aloud from open copies of the Bible, facing the
mid-ground with backs turned to the viewer.[59] A larger
group of pagan philosophers and writers stand behind
them. These men seem have traveled from all over the
world, given the Oriental faces of some, and their dierent styles of headdress. The gure in white, holding a laurel wreath, is generally accepted to be Virgil, who is said
to have predicted the coming of the Saviour. Isaiah stands

Three of the gures in the grouping to the right of the fountain can
be identied as Martin V, Gregory VII and Antipope Alexander
V.[66]

to his side holding a twig, a symbol of his own prophesy of Christ as recorded in Isaiah 11:1.[57] Opposite on
the right, kneel the twelve apostles from the New Testament before a group of male saints. These, dressed in red
vestments symbolizing martyrs, are the Popes and other
clergy representing the church hierarchy.[53] A number
are recognizable, including Saint Stephen who carries the
rocks with which he was stoned. Three popes in the
foreground represent the Western Schisma dispute that
festered and lingered in Ghentand are identiable as
Martin V, Gregory VII and Antipope Alexander V. Dhanens suggest the positioning of popes standing beside antipope shows an atmosphere of reconciliation.[66]

Confessors and martyrs In the mid-ground, to the left

and right of the altar, are two more groups of gures: the
male martyrs (all visible are clergy) and female martyrs.
Identiable biblical gures carry palms.[65] These enter
the pictorial space as though through a path in the foliage, males standing to the left, women to the right.[67]
The female martyrs, sometimes known as the holy virgins, are gathered by an abundant meadow, a symbol of
fertility. A number are identied by their attributes: in

5.1

Upper register

front St. Agnes carries a lamb, St. Barbara a tower,

Saint Catherine of Alexandria is nely dressed, and St.
Dorothy carries owers; further back St. Ursula carries an arrow.[57][66] On their heads they wear owered
crowns.[56] The men, on the left, consist of confessors,
popes, cardinals, abbots and monks who are dressed in
blue.[66]
4.2.2

Just Judges and the Knights of Christ

Winged panels to the left of the Adoration of the Mystic

Lamb show groups of approaching knights and judges.
Their biblical source can be identied from inscriptions
on the panel frames. The far left hand panels contain lettering reading "CHRISTI MILITES" (Warriors of Christ),
and the inside left panel IUSTI IUDICES (Righteous (or
Just) Judges).[16] The presence of the Judges, none of
whom were canonised saints, is an anomaly which art historians have long sought to explain. The most likely explanation is that they refer to Jodocus Vijds position as
an alderman of Ghent.[68]
The Just Judges is thought to contain portraits of both
Jan and Hubert as the third and fourth Judges on horseback. The evidence for this is the similarity of one of
the gures to Jans London Portrait of a Man of 1433,
which is generally thought to be a self-portrait. The second, closer, gure is thought to be Hubert, because of
facial similarity to Jan. Although the judge in the Ghent
panel appears to be younger than the sitter in the London
painting, they wear similar chaperons with the cornette
tightly bound around the bourrelet.[69] The judges in the
Ghent panel became the basis for a number of later portraits of the brothers, including that of Dominicus Lampsonius.[70]

Closed view

Detail of the prophet Micah in the right lunette.

The altarpiece measures 375 cm x 260 cm with the shutters closed. The upper panels contain separate lunettes
showing prophets and Sibyls looking down on an annunciation scene; the lower tier shows the donors on the far left
and right panels anked by saints.[52] The exterior panels are executed with reserve and sparseness in comparison to the often fantastical colour and abundance of the

11
scenes on the interior which they conceal. Their pictorial
spaces are conned and, especially in the upper register,
cramp the gures. The settings are earthly, pared down
and relatively simple. Yet there is the same striking use
of illusionism which also characterises the inner panels;
this is especially true of the faux stone grisaille statues
representing the saints. Lighting is used to great eect
to create the impression of depth;[71] van Eyck handles
the fall of light and casting of shadow to make the viewer
feel as if the pictorial space is inuenced or lit by light
entering from the chapel in which he stands.

5.1 Upper register

5.1.1 Lunettes
The gures in the lunettes refer to prophecies of the coming of Christ. The far left lunette shows the prophet
Zechariah and the far right one shows Micah. The two
much taller inner shutters show the Erythraean Sibyl (on
the left) and the Cumaean Sibyl on the right. Each
panel includes a text inscribed on a oating ribbon or
"banderole", while the identities of the gures are carved
on the lower border of each panel. Zechariahs text, taken
fron Zechariah 9:9, reads EXAULT SATIS FILIA SYON JUBILA ECCE REX TUUS VENTI (Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion ... behold, your king comes), while the
Erythraean Sibyls words are NIL MORTALE SONAS AFFLATA ES NUMINE CELSO (Sounding nothing mortal you
are inspired by power from on high).[72] To the right
the Cumaean Sibyls reads REX ALTISSIMUS ADVENIET
PER SECULA FUTURUS SCILICET IN CARNE (The Highest King shall come and shall be in the esh through the
ages).[73]
Zechariah and Micah look down on the fulllment of their
prophecies contained in the banderoles oating behind
them. The Erythraean Sibyl is shown observing, while
the Cumaean Sibyl, wearing a green dress with thick fur
sleeves, gazes down at Mary, her hand held in empathy
over her own womb.[74] Micahs lunette employs one of
the rst instances of an illusionistic motif best known
from Petrus Christus's Portrait of a Carthusian (c.1446),
wherein the sense of the boundary between the painting,
frame and viewers space becomes blurred. In this instance, the prophet knowingly places his hand outwards
on the lower border of the frame.
In October 1428 Jan did accompany a Burgundian embassy, this time for the hand of Isabella, eldest daughter
of John I of Portugal (reg 13851433). After a storm
forced them to spend four weeks in England, the Burgundians arrived in Lisbon in December. In January they met
the King in the castle of Aviz, and van Eyck painted the
Infantas portrait, probably in two versions to accompany
the two separate groups who left by sea and by land on 12
February to report the terms to the Duke. The portraits
are untraced, but one is preserved in a drawing (Germany,
priv. col., see Sterling, g.), which reveals that Jan used

12

Detail showing the Erythraean Sibyl.

5 CLOSED VIEW

Detail showing the Cumaean Sibyl.

the princesss Portuguese dress for the Erythrean sibyl on associated with acclaiming a son before he is born.[77]
the Ghent Altarpiece.[75]
In the mid 20th century, art historian Volker Herzner
noted the facial similarity between the Cumaean Sibyl
and Philips wife Isabella of Portugal, especially as she
is portrayed in van Eycks now lost betrothal portrait of
14281429.[76] Herzner speculated that the text in the
banderole in the sibyls panel has a double meaning, referring not only to the coming of Christ, but also to the
1432 birth of Philips rst son and heir to survive infancy.
Others reject this idea, given the high rates of infant mortality at the time, and the connotations of bad luck usually

5.1.2 Annunciation
The two outer panels of the middle register show the
Annunciation to Mary, with the Archangel Gabriel on the
left and the Virgin Mary on the right. Both are dressed
in white robes, and occupy what appear to be the opposite ends of the same room.[6] The gures of Mary
and Gabriel are disproportionately large in relation to the
scale of the rooms they occupy. Art historians agree

5.1

Upper register

that this follows the conventions of both the International

Gothic and late Byzantine traditions of the icon by showing saints, especially Mary, in a much larger scale than
their surroundings. In this instance their size is probably
a device to convey the idea that they are heavenly apparitions who have come momentarily before the donors who
are in the lower register. Van Eyck used this conceit most
dramatically in his Madonna in the Church, (c. 143840)
which is likely a panel from a dismantled diptych.[78]

13
rectly above her. She answers ECCE ANCILLAM D(OMI)NI
(Behold the handmaiden of the Lord).[81]
Gabriel and Marys panels are separated by two much
narrower images showing unoccupied domestic interior
scenes.[78] The back wall in the left-hand image has a window opening onto a view of street and city square,[6] while
that in the right-hand image has a niche.[71] Some art historians have attempted to associate this street with an actual location in Ghent, but it is generally accepted that
it is not modeled on any specic place.[18] The sparseness of these narrow panels seem anomalous in the overall context of the altarpiece; a number of art historians
have suggested that they were compromises worked out
by Jan as he struggled to accommodate his design within
the original framework set out by Hubert.[80]

The Archangel Gabriel.

The Archangel Gabriel wears a rich cope with a huge jewelled

morse in Jan van Eycks Annunciation, 143436

The Virgin Annunciate.

Gabriel has blond hair and multicoloured wings. His right
hand is raised and in his left he holds lilies, traditionally found in paintings of the annunciation as symbols
of Marys virginity.[79][80] His words to Mary are written
alongside him in Latin: AVE GRACIA PLENA D(OMI)N(U)S
TECU(M) (Hail who art full of grace, the Lord is with
you). The horizontal inscription extends out the panel
and halfway across the neighbouring image. As in van
Eycks Washington Annunciation of c. 14346, the letters of Marys reply are inscribed in reverse and upsidedown; as if for God to read from heaven, or for the holy
spirit, as represented by the dove, to read as he hovers di-

Penny Jolly suggests that in the mid to late 1420s he may

have traveled to Italy at the behest of the Duke of Burgundy where, in Florence, he probably saw an iconic 14th
century annunciation, and perhaps visited more contemporary annunciation scenes. These Florentine annunciations had a number of iconographic similarities found
in the Ghent panels: Gabriels multi-colored wings, the
upside down writing, the treatment of light beams, and
the separation between angel and virgin by a thin architectural feature. Some of these elements, particularly the
spatial separation between the two gures, can be found
in Lorenzo Monaco's Bartolini Salimbeni Annunciation in
Santa Trinita, nished before his death in 1424, and one
that Jan may have seen. In Monacos painting the angel
and Mary are separated by two small spaces, one external

14

6 CONDITION

and one internal, similar to the city-scape and domestic 5.2.1 Saints and donors
lavabo panels in the Ghent annunciation.[80]
The style of the furnishings of the room and the moder- Each saint stands on a stone plinth inscribed with his
nity of the town visible through the arched window set the name. John the Baptist, the son of the priest Zechariah
panels in a contemporary 15th century setting. The inte- (not to be confused with the prophet of the same name
riors have been cited as one of the rst representations shown on the upper register), holds a lamb in his left arm
of medieval bourgeois domestic culture.[82] Borchert and is turned towards Joost Vijdt. His right hand is raised
sees this familiar setting as a device to allow 15th cen- and his nger extended to point towards the lamb, a gestury viewers to connect with the panel and so reinforce ture that implies that he is reciting the Agnus Dei. John
the conceit that the two saints are apparitions occupying the Evangelist holds a chalice, a reference to the early
he could
the same space and time as the donor or observer.[71] Yet medieval tradition that he had ability with cures;
[86]
drink
poison
from
a
cup
without
ill
eects.
a number of features in the interior suggest that it is not a
secular domestic space, most obviously the cool and aus- The donors are painted life size,[85] and thus to a much
tere surfaces, the domed windows and stone columns.[82] larger scale than the saints; this is most noticeable in the
relative sizes of their heads and hands. Their bright and
warmly colored clothes contrast sharply with the grey of
the lifeless saints. Van Eyck brings a high degree of realism to his portrayal of the Vijdts; his study of the ailing couple in old age is uninching and far from attering. Details that reveal their aging include Joosts watering eyes, wrinkled hands, warts, bald head and stubble
streaked with gray. The folds of both gures skin are
meticulously detailed, as are their protruding veins and
ngernails.[37][87] The portraits are generally thought to
be among the nal panels completed in the altarpiece, and
thus are typically dated to 1431 or to the early months of
1432.[88]

Salimbeni Annunciation, Lorenzo Monaco, 14201424. Santa

Trinita, Florence. This work has been suggested as a source for
the two empty panels in the upper register, and the gures in the
lunettes.[83]

The four panels are most obviously connected by the similar oor tiling and single vanishing point.[71] Shadows
falling on the tiling at the lower right hand corner of
each panel can only have been cast by the moulding on
the frames, that is from an area outside of the pictorial
space.[84]

5.2

Lower register

The gures in the four panels of the lower register are all
positioned within uniform niches. The outer panels show
the donors Joost Vijdt and his wife Lysbette Borluut.[65]
The inner panels contain grisaille paintings of Saint John
the Baptist and Saint John the Evangelist. The use of grisaille gives the illusion of sculpture, and implies that these
are cult representations of the two saints before which the
donors kneel, gazing into the distance with their hands
clasped together, in rapt veneration.[85] As with the most
of the other panels on both the inner and outer views, they
are lit from the right.[18] Shadows thrown by the gures
are used to establish depth, and bring realism to both the
faux statues and painted niches.[37]

6 Condition
The rst signicant restoration was carried out in 1550
by the painters Lancelot Blondeel and Jan van Scorel, following the earlier and poorly executed cleaning by Jan van
Scorel, that led to damage to the predella.[89] The 1550
undertaking was performed with a care and reverence
that a contemporary account writes of such love that
they kissed that skilful work in art in many places.[90]
The predella was destroyed by re in the 16th century.[91]
Comprising a strip of small square panels[92] and executed in water based paints, it showed hell or limbo with
Christ arriving to redeem those about to be saved. During the Protestant Reformation the piece was moved out
of the chapel to prevent damage in the Beeldenstorm, rst
to the attic and later to the town hall, where it remained
for two decades.[89] In 1662 the Ghent painter Antoon
van den Heuvel was commissioned to clean the Ghent
Altarpiece.[93]
A program of restoration at the Museum of Fine Arts,
Ghent began in October 2012, and is projected to last
ve years. Only the panels being worked on are in the
museum at any one time, with the others remaining on
display in the cathedral. At the museum the public can see
the work in progress from behind a glass screen.[94] The
last previous major restoration was conducted in 1950
51, after damage sustained during its stay in the Austrian
mines during WWII, during which newly developed tech-

15
niques, such as x-ray, were applied to the panels.[89]

Provenance

power alongside Germany. The painting was stored in a

museum in Pau, and French, Belgian and German military representatives signed an agreement which required
the consent of all three before the masterpiece could be
moved.[5] In 1942, Adolf Hitler ordered the painting to be
seized and brought to Germany to be stored in the Schloss
Neuschwanstein castle in Bavaria. After Allied air raids
made the castle too dangerous for the painting, it was
stored in the Altaussee salt mines.[99] Belgian and French
authorities protested against the seizing of the painting,
and the head of the German armys Art Protection Unit
was dismissed after he disagreed with the seizure.[99]
The altarpiece was recovered by the Americans after the
war and returned to Belgium in a ceremony presided over
by Belgian royalty at the Royal Palace of Brussels, where
the 17 panels were displayed for the press. No French
ocials were invited, as the Vichy French had allowed
the Germans to remove the painting.[100]

The Ghent Altarpiece during recovery from the Altaussee salt

mine at the end of World War II.

8 Notes and references

The altarpiece has been moved several times over the

centuries.[89] Art historian Noah Charney describes the Notes
altarpiece as one of the more coveted and desired pieces
of art, the victim of 13 crimes since its installation,[95] and [1] Burroughs (1933), 184
seven thefts.[96] After the French Revolution the altar[2] Gombrich, E.H., The Story of Art, pages 2369. Phaidon,
piece was among a number of art works plundered in to1995. ISBN 0-7148-3355-X
days Belgium and taken to Paris where they were exhibited at the Louvre. It was returned to Ghent in 1815 after [3] Burroughs, 184193
the French defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.[97] The paint[4] Website with scanned reconstructions of the frame from
ings wings (not including the Adam and Eve panels)[97]
Lotte Brand Philip's book, The Ghent Altarpiece (Princewere pawned in 1815 by the Diocese of Ghent for the
ton, 1971), which originated some of these ideas.
equivalent of 240. When the diocese failed to redeem
them, they were sold by the dealer Nieuwenhuys in 1816 [5] Kurtz (2004), 24
to the English collector Edward Solly for 4,000. The
pieces spent some months in London, during which time [6] Borchert (2008), 31
the new owner unsuccessfully sought a buyer. They were [7] Borchert (2008), 3233
later bought by the King of Prussia for 16,000, a huge
price at the time, and for many decades they were ex- [8] Hagen et al., 37
hibited in the Gemldegalerie, Berlin.[98] The panels still
[9] Borchert (2008), 32
in Ghent were damaged by re in 1822, and the separately hinged Adam and Eve panels sent to a museum in [10] Borchert (2008), 17
Brussels.[89]
During World War I, other panels were taken from the
cathedral by German forces. Under the terms of the
Treaty of Versailles and its subsequent reparations transfers, Germany returned all the panels,[5] and, in 1920, after a century of separation, all the panels were again in
Ghent. In 1934, the panels of 'The Just Judges and 'Saint
John the Baptist', were stolen. The panel of 'Saint John
the Baptist' was returned by the thief as a goodwill gesture, but the 'The Just Judges panel is still missing.[89]
The Germans bitterly resented the loss of the panels
and, at the start of another invasion by Germany in 1940,
a decision was made in Belgium to send the altarpiece to
the Vatican to keep it safe.[5] The painting was in France,
en route to the Vatican, when Italy declared war as an Axis

[11] "The Infant Saint John with the Lamb". National Gallery,
London. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
[12] Homa (1974), 327
[13] Pcht, 214
[14] Nash (2008), 13
[15] Harbison (Reaktion), 194
[16] Pcht
[17] Borchert (2011), 2223
[18] Harbison (1995), 81
[19] Borchert (2011), 24

16

NOTES AND REFERENCES

[20] Nash (2008), 11-12

[55] Dhanens (1980), 104

[21] Nash (2008), 14

[56] Dhanens (1980), 103

[22] Harbison (1995), 836

[57] Ridderbos at al (2004), 47

[23] Pcht (1999), 124

[58] This portion of the panel was restored following damage

suered in an 1822 re; however the restoration was not
complete and some of the passages were abandoned midway. The most startling result of this is that a portion of
an underdrawing of the lamb was left exposed, leading to
it now appearing to have four ears. See Pcht, (1999), 123

[24] A device later borrowed by Rogier van der Weyden for his
The Braque Triptych
[25] Borchert (2011), 19
[26] Lane (1984), 109
[27] Dhanens (1980), 106
[28] Charney (2010), 31

[59] Pcht (1999), 138

[60] Borchert (2011), 23
[61] Borchert (2008), 21

[29] Ridderbos et all (2004), 48

[62] Ridderbos et al. (2004), 53
[30] Pcht (1994), 129-130
[31] Dhanens (1980), 106-108
[32] Dhanens (1980), 108
[33] Nash (2008), 30
[34] Pcht (1999), 124, 151-152
[35] McNamee, 268-274
[36] For example in the then popular "Golden Legend"
manuscript.

[63] Charney (2010), 23

[64] Borchert (2008), 29
[65] Pcht (1999), 126
[66] Dhanens (1980), 100
[67] Dhanens (1980), 100.103
[68] Ridderbos et al., 54
[69] Campbell (1998), 216

[37] Boorman (1983), 30

[70] Bourchert (2008), 9395

[38] Boorman (1983), 31

[71] Borchert (2011), 25

[39] Borchert (2011), 312, see also Golaqki-Voutrira (1998),

6574

[72] Virgil, Aeneid, 6:50 nec mortale sonans, adata est numine

[40] Pcht (1999), 152

[73] Ridderbos et al. (2004), 43

[41] Pcht (1999), 151

[74] Jolly (1998), 376

[42] Duby, George,A History of Private Life, Vol 2 Revelations

of the Medieval World, 1988 (English translation), p.582,
Belknap Press, Harvard University

[75] The Oxford Art Online Jan van Eyck

[44] Clark, 310

[76] The portrait is known today from a 17th-century pencil

copy. Other art historians have suggested that the Virgin in
van Eyks Washington Annunciation bears Isabellas face.
See Wol, Hand (1987), 81

[45] Clark, 311

[77] Ridderbos at al (2004), 589

[46] Hagen et al., 39

[78] Harbison (2012), p. 99

[47] Borchert (2008), 28

[79] Ridderbos et al. (2004), 19 & 77

[48] Charney (2010), 64

[80] Jolly (1998), 375

[49] Harbison (1995), 83

[81] Harbison (1995), 82

[50] Hagen et al. (2003), 38

[82] Borchert (2011), 27

[51] Pacht

[83] Jolly (1998), 374

[52] Pcht (1999), 212

[84] Pcht (1999), 13

[53] Dhanens (1980), 97

[85] Pcht (1999), 169

[54] Pcht (1999), 12

[86] Jolly (1998), 392

[43] Snyder, 511

17

[87] These panels resemble passages from van Eycks c 1436

Virgin and Child with Canon van der Paele, and the manner of depicting the aged in such a way is characteristic
of a number of works produced by the workshop after his
death. See Borchert (2011), 30
[88] Meiss, Millard. "'Nicholas Albergati' and the Chronology
of Jan van Eycks Portraits. The Burlington Magazine,
Volume 94, No. 590, May, 1952. 137
[89] Pcht (1999), 120
[90] Nash (2008), 67
[91] Pcht (1999), 132
[92] Charney (2010), 15
[93] Karl Voll, Die altniederlndische Malerei von Jan van
Eyck bis Memling, 1906, p, 245
[94] Museum for Fine arts Ghent
[95] Charney (2010), x
[96] Charney (2010), 1
[97] Deam (1998), 3
[98] Reitlinger (1961), 130
[99] Kurtz, Michael J. (2006). America and the return of Nazi
contraband. Cambridge University Press. p. 25.
[100] Kurtz (2006), 132

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Art of Jan van Eyck. Yale French Studies: Special
Issue: Contexts: Style and Values in Medieval Art
and Literature, 1991. 2543
Snyder, James. Jan van Eyck and Adams Apple.
The Art Bulletin, Volume 58, No. 4, December
1976.
Wol, Martha; Hand, John Oliver. Early Netherlandish painting. National Gallery of Art Washington; Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-52134016-0
van Elslande, Rudy. De geschiedenis van de VytBorluutfundatie en het Lam Gods, in: Ghendtsche
Tydinghen, 14de jg., 1985, nr.6, blz. 342-348; Ibidem, 15de jg., 1986, nrs 1-6, blz. 56-58, 108111, 168-171, 230-233, 282-284, 329-332; Ibidem,
16de jg., 1987, nrs.1-6, blz. 25-29, 102-105, 143148, 201-204, 269-272, 335-349; Ibidem, 18de jg.,
1989, nrs. 1-2, blz. 53-55, 95-99.

External links
Closer to Van Eyck: Rediscovering the Ghent Altarpiece Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage (Belgium). High resolution macrophotography, infrared
reectography and X-radiography of the Ghent Altarpiece.
Website of the Saint Bavo Cathedral in Ghent (Belgium)
The theft of the Just Judges
An alternative interpretation of the iconography of
the Ghent Altarpiece
Hitlers Hunt for the Holy Grail and the Ghent Altarpiece

EXTERNAL LINKS

19

10
10.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Ghent Altarpiece Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent%20Altarpiece?oldid=645527523 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Olivier,

Infrogmation, Mihai, Zoicon5, Ed g2s, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Vinterlejon, Tom harrison, Fastssion, Solipsist, Falcon Kirtaran, Andycjp, JoJan, Davout, Ganymead, Kate, Beoran, Discospinster, Dbachmann, Stbalbach, Giraedata, Man vyi, Gssq, Ricky81682, AzaToth,
Yuckfoo, Ghirlandajo, Tabletop, Sparkit, SchuminWeb, Str1977, Gareth E Kegg, YurikBot, Wester, RussBot, David Pierce, Pietdesomere,
JLaTondre, Attilios, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Kungming2, Alon, Andropow, Seduisant, Ceoil, Gloriamarie, Bjankuloski06en, Sailko, Mr
Stephen, Dartelaar, Tawkerbot2, Switchercat, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Drinibot, Stuart Drewer, Outriggr, Cydebot, Xxanthippe, Epanalepsis, Ludmia Pilecka, Escarbot, Modernist, John85710, Geniac, Davidonline, JNW, EagleFan, Jonathan Hall, CommonsDelinker, Captain
panda, MTLskyline, Johnbod, Belovedfreak, Sparafucil, Classical geographer, Mcewan, TXiKiBoT, John Carter, Poopypoop88, SieBot,
WereSpielChequers, Trigaranus, Yintan, WRK, Phil Bridger, Afernand74, Maralia, Prof saxx, Rlest, SlackerMom, Sfan00 IMG, PipepBot,
Kafka Liz, EoGuy, UserDoe, SuperHamster, Auntof6, Arjayay, BOTarate, Truth is relative, understanding is limited, BodhisattvaBot, Addbot, AkhtaBot, Fluernutter, Ronkonkaman, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou,
, Victoriaearle, Dickdock, AnomieBOT,
Rubinbot, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, DSisyphBot, Mattis, FrescoBot, BenzolBot, AstaBOTh15, MastiBot, Crusoe8181, Dinamik-bot, Jfmantis, Breezeboy, EmausBot, The Mysterious El Willstro, PBS-AWB, St. Brigit, IIIraute, EWikist, Philafrenzy,
Ruskinmonkey, ClueBot NG, Mannanan51, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Hubert van eyck, Mhakes, Parajo, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2,
Dexbot, Mogism, Philipt8520, Cerabot, Elena Zabrodina, Animus93, Agric, Jodosma, MagicatthemovieS, Doewiets, Felderburg, Esspanol,
Upjav and Anonymous: 88

10.2

Images

File:Anyell_mstic-central-CatedralUtrecht.jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Anyell_m%
C3%ADstic-central-CatedralUtrecht.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: derivated from <a href='//commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_Adoration_of_the_Lamb_2wide.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Ghent Altarpiece D Adoration of the Lamb 2wide.jpg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_
Adoration_of_the_Lamb_2wide.jpg/100px-Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_Adoration_of_the_Lamb_2wide.jpg' width='100' height='154'
srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_Adoration_of_the_Lamb_2wide.jpg/
150px-Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_Adoration_of_the_Lamb_2wide.jpg
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/
c0/Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_Adoration_of_the_Lamb_2wide.jpg/200px-Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_Adoration_of_the_Lamb_2wide.jpg 2x'
data-le-width='843' data-le-height='1300' /></a> Original artist: Jan van Scorel (over an original from Jan van Eyck)
File:Cappella_bartolini_salimbeni,_annunciazione_di_lorenzo_monaco_01.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/44/Cappella_bartolini_salimbeni%2C_annunciazione_di_lorenzo_monaco_01.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Self-photographed Original artist: sailko
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Eve_Ghent_van_Eyck(A).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Eve_Ghent_van_Eyck%28A%29.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://closertovaneyck.kikirpa.be/ Original artist: Jan van Eyck
File:Ghent_Adoration_detail_4.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Ghent_Adoration_detail_4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-WwQabuRU28Q/T1-N3SNn02I/AAAAAAAAClI/lxs_5PFvRWU/s1600/
017.jpg Original artist: Jan van Eyck
File:Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_Fountain.jpg Source:
Fountain.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_

File:Ghent_Altarpiece_D_-_Popes_-_detail.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Ghent_Altarpiece_D_

-_Popes_-_detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)
File:Ghent_Altarpiece_F_-_Archangel.jpg Source:
Archangel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Ghent_Altarpiece_F_-_

File:Ghent_Altarpiece_F_-_Maria_message_2.jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Ghent_
Altarpiece_F_-_Maria_message_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)
File:Ghent_Altarpiece_G_-_Joos_Vijdt.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Ghent_Altarpiece_G_-_
Joos_Vijdt.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)
File:Ghent_Altarpiece_G_-_Lysbette_Borluut.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Ghent_Altarpiece_
G_-_Lysbette_Borluut.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)
File:Ghent_altarpiece_at_Altaussee.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/Ghent_altarpiece_at_Altaussee.jpg
License: ? Contributors:
NARA
Original artist:
unknown (probably US military)

20

10

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Hubert_van_Eyck_(13661426)_by_Edme_de_Boulonois.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/

Hubert_van_Eyck_%281366%E2%80%931426%29_by_Edme_de_Boulonois.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is
available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3c21197.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.

Original artist: Edme de Boulonois

File:Hubert_van_Eyck_009.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Hubert_van_Eyck_009.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Hubert van Eyck (circa 1366-1426)
File:Hubert_van_Eyck_015.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Hubert_van_Eyck_015.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Hubert van Eyck (circa 1366-1426)
File:Hubert_van_Eyck_028.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Hubert_van_Eyck_028.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Hubert van Eyck (circa 1366-1426)
File:Hubert_van_Eyck_034.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Hubert_van_Eyck_034.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Hubert van Eyck (circa 1366-1426)
File:Jan_van_Eyck_-_The_Ghent_Altarpiece_-_Angels_Playing_Music_(detail)_-_WGA07646.jpg
Source:
http:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Jan_van_Eyck_-_The_Ghent_Altarpiece_-_Angels_Playing_Music_
%28detail%29_-_WGA07646.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.
hu/art/e/eyck_van/jan/09ghent/1open2/u6play2.jpg'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Inkscape.svg'
src='//upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20'
srcset='//upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='60' data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http:
//www.wga.hu/html/e/eyck_van/jan/09ghent/1open2/u6play2.html'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
alt='Information
icon.svg'
src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png'
width='20'
height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620'
data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)
File:Jan_van_Eyck_-_The_Ghent_Altarpiece_-_Prophet_Micheas_-_WGA07680.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/38/Jan_van_Eyck_-_The_Ghent_Altarpiece_-_Prophet_Micheas_-_WGA07680.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/e/eyck_van/jan/09ghent/2closed1/u4annun2.jpg' data-xrel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.
png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png
2x'
data-le-width='60'
data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/e/eyck_van/jan/09ghent/2closed1/u4annun2.html' data-xrel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Jan van Eyck
(circa 13901441)
File:Jan_van_Eyck_-_The_Ghent_Altarpiece_-_Singing_Angels_(detail)_-_WGA07642.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Jan_van_Eyck_-_The_Ghent_Altarpiece_-_Singing_Angels_%28detail%29_-_WGA07642.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/e/eyck_van/jan/09ghent/1open2/u2singi1.jpg' data-xrel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.
png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png
2x'
data-le-width='60'
data-le-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/e/eyck_van/jan/09ghent/1open2/u2singi1.html' data-xrel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x,
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='620' data-le-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Jan van Eyck
(circa 13901441)
File:Jan_van_eyck,_annunciazione,_dettaglio,_1434-36_circa.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/
Jan_van_eyck%2C_annunciazione%2C_dettaglio%2C_1434-36_circa.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original
artist: sailko
File:Lamgods_closed.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Lamgods_closed.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: en.wikipedia Original artist: User:Copyright Pol Mayer / Paul M.R. Maeyaert (en.wikipedia)
File:Lamgods_open.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Lamgods_open.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: en.wikipedia Original artist: Copyright Pol Mayer / Paul M.R. Maeyaert (en.wikipedia)
File:Portrait_of_a_Man_by_Jan_van_Eyck-small.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Portrait_of_a_
Man_by_Jan_van_Eyck-small.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Selected work 1 from Self Portrait: Renaissance to Contemporary
(Anthony Bond, Joanna Woodall, ISBN 978-1855143579). Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)

10.3

Content license

21

File:Retable_de_l'Agneau_mystique_(2).jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Retable_de_l%
27Agneau_mystique_%282%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)
File:Retable_de_l'Agneau_mystique_(3).jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Retable_de_l%
27Agneau_mystique_%283%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)
File:Retable_de_l'Agneau_mystique_(4).jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Retable_de_l%
27Agneau_mystique_%284%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)
File:Retable_de_l'Agneau_mystique_(7).jpg
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Retable_de_l%
27Agneau_mystique_%287%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 13901441)

10.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0