Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Accepted
August, 1985
^ ' ^
C^^.^
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
research project.
sincere appreciation
I thank Dr.
and
encouragement
doctoral program.
throughout
the course of my
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ii
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
vi
1.1
Previous Work
1.2
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
2.1
2.2
10
NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES
16
3.1
17
3.2
Numerical Analysis
20
3.3
Example Problem
24
3.4
26
3.5
27
RESEARCH FINDINGS
33
4.1
33
4.2
40
4.2.1
40
43
61
5.1
Conclusion
61
5.2
62
LIST OF REFERENCES
64
TV
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
4.1
45
4.2
53
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
Page
2.1
2.2
POINTS ON A STREAMLINE
2.3
11
2.4
14
3.1
19
3.2
25
3.3
31
35
36
37
38
4.5
43
4.6
46
47
3.4
3.5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.7
VI
28
30
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
48
49
50
51
54
55
56
57
58
59
vn
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH PROBLEM
Each year in the U.S. tornadoes damage many buildings and structures.
a high-rise building might ask what would happen if his structure were
hit by a tornado.
tuates about some mean for a relatively long period of time, whereas
tornadic wind changes rapidly in a short duration of time.
The short,
straight winds are drag forces, the inertia forces being essentially
negligible.
Most knowledge of tornado effects on buildings comes from poststorm damage investigations (McDonald, 1970; Mehta, et al., 1971; Minor,
et al., 1972).
buildings is limited.
Since
both wind speed and wind direction change rapidly with time in a
tornado, it is difficult, if not impossible, to simulate tornado winds
in a wind tunnel.
methods.
study is to develop a better understanding of tornado forces on buildings, especially inertia forces, through numerical techniques such as
the the boundary element method.
1.1.
Previous Work
This semi-
Q(t) = ^PCpDV(t)^ + J p c y a ( t )
where Q(t) = tornado forces per unit height of a building at time t
V(t) = velocity at time t
a(t) = acceleration at time t
Cpj = aerodynamic drag coefficient
C = inertia coefficient
m
p = mass density of fluid
(1.1)
Wen
recognized that in the case of tornadic winds with unsteady flow and
varying acceleration, the values of C-. and C would not necessarily be
u
m
"'
the same.
(1975) attempted
to compare
from
solution for a
simple, time dependent inviscid flow problem, for which a closed form
solution exists.
Hence, his
solve the problem numerically with such a high Reynolds number, even
without considering turbulence, is a difficult task.
To include the
In view of
to assume
the fluid
to be
inviscid.
In addition, the
by applying
principles.
Specific
objectives are:
1.
To mathematically
model
the tornado
and
tornado-structure
3.
CHAPTER 2
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
To solve any physical problem by numerical techniques, the physical phenomena must be represented in terms" of mathematical equations.
Wind flow is both viscous and turbulent, but to solve the applicable
mathematical equations is difficult, if not impossible, at this point
in time.
In the case
of inviscid flow, the drag forces are zero and the resulting forces are
inertia and lift forces.
Next, possible
A tornado model
that
dynamics
equations
can be written
from
standard
texts
(see
notation are:
Continuity Equation:
v V = 0
(2.1)
Momentum Equation:
||- + (V-v)V = - - vp
(2.2)
where
V = vector differential operator
V = velocity vector, v i + v j for two-dimensional flow problems
^
p = pressure
Instead of solving Equations 2.1 and 2.2, which are nonlinear, the
velocity and the pressure can be obtained by letting
vx V = W
(2.3)
and
VX = . ii
V = -^
3y ' >
3x '
f2 4)
^"^'^^
(2.5)
where
2
V 2 = 9 7 + _3
3x^
3y'
and w
^ - ^ on r,
(2) |i = v^ on r,
whe re
r, and
3il/
sTT = ^ " ^2
'I' = ^ on r
FIGURE 2 . 1 .
8
time dependent, the procedure for solving Equation 2.5 is independent
of time.
3t ^ 9? ^ T ^
-^3?
(2.7)
1 3t
(2.8)
3w,
3w,
z +V -1+ V ^ = 0 .
3t
X 3x
(2.9)
y 3y
which is obtained by taking the curl of Equation 2.2 and using Equations 2.1 and 2.3. Thus it is clear that an arbitrary vorticity cannot
exist in inviscid flow.
Equation 2.9.
10
the domain, knowing the pressure at any point on the boundary, one
needs to numerically integrate Equation 2.2 from the point of known
pressure to the point of interest, i.e.,
P2 - Pi =
1
!fd>^^l^dy
3x
dy
(2.10)
the
physical
are
represented
by
mathematical
equations, the next step is to describe the tornado wind field before
the building
interferes with
the flow.
of
down to the ground surface, or near the surface, and travels over the
ground at rates of up to 70 mph.
and vertical
directions
(Fig.
2.3).
The radial distribution of tangential velocity
VQ
is assumed to
The
11
Velocity Components:
v^ = Translational
v = Tangential
V
V.
Radial
Vertical
FIGURE 2.3.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL TORNADO
WIND VELOCITY VECTOR
12
the center until it reaches a maximum value v
excess of 200 mph.
which may be in
e ,max
-^
meteorological
(3) laboratory
models.
models,
Meteorological
(2)
engineering
models
attempt
models, and
to
satisfy
The
attempts to create small scale vortices which may or may not be representative
of an
actual
tornado.
Davies-Jones
(1976) presented a
For this
13
purpose, a simple
Rankine-Combined
vortex model
is adequate.
The
(2.11)
ar.2
The region where VQ = ^ is called a freee vortex region and the
governing equation in this region is
v2,(, = 0
(2.12)
Since w
must
is not moving, w
satisfies
regions but not at the interface between them (that is at the core
radius r ) , where a discontinuity in w
occurs.
As a result, there is
Solu-
tions with this vortex model moving through the domain showed erratic
pressure values at successive time steps.
The
14
Free Vortex
Region
Free Vortex
Region
a is a constant
''c
Inner ' Core
FIGURE 2.4.
Tornado moves at
translational
velocity v. .
15
assumption that the solution region is in the forced vortex field is
reasonable if the tornado core diameter is large compared to the size
of the building.
CHAPTER 3
NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES
The most commonly used numerical techniques for solving physical
problems having irregular domains are finite difference, finite element
and boundary element methods.
It is difficult to
integral
equations.
The
These
Of the three
methods, the boundary element method is preferred for the tornadostructure interaction problem for the following reasons:
1.
2.
The velocities at the surface of the building are the unknowns and can be solved directly by the boundary element
method.
16
17
3.
4.
The two-dimensional
To find the velocity distribution at any time t, Poisson's equation must be solved with proper boundary conditions (Eqs.
2.5 and
2.6).
integral
technique as
is sufficiently
(v ifj) (t)ds^ =
w^^^dn
(3.1)
3X
^'^ an
, 3*
^ an'
Q.
J n ^*^"
(3.2)
(3.3)
18
where 6 is a Dirac delta function, which has the following properties:
6.. = 0 for every point in the domain except point i
5. = at point i
and
T{;
6. d Q = ij*.
(3.4)
Q.
solution
for the
For
Laplace
Equation is
* = ^
'" <F^
(3.5)
Substituting
Equation
3.3
into Equation
3.2, the
(Fig.
following
^^ +
M. +
3n
w (|)dfi =
^ 3n
(3.6)
Q.
Equation 3.6 is valid for any point in the domain, but in order to
formulate the solution as a boundary problem it is necessary to apply
it at the boundary.
C.ii;. +
^ 3n
w (})dn =
li*dr
an
(3.7)
19
Element
FIGURE 3.1.
20
On a smooth boundary, C^. = 1/2.
points outside n, C^. = 0.
to the solid angle.
line enclosing the two-dimensional domain and the domain integrals are
calculated over the area.
since w
is a constant, the
(j> = V b
where
b = ^
[.n (i) . 1]
(3.9)
3n
Q.
C.^. +
^ iidr +
2b dr =
z 3n
3n ^
(3.10)
^ 3n
Numerical Analysi_s
21
reduction of the equation to an algebraic form is required that can be
solved by numerical methods.
called "nodes" and are taken to be in the middle of each element for
so-called "constant" elements.
wherein the unknowns may vary linearly or quadratically from one node
to another (Brebbia et al., 1984).
With
the
constant
element
the
(v
s
= ^)
are
s
3n'
The
Discretiz-
N
ij, | i dr + i:
C.ij^. + S
T 1
i=l } r
^"
j=l
^j
^
For constant
elements
'
-r.
J
the boundary
^ '"
Equation
3.11
^|^*dr
(3.11)
J=l
is always
w f^ dr = I
relationship
values inside the integral in Equation 3.11 are constant within each
22
element and w^ is a constant or zero as assumed.
Consequently, all of
j=l
The integrals
N
Jr. 3n
N /-
ij; +
j=l
>.3n
j=H.
1 3i|'J
l^dr relate the i^^ node to element j over which the in3n
(|)dr
of w.
3n
ij^.
^ +
can
be
+ B
= Z G.. (|i).
(3.13)
In general,
H.. when i f j
H.. = ^ . "J ,
^-^
' H. . + ^ when i = j
(3.14)
(1^)
(3.15)
(3.16)
23
dr\)
where U and Q are vectors of ^ and -^ at all the nodes. Here the H and
an
G matrices and the vector B depend only on the geometry of the problem.
They need not be calculated at each time step, even if it is a time
Note that N values of ^ and N values of v are
dependent problem.
unknowns on the left hand side and a vector on the right hand side that
is obtained by multiplying the matrix elements by the known values of
ip and V one obtains an equation of the form
AX = Y
(3.17)
*dr = J-
G. .
IJ
r.
^ M^\
m=l
and
j=i
and 3^1
z 1(|^)
-r. 13n^ dr = w^z j-i
.z T [--i
2 m=l
3n m wm-*]
^
and j^i
(3.18)
24
where ^^ is the element length and w^^ is the weight associated with the
numerical integration point m. Usually, four integration points are
sufficient to provide the required accuracy for two-dimensional problems.
The integrals corresponding to the singular elements, H.., G.. and
3b
analytically.
l^dr
|bdr =
1^ in dr = 0
3n
'j^i
and
l^dr =
"ii
3n
3r 3n
(3.19)
|i
|I dr = 0
3r 3n
J=i
J=i
3r
n
Gii=7
I T I C^" 'i 1 + 1]
(3.20)
3.3.
Example Problem
Any arbitrary value can be specified for ij;, because this is the
In this
25
= v^ on T^ Boundary
^
H
V ij; = 2a or 0 in fi
Building Shape
ij; = 0 in r^
Boundary
o
o
1-
400'
FIGURE 3.2.
DISCRETIZATION OF FLUID
AND BUILDING BOUNDARY
26
case ^l, is taken as zero on r^.
times the radius of the building from the building's center is considered satisfactory. The velocity v on the surface r is calculated
from the relationship v^ = -v^n^ + v n, where n, and n, are the direc^ s
x Z y l
1
c
tion cosines of the outward normal with respect to the x and y axes,
respectively.
For the current work, the r
elements.
ments, it was found that 96 elements gave essentially the same result
with large number of boundary elements.
27
lated using central finite difference and then Equation 2.8
cally
integrated from
point 1 to point 2.
is numeri-
rigid body rotation from the center of the circular cylinder (forced
vortex).
positive X-axis.
For inviscid flow, the standard solution for the velocity around a
circular cylinder for a particular radius r, angle e and time t is as
follows:
2
V = v j l - K) cos (e - 3)
r
t
^^
^2
v. = V. (1 - K)
sin (e - a) + ar
28
Building Shape
6 = tan" (-ta)
FIGURE 3.3.
29
where a is a constant and 6 = tan"^(-ta).
pressures on the surface of the cylinder are calculated using Equation 2.8.
tions per unit height of the building are calculated by integrating the
resolved pressures in the x and y directions. The forces in the x and
y directions can be derived as follows:
-2iTpv.aa
1/1 + at^
1 + a t
V = V.sin 3 + X a
y
t
Knowing the velocities in the x and y directions, the velocity v^ on
the surface r^ is calculated as follows:
V3 = -v^n^ + v^n^
(3.24)
where n^ and n are the direction cosines of the outward normal with
respect to the x and y axes, respectively. Using this as the boundary
condition on r
30
UJ
Q: OO
-I I
o _J
I =3
</)
LlJ
UJ Q^
3:
X
z a
"O
I-l o
<u
CO
UJ Q :
CJ UJ
Q: I
o
o
00
I
o
=>
u- o.
u- o
o o
z o
o z
oo <:
Qc: >-
Q2E
O
O
CO
LU
C3
O
LU
^
I
31
00
O =D
LU in
cc UJ
I-l a :
o1
_i
>- UJ
o
3: z:
Ho:
^ UJ
UJ o
HH h-
in
T3
=3
00 o.
O
U
o
C. o
O
<U
Ul
1
O)
E
1
UJ SL
U- O
Z^
u. <:
o >-
z o:
o
o
oo UJ
HH 3=
OC 1
<c
ck. :^
2: 0
01
0 u-
ro
Ul
Q:
C3
32
specific time intervals. These forces are also plotted in Figure 3.4
and 3.5 and are labeled "computer."
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH FINDINGS
In Chapter 3 a numerical model for solving the two-dimensional
inviscid flow problem for a tornado is developed and verified.
Using
To
tornado
Morrison's
forces
Equation
using
a semi-empirical
for tornado-like
flow.
equation
The
results
similar to
from
the
is the translational
= V. - ya
X
t
V = (x - V.)a
y
^
(4.1)
The origin of time t is taken when the tornado center coincides with
the center of the building.
34
directions, the velocity v^ on the surface of the building r^ (Fig.
3.2) is calculated using Equation 3.24.
knowing that
building in the x and y directions can be calculated for each time step
using the previously described numerical procedure. As an example, the
tornado forces on a circular building having a diameter of 80 ft are
calculated for the case where a = 1.333 and v^ = 70 ft/sec. The x and
y components of the resultant forces are plotted as a function of time
in Figure 4.1.
To show the capability of the computer model to calculate forces
on any cross sectional shape, forces are calculated on a square and a
rectangular cross section having the same area of cross section as that
of a circular cylinder having a diameter of 80 ft as shown in Figure
4.2.
The flow is assumed to be the same forced vortex flow as that for
resultant forces are plotted as a function of time for the square and
rectangular cross section in Figures 4.3 and 4.4, respectively.
Because Wen (1975) proposed to use Morrison's Equation for calculating tornado loads on structures, the results obtained from the use
of Morrison's Equation are compared with results from the computer
model.
To compare the results from the two methods, the same flow
Q,(t) =ipcA(t)
(4.2)
Qy(t) = r V S ( t )
35
:P/
...
C3
na
o
-J
u o
Sr-
&'^
I
X
I
>-
II
,0
r 't
=3
CO
4-
3
o
_l
cc u<:
_J X
=> U l
o
on QC
-< O
ca
n-f
>
Ul
z o
o on
o
.Ei
00 u_
d
(/)
"O
c=
o
u
iZI
CO
0
01
-J
Ul
z o
o o
<-) :s
U l oc
C_} LU
O =J
C2i
Ll.
Q.
z z:
o on
/
a:
ID
1^
(C
-^
rt
-*
in
:^j./sdL>| UL aojoj
36
Direction
of Tornado
Travel
Direction
of Tornado
Travel
00
58'
b) Rectangular Cross Section
FIGURE 4.2.
37
pCO
c
o
^
c
o
r-
+J
(J
4->
U
L.
r-
r-
1
X
ef
o
-J
2
H-l O
=> _ J
1
1
1
1
1
(U
I-H
CO u_
LU X
QC LU
a: I
=3 Q :
>-
cro
oo >
a: Q
D H-
o on
o
0 0 Li_
in
a
c
o
u
O)
oo
OJ
O
-J
O . LU
21 Q
O
O
O 21
UJ on
O LU
Q i I
O =3
u.
o
o
a:
o
CO
./
.P^'
LU
.?^'
W
N
LU
CJ
:;^/sdL>| UL aouoj
ft
I
on
cu
a.
2:
o
o
o
Q:
38
on
on o
<c >
_i
=D Q
CD LU
Z
O
a: Q:
I o
O Ll_
LU
Q:
I-H
a:
O
Q
O
00 z :
in
a
c
o
o
<u
CO
I
I
z on
o =3
Q- O.
o o
o o
on on
o uLL.
o z
Q -
<C Q
Z _J
on *-t
o ^
I OQ
LU
en
Z3
C5
Co
;D
ift
"^
ffJ
"H
^J./SdL>| UL 90J0J
39
where a^(t) and 9^(1) are accelerations in the x and y directions,
respectively.
1.1).
'x
3V
3v
'--n*\^*'y^
(4.3)
3v
3V
3V
= ^ + V s_ + w
3t
X 3x
y.
y 3y
Substituting v^ and v^ from Equation 4.1 into Equation 4.3, the accelerations a^ and a at the center of the cylinder and the inertia
force can be written as follows:
lx=y=0 = \ t "
^ lx=y=0 =
(4.4)
model.
4.4, whereas the force component in the y direction calculated from the
numerical model is not zero.
acceleration terms given in Equation 4.3 do not give correct values for
tornado flow assumed.
40
1^1:Simplified Procedure to Calculate Tornado
Forces rrom inviscid Flow Theory
An approach for applying Morrison's Equation, which is in agreement with results from the numerical model -for a tornado-like flow
is proposed herein. Tornado forces are obtained for both forced and free
vortex flow from the results of the numerical model and by applying
basic fluid dynamics principles.
4.2.1
cylinder.
The circula-
C^fv^ds
(4.5)
When the forced vortex moves from left to right along the x axis, the
lift force acts in the negative y direction.
Q
= -pcv^ = -2iipaa v^
(^-6)
41
The inertia force in tornado-like flow may be calculated using the
second term of Morrison's Equation (Eqn 1.1).
^ " ^m P^^*"^^ 0^ C'^oss Section) x (acceleration)
(4.7)
The
components.
flow, the
in Equation
4.1.
This acceleration
toward
the center of
*x = -
3v,
3V
'^ + V
3t
X 3x
'^\
+ V
3t
(4.8)
5v '
^
3y_
^\
J'
'y'--
3V
3x
-TT^
^y _
3V^
= 3t
3V
3t
9V
3V
- A + V ^ + V
^
3t
X 3x
y 3y
3v
3t
9v^
x 3x
3V
+ V
y 9y J
(4.9)
42
After simplification. Equation 4.9 becomes
= -
V 3yJ
[x 3x
-\
+ V
3V
(4.10)
3V 1
- ^ + V
^
X 3x
y 3y
In order to verify the above relationships, inertia force components in the x and y directions were calculated using Equations 4.7
and 4.10.
For rotational
At this stage, it
At the end
simplified pro-
Using C
To
building and at an angle e from the x axis (see Fig. 4.5). The velociV = v.cose at- y'a
ties in the x and y directions
any time t for forced vortex flow are
X
t
(4.11)
V = v.sine + x'a
y
t
43
Tornado
Path
^x
44
where
x' = X + D sine - v.t cose
(4.12)
In the above equations it is assumed that the time t is zero when the
tornado center coincides with point A in Fig. 4.5.
of 9 and D the expressions for lift and inertia forces in the x and y
directions are designated as Cases 1, 2 and 3 in Table 4.1. From these
values, the forces in the x and y directions are calculated using
Equation 4.5 and adding lift forces.
can conclude that the results from the simplified procedure agree very
well with computer results for a forced vortex flow.
4.2.2
For free vortex flow, it is found that Equation 4.10 is not valid
to compute accelerations, since the fluid is irrotational.
Equation 4.3 is used to calculate the forces.
Instead,
(^-1^)
45
4J
CM
C5
u
s.
o
cc
o
CVJ
CsJ
<o
E
r4->
s-
O
Q.
t=
Q.
LU
&-
II
II
II
CVJ
>>
(U
+J
o
s.
o
>
CVJ
ta
II
ar
c
o
tat
0)
Ori
TAB
ar
0
LD
II
Q.
ar
>
II
CD
II
O
Q.
CVJ
CVJ
1
II
II
CVJ
X
ar
CVJ
ar
>
lO
4->
>
CVJ
td
a
Q.
t=
o
LO
^10
o
u
+->
>
CVJ
m
s
CJ.
LD
<*
"^
U)
4->
>
CVJ
(TJ
Q.
t=
CVJ
t=
CVJ
'
CVJ
CVJ
1
II
II
II
II
t=
11
cr
Lf)
II
<I>
CVJ
(/)
rtJ
>>
^
c
p-
ar
o
O
C31
r
Ll.
1-H
^-^
un
*
^
(/)
o
u M
>
CVJ
a
t=
CVJ
cr
T3
11
LU
_l
CVJ
X
o
Q.
^
CVJ
O
^^
t=
II
t=
in
a:
CJ
CM
s.
o
oo
m
E
CVJ
C..3
CC
O
CVJ
I
^x
ro
CJ
Q.
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The expressions for acceleration components in free vortex flow for all
three cases can be derived as in forced vortex flow using Equation 4.3.
Because the procedure is somewhat lengthy, though straightforward, the
general expressions for accelerations are listed in Table 4.2 without
derivation.
This difference
53
Keeping k = ar
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In reality, fluid flow is viscous and turbulent.
The value of C
m
for any cross section will be reduced from the value for inviscid flow.
Sarpkaya (1963) found that the C^^ value reduced from 2 to 1.3 for a
straight, constant accelerated flow over a circular cylinder.
rotational flows found in tornadoes, the C
viscous flow.
For
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND NEED FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
5.1
A numerical
model
with
Conclusion
sufficient
simplifying
assumptions
to
However, to include
In
The fluid is
With the
61
62
Chapter 3.
force
By properly interpreting
Al-
The results from the simplified procedure compare favorably with those
obtained from the numerical model as presented in Chapter 4.
Thus, the principal contribution of this research is a f i r s t step
in the process of solving for the forces on buildings during tornadoes
through f l u i d dynamic principles.
used.
voluminous calculations.
Possible future
63
subjects
that must
be
investigated
2.
A numerical
model
of tornado-structure
interaction which
4.
An empirical method for determining design loads on structures subjected subjected to tornadoes which can be obtained
from the results of the numerical model.
LIST OF REFERENCES
1.
Banerjee,
P.K.
and
Butterfield
2.
3.
D .
' ^^^^^^^^
4.
Chang, .CC
1971, "Tornado Wind Effects on Buildings and Strur
tures with Laboratory Simulation," Proceedings. Third^Tntp.n.t-"'"
a Conference on wind Effects on BuiIdings^and Structures
art
I I , No. 6, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 231-240.
uccureb, rart
^'
^IT%\''A'C<
6.
7.
8.
9.
Fairweather, G., Rizzo, F . J . , Shippy, D.J. and Wu, Y.S., 1979, "On
the Numerical Solution of Two-Dimensional Potential Problems by
Improved Boundary Integral Equation Method," Journal of Computational Physics, Vol. 3 1 , pp. 96-112.
10.
11.
12.
IQAI
loo/i
64
65
13. McDonald, J.R., 1970, "Structural Response of ;, Tu,on^. c^
Building to the Lubbock Tornado," S t o ^ Research Repor^^^^^^^^^
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX.
'^eporL :)KKUI,
14. Mehta, K.C., McDonald. J.R., Minor, J.E. and Sanger A l IQ7I
"Response of of Structural Systems to the Lubbock Storm "
Itlk
Research Report SRR03, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. TX^^
15. Minor, J.E., Mehta, K.C. and McDonald, J.R., 1972, "Failure nf
Structures Due to Extreme Winds," Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. STll, Proc. Paper 9324, pp 245516. Redmann, G.H., et al., 1983, "Windfield and Trajectory Models for
Tornado-Propelled Objects," report submitted to Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
17.
18.
21.
Seniwongse, M.N., 1977, "Inelastic Response of Multistory Buildings to Tornadoes," Ph.D. Dissertation, Texas Tech University,
Lubbock, TX.
22.