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H A P T E R
2 8
QUANTITATIVE TOOLS
28.1
28.2
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.3
28.4
28.8
Ampre's law
Solenoids and toroids
Magnetic fields due to
currents
Magnetic field of a moving
charged particle
n this chapter we investigate further the relationship between the motion of charged particles and
the occurrence of magnetic fields. As we shall see,
all magnetism is due to charged particles in motion
whether moving along a straight line or spinning about
an axis. It takes a moving or spinning charged particle
to create a magnetic field, and it a takes another
moving or spinning charged particle to feel that
magnetic field. We shall also discuss various methods
for creating magnetic fields, which have wide-ranging
applications in electromechanical machines and instruments.
Concepts
I
1
F21
F12
F21
Fbw
F12
Fwb
(a)
(b)
(c)
S
Figure 28.1 Magnetic interactions between (a)
two bar magnets 1 and 2, (b) a bar magnet (m)
and a current-carrying wire (w), (c) two currentcarrying wires 1 and 2, (d) a bar magnet (m) and
a moving positively charged particle (q), (e) two
positively charged particles 1 and 2 moving parallel to each other. ( f ) There is no magnetic interaction between a bar magnet and a stationary
charged particle.(g) Two stationary charged particles 1 and 2 interact only electrostatically.
q + Fbq
F21
q1
B
F21
B
F12
F21
q2
B
Fqb
(d)
(e)
q
+
N
(f)
F21
q1
q2
(g)
F21
line of
motion
P4
P3
I
P2
I
P1
(a)
P5
(b)
For now, well ignore how to make charge carriers flow through
such a loop. In Section 28.7 well discuss physical arrangements
that accomplish the situation illustrated in Figure 28.4.
What does the magnetic field of such a current-carrying loop, called a current loop for short, look like?
To answer this question, we treat the current loop as a
collection of small segments of a current-carrying wire
and determine the direction of the magnetic field at
various points around the loop. As we did in Chapter
27, we shall assume all currents to be constant in the remagnetic
field line
of segment 1
central
axis
B1
B2
magnetic
field line
of segment 2
1
I
I
(a)
(b)
B2
B1
B1 = B2
2
I
(c)
(d)
B2
2
1
2
B1
B1
B2
D
(e)
Concepts
(f)
(a)
(b)
(c)
N
m
I
spin
(a)
(b)
is thinner
the same
as the
the magnetic
all the
black curved
linesdirection
because label of
is superimposed
on a fewfield.
of these lines. Of
course, I soon saw my mistake &, probably more to the point, stu reading Sec 28.3 won't be
coming to it totally, totally cold the way I am, not having working on the book in weeks, but
still . . . . . wd be good to have more labels. Also, have you and Margot considered different
colors for B lines and I lines? Isn't that pretty standard in books these days: black for current
Concepts
1 point fingers of
right hand in
direction of current
current
1 curl fingers in
direction of
current
B
2 curl fingers from
current to B
direction of B
Fw
I
I
TABLE 28.1
Right-hand rules
Right-hand
rule
thumb
points along
fingers
curl
vector product C A B
from A to B
current rule
current
along B-field
force rule
magnetic force
from current to B-field
Concepts
Execute plan: I begin by sketching the loop and indicating the direction of the magnetic field (Figure
curl from
current to B
current
N
Evaluate result: I can verify my answer by determining the force exerted by the magnetic field on each
side of the loop and see if these forces cause a torque.
The front and rear sides experience no force because
the current
through them is either parallel or antiparallel to B . To find the direction of the force exerted
on the left side of the loop, I point my right-hand fin-
(a)
(b)
Figure 28.13
pencil sketch for loops and vectors, but keep rendered hands
align
with B .
Once the loop has rotated to theposition shown in
B
m
no current
m= 0
+
commutator
(a)
Electric motors
curl from
current to B
+
I
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 28.14 Operating principle of an electric motor. At instant (b), the current direction through the current loop is reversed.
E dA =
qenc
eo
B dA = 0
I
closed
surface
closed
surface
E dl = 0
closed
path 1
closed
path 2
E
q
Figure 28.15 Surface and line integrals of electric and magnetic fields
B dl 0
10
always zero.
Let us next consider line integrals of electric and
magnetic fields. As we saw in Section 25.5, the line integral of the electrostatic field around a closed path is
always zero. Consider, for example, the line integral of
the electrostatic field around closed path 1 in Figure
28.15c. Because the electrostatic field generated by the
charged particle at the center of path 1, is always
R1
R2
arc 2
R1
Concepts
R2
I
E
E
closed
path 2
(a)
(b)
B
(a)
B
(b)
Figure 28.17 (a) A noncircular closed path encircling a current-carrying wire. (b) Approximation of the path consisting
of small arcs and radial segments.
We can make the deviations from a circular path progressively more complicated, but as illustrated in Figure
28.17, any path can always be broken down into small
segments which are either radial or circular and concentric with the wire. The radial segments never contribute
to the line integral because the magnetic field is always
perpendicular to them, while the circular segments always add up to a single complete revolution. So, in conclusion,
The value of the line integral of the magnetic field
along a closed path encircling a current-carrying
wire is independent of the shape of the path.
28.9 What happens to the value of the line integral along the closed path in Figure 28.17a when
(a) the direction of the current through the wire
is reversed; (b) a second wire carrying an identical current is added parallel to and to the right
of the first one (but still inside the path); (c) the
current through the second wire is reversed?
Next lets examine the line integral along a closed
path near a current-carrying wire lying outside the
path. One such path is shown in Figure 28.18 as two
arcs joined by two radial segments. As before, the radial segments do not contribute to the line integral.
The magnitudes of the line integrals along arcs 1 and
2 are equal, but because the direction of arc 2 is opposite the direction of the magnetic field, the line integral along that arc is negative. Consequently, the line
integral along the entire path adds up to zero. We can
again extend this statement to a path of a different
form, but as long as the path does not encircle the current-carrying wire, the line integral is zero.
I
I
I
Amprian path
arc 1
4
R1
R2
1
arc 2
B
11
12
Concepts
[(H1F)]
13
14
[(H1F)]
14
ELF-QUIZ
1. Determine the direction of the magnetic force exerted at the center of the wire or on the particles in Figure 28.20.
N
+e
+e
+e
S
(a)
Figure 28.20
+e
(b)
(c)
(d)
2. Determine the direction of the magnetic field at P due to (a) the current loop in Figure 28.21a and (b) segments A and C of the current loop in Figure 28.21b:
(b)
2I
2
4
5
C
(a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Figure 28.21
3. Determine in which direction the current loop rotates (a) in Figure 28.21c and (b) in Figure 28.21d.
4. (a) Determine the current encircled by the five Amprian paths in Figure 28.21e: (b) Rank the loops according to the magnitude of the line integral of the magnetic field along each loop, greatest first.
ANSWERS:
1. (a) No magnetic force exerted by the magnet on the wire because the magnetic field at the
N
location of the wire and the current are antiparallel. (b) The magnetic force acting on the
S
particle is upward. To see this, consider the moving positively charged particle to be current
in the direction of the velocity of the particle and then use the right-hand force rule, which
N
makes your thumb point upward. (c) The magnetic dipole moments of the two spinning parS
ticles both point up and so the particles attract each other, just like two bar magnets oriented the way the spinning particles are (Figure 28.22a). (d) The magnetic dipole moment of
(a)
the negative particle points down, that of the positive particle points up, and so the two par- Figure 28.22
ticles repel each other. The bar magnet comparable orientation is shown in Figure 28.22b.
N
S
S
N
(b)
2. (a) The right-hand dipole rule tells you that the magnetic dipole of the loop and the magnetic field produced by the loop
points to the right at P. (b) Segments A and B both contribute a magnetic field that points out of the page at P and so the
magnetic field due to both segments also points out of the page at P.
3. (a)
for the current loop points to the right and so the current loop rotates counter-clockwise about an axis perpendic
ular to the page and through the center of the loop. (b)
for the current loop points out of the page, and so the loop rotates about an axis aligned with the vertical sides of the loop. The right side of the loop moves up out of the page, and the
left side moves down into the page.
4. (a) Loop 1 encircles two currents I in the same direction as the magnetic field: +2I. Loop 2 encircles the same two currents
in the opposite direction: 2I. Loop 3 encircles 2I in the direction opposite the magnetic field direction: 2I. Loop 4 encircles all three currents, which add up to zero. Loop 5 encircles I in the direction opposite the magnetic field direction and
2I in the same direction as the magnetic field: +I. (b) Each line integral is proportional to the current enclosed, making
the ranking 1 = 2 = 3, 5, 4.
15
O B. dl oIenc
(constant currents),
(28.1)
3
path into infinitesimally small segments dl , one of which is shown in Figure 28.23.
The segments are directed tangentially along the loop in the direction of integra
tion. For each segment dl , we take the scalar product of dl with the magnetic
field B at the location of that segment, B. dl , and then we add up the scalar products for all segments of the closed path. In the limit that the segment lengths approach zero, this summation becomes the line integral on the left in Eq. 28.1. In the
situation illustrated in Figure 28.23, we cannot easily carry out this integration because of the irregular shape of the path. Just like Gauss law in electrostatics, however, Ampres law allows us to easily determine the magnetic field for highly
symmetric current configurations. The general procedure is outlined in the procedure box on page . The next two examples illustrate how this procedure can be
applied to simplify calculating the line integral in Ampres law.
Example 28.3: Magnetic field generated by a long straight current-carrying
wire
A long straight wire carries a current of magnitude I. What is the magnitude of
the magnetic field a distance d from the wire?
1
Getting started: I begin by making a sketch of the wire. I know that the magnetic field is circular, so I draw one circular field line around the wire. Using the
right-hand current rule, I determine the direction in which the magnetic field points
along the circle and indicate that with an arrowhead in my drawing (Figure 28.24).
I3
2
I1
I2
dl
16
Quantitative Tools
5. For each Amprian path calculate the line integral of the magnetic field along the loop. Express
your result in terms of the unknown magnitude
of the magnetic field B along the Amprian path.
2 Devise plan: To determine the magnitude of the magnetic field, I can use Ampres law (Eq. 28.1). If I let the field line in my sketch be the Amprian path, the
magnetic field is constant in magnitude and tangential all along the circular loop,
simplifying the integral on the left in Eq. 28.1. The direction of the Amprian path
is the same as that of the magnetic field; I denote the radius of the circular loop by
d (Figure 28.24).
Execute plan: With my choice of Amprian path, dl and B are always point
ing in the same direction, and so B. dl B dl . Because the magnitude B of the
magnetic field is the same all around the loop, I can write for the left side of Eq.
28.1
dl
O B. dl OB dl BOdl .
The line integral on the right is the sum of the lengths of all segments dl around
the Amprian path; that is to say, it is equal to the circumference of the circle.
Therefore I have
Figure 28.24
17
oIenc
oI ,
substituting the right sides of this equation and the preceding one into Eq. 28.1, I
get B(2d)
oI or
B
oI
.
2d
4 Evaluate result: My result shows that the magnitude of the magnetic field is proportional to I, as I would expect (doubling the current should double the magnetic field), and inversely proportional to the perpendicular distance d from the wire.
I know from Chapter 24 that the electric field is also inversely proportional to d
in cases exhibiting cylindrical symmetry, so my result makes sense.
28.12 Suppose the wire in Example 28.3 has a radius R and the current is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the wire. Follow the procedure
of Example 28.3 to calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field inside (r <
R) and outside (r > R) the wire.
P
d
K
sheet
length
P
d
Getting started: I begin by drawing the sheet and indicating a point P a distance
d above the sheet where I am to determine the magnetic field (Figure 28.25a). I
draw a lengthwise arrow to show the current through the sheet. If the magnitude
of the current per unit of width is K, I know that a strip of width w of the sheet carries a current of magnitude Kw.
(b)
B1
Devise plan: Ill solve this problem using Ampres law (Eq. 28.1). I first need
to determine the direction of the magnetic field on either side of the sheet. To this
end, I first divide the sheet into thin parallel strips the length of which run in the
direction of the current. I then treat each strip as a current-carrying wire Figure
28.25b is a cross-sectional view of the sheet after I have divided it into strips. The
perspective here is looking into the sheet in the direction opposite the direction of
the current. Using the right-hand current rule, I find that the strip right underneath point P contributes a magnetic field at P that points parallel to the sheet
and to the left. Next I look at the contributions from the two strips labeled 1 and
2 in Figure 28.25c, equidistant on either side of P. The two large gray circles show
the magnetic field lines from these two strips that go through P. Because the magnitudes of the contributions from the two strips are equal, the vector sum of their
contributions to the magnetic field also points parallel to the sheet and to the
left.The same argument can be applied to any other pair of strips that are equidistant on either side of P. Thus, at P the magnetic field due to the entire sheet must
be parallel to the sheet and to the left. As similar reasoning shows that the magnetic field below is also parallel to the sheet and points to the right.
sheet
width
(a)
Btot
B2
1
(c)
Amprian
path
C
B dl
2d
l
D
G
(d)
Figure 28.25
18
Quantitative Tools
To exploit what I know about the magnetic field, I choose the rectangular loop
ABDG in Figure 28.25d as my Amprian path. I let the direction of the loop be the
same as that of the magnetic field, as shown in Figure 28.5d. The width of this loop
is w and its height is 2d.
3
Execute plan: I can write the line integral around the loop as the sum of four
line integrals, one over each side of the loop:
O B. dl
B. dl
B. dl
B. dl
B. dl .
Along the two vertical sides CD and GA the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the path and so B. dl is zero; along each of the two horizontal sides dl and B
point in the same direction, and so B. dl B dl .
Symmetry requires that the magnitude of the magnetic field a distance d below
the sheet be the same as the magnitude a distance d above it (because flipping the
sheet upside down should not alter the physical situation). Therefore I can take this
magnitude B out of the integral:
O B. dl
B dl
B dl B
dl B
dl .
These two line integrals dl , yield the lengths of the two horizontal sides and so
the left side of Ampres law (Eg. 28.1) becomes
(1)
To calculate the right side of Ampres law, I must first determine the amount
of current encircled by the Amprian path. If the magnitude of the current per
unit of width through the sheet is K, the magnitude of the current through the
closed path of width w is Kw. The right side of Eq. 28.1 thus becomes
oIenc oKw .
(2)
Substituting the right sides of Eqs. 1 and 2 into Ampres law, I get 2Bw
oKw
or
(a)
K
K
(b)
B 12
oK .
4 Evaluate result: Because the sheet has planar symmetry (Section 24.4), I expect
that, in analogy to the electric field of a flat charged sheet, the magnetic field on
either side of the sheet is uniform. That is, the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field do not depend on distance from the sheet. Indeed, my result does not
depend on the distance d to the sheet. It also makes sense that the magnitude of
the magnetic field is proportional to the current per unit width K through the
sheet.
28.6 Solenoids
19
windings
28.13 (a) What are the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field between the
parallel current-carrying sheets of Figure 28.26a. What is the direction of B outside these sheets? (b) Repeat for the sheets of Figure 28.26b.
A solenoid is a long, tightly wound helical coil of wire (Figure 28.27a). In general,
the diameter of the coil is much smaller than the length of the coil. When a current enters a solenoid at one end and exits at the other end, the solenoid generates
a strong magnetic field. If a magnetic core is placed in the solenoid, the solenoid
exerts a strong magnetic force on the core, turning electrical energy into motion.
Solenoids are therefore often used in electrical valves and actuators. Because solenoids are generally very tightly wound, we can treat the windings of a solenoid
as a stack of closely spaced current loops (Figure 28.27b).
Figure 28.28a shows that the magnetic field inside a long solenoid must be directed along the axis of the solenoid. Consider, for example, point P inside the solenoid. The figure shows the field lines of two of the loops, one on either side of P
and equidistant from that point. The magnetic field contributions of the two loops
give rise to a magnetic field that points along the axis of the solenoid. The same argument can be applied to any other pair of loops and to any other point inside the
solenoid. Therefore the magnetic field everywhere inside a long solenoid must be
directed parallel to the solenoid axis.
Because magnetic field lines form loops, all the lines that go through the solenoid must loop back from one end of the solenoid to the other. Because there is
much more space available outside the solenoid, the density of the field lines as they
loop back is much smaller than the field line density inside the solenoid. The longer
the solenoid, the lower the field line density in the immediate vicinity outside the
solenoid. In the limit of an infinitely long solenoid, we can expect the magnetic
field outside the solenoid to approach zero.
We can now use Ampres law to determine the magnitude of the magnetic
field when a current of magnitude I flows through the solenoid. Exploiting what
we know about the direction of the magnetic field, we choose the rectangular path
ACDG in Figure 28.28b as the Amprian path. Along AC, the magnetic field is
parallel to the path, and so B. dl B dl . Along CD and GA, the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the path, which means that these segments do not contribute:
B. dl 0 . Because the magnetic field is zero outside the solenoid, the segment
DG also does not contribute. The line integral on the left side of Ampres law
(Eq. 28.1) thus becomes
O B. dl
B dl .
(28.2)
The cylindrical symmetry of the solenoid requires the magnitude of the magnetic
field to be constant along AC, and so we can pull B out of the integral:
O B. dl
B dl B
dl Bl ,
(28.3)
axis
I
(a)
current loops
(b)
20
B2
Btot
field line
of loop 1
B1
Ienc nlI .
field line
of loop 2
(a)
I into page
Amprian
path
B dl
A
I out of page
l
D
G
(b)
(28.4)
Substituting Eqs. 28.3 and 28.4 into Ampres law (Eq. 28.1), we find
Quantitative Tools
Bl onlI ,
(28.5)
(28.6)
This result shows that the magnetic field inside the solenoid depends on the
current through the windings and on the number of windings per unit length. The
field within the solenoid is uniform it does not depend on position inside the solenoid. Although Eq. 28.6 holds for an infinitely long solenoid, the result is pretty
accurate even for a solenoid of finite length. For a solenoid that is at least four
times as long as it is wide, the magnetic field is very weak outside the solenoid and
approximately uniform and equal to the value given in Eq. 28.6 inside. An example of the magnetic field of a finite solenoid is shown in Figure 28.29. Note how the
magnetic field pattern resembles that of the magnetic field around a bar magnet.
If a solenoid is bent into a circle so that its two ends are connected (Figure
28.30a), we obtain a toroid. The magnetic field lines in the interior of a toroid (that
is, the donut-shaped cavity enclosed by the coiled wire) close on themselves, thus
they do not need to reconnect outside the toroid, as in the case of a solenoid. The
entire magnetic field is contained inside the cavity. Symmetry requires the field
lines to form circles inside the cavity; the field lines run in the direction of your right
thumb when you curl the fingers of your right hand along the direction of the current through the windings. Figure 28.30b shows a few representative magnetic field
lines in a cross section of the toroid where the current goes into the page on the
Photograph of magnetic
field of finite coil
(see cover of Sep 09 Phys Today)
(a)
(b)
Figure 28.29 (a) Magnetic field line pattern in solenoid of finite length. (b) Magnetic field line pattern of a finite solenoid,
made visible via iron filings.
21
outside rim of the toroid (as at point P, for example) and out of the page on the
inside rim (as at point Q).
To find the magnitude of the magnetic field, we apply Ampres law (Eq. 28.1)
to a circular path of radius r that coincides with a magnetic field line (Figure
28.30b). Because the field is tangential to the integration path, we have
B. dl B dl . Furthermore symmetry requires the magnitude of the magnetic field
to be the same all along the field line, and so we can pull B out of the integration:
O B. dl OB dl BOdl B(2r) .
I into
page
Q
P
I out
of page
(28.7)
(a)
The Amprian path encircles one side of all of the windings, and so if there are N
windings, the enclosed current is
Ienc NI .
Amprian
loop
(28.8)
Substituting these last two equations into Ampres law (Eq. 28.1), we find
B
o
NI
(toroid).
2r
(28.9)
dl
This result tells us that in contrast to a solenoid, the magnitude of the magnetic field
in a toroid is not constant it depends on the distance r to the axis through the
center of the toroid.
Example 28.5: Square toroid
A toroid has 1000 square windings carrying a current of 1.5 mA (Figure 28.31). The
length of each side of the squares is 10 mm, and the toroids inner radius is 10 mm.
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the square windings?
1 Getting started: The fact that the loops are square does not change the magnetic field pattern. The magnetic field is still circular as in Figure 28.30b and any
of the arguments given in the derivation of Eq. 28.9 still apply.
P
magnetic
field line
10 mm
10 mm
2 Devise plan: I can use Eq. 28.9 to determine the magnitude of the magnetic
field.
3 Execute plan: The distance from the center of the toroid to the center of the
square loops is 10 mm + 5 mm = 15 mm, and so
B (4 10 7 T . mA)
(1000) (1.5 10
2 (15 mm)
3
A)
20 10 6 T
Evaluate result: The magnetic field I obtain is rather small comparable to the
Earth magnetic field, but the current through the toroid is very small, so my answer
is not unreasonable.
22
Quantitative Tools
28.14 Use Ampres law to find the magnetic field outside a toroid at a distance r from the center of the toroid (a) when r is larger than the toroids
outer radius and (b) when r is smaller than the toroids inner radius.
P
dBs
dl
(b)
current path
u = 90
dl
rsP
rsP
rs
dBs
P
rP
O
(c)
a magnetic field
dBs . (c) The
Ampres law allows us to determine the magnetic field in only a few symmetrical situations involving current-carrying conductors. For any other situation, such
as the one illustrated in Figure 28.32a, Ampres law is of little help. Suppose, for
example, that we are interested in determining the magnetic field at point P due
to the current of magnitude I through this conductor.To calculate this field, we develop a procedure that parallels the procedure we developed in Section 23.7 to
calculate the electric field of continuous charge distributions.
We begin by treating the wire as a current path and dividing it into small seg
ments each of length dl. For each segment we can define a vector dl that has
length dl and points in the direction of the current. One such vector segment is
shown in Figure 28.32b. Let the magnetic field at P due to this segment be dBs . If
we can find an expression for the magnetic field due to the segment dl at an arbitrary position, we can determine the contributions of all the segments making up
the wire to the magnetic field at P and sum these to find B . In the limit of infinitesimally small segments, this summation becomes an integral:
B
dBs
(28.10)
current
path
where the integration is to be taken along the path followed by the current that
is a path in the shape of the wire and in the direction of the current.
Before we can carry out the integration, we need to find an expression for the mag
netic field dBs of a current-carrying segment dl . Because the magnetic field caused
by one small segment is too feeble to measure, we cannot determine this field experimentally. From the expression for the magnetic field of a long straight current-carrying
wire, however, it is possible to deduce what the field of a segment such as dl should be.
Let us first examine the direction of the magnetic field contribution dBs due to
the segment dl that is located such that dl is perpendicular to the vector rsP
pointing from dl to P (q = 90, see Figure 28.32c). The field lines of this segment
are circles centered on the line of motion of the charge carriers causing the cur
rent through dl (see Figures 28.2a and 28.32c). Therefore the magnetic field at P
due to dl is tangent to the circular field line through P. The direction of dBs can
you curl the fingers of your right hand from dl to r sP in Figure 28.32c, your thumb
23
distance rsP to the segment. The field line picture for magnetic fields suggests that
the magnetic field should decrease with distance rsP as 1r2sP , just like the electric
field. Finally, for any other segment than the one shown in Figure 28.32c we expect
the magnetic field to depend on the angle q between dl and r sP : for q = 0 (which
is along the direction of the current) the magnetic field is zero and for q = 90 the
magnetic field is maximum. The trigonometric function that fits this behavior is
sin q. Putting all this information in mathematical form, we obtain
dBs
o I dl sin
(0 ).
4
r2sP
(28.11)
The proportionality factor
o4 is obtained by deriving this expression from Ampres law, but the mathematics is beyond the scope of this book. Instead, we use
the reverse approach and show in Example 28.6 that Eq. 28.11 yields the correct result for a long straight current-carrying wire.
Incorporating what we know about the direction of dBs , we can also write Eq.
28.11 in vector form:
dBs
o I dl rsP
(constant current),
4
r2sP
(28.12)
where r sP is the unit vector pointing along rsP . Equation 28.12 is known as the
Biot-Savart law. By substituting Eq. 28.12 into Eq. 28.10, we have a prescription for
calculating the magnetic field produced by any constant current.
Example 28.6: Another look at the magnetic field generated by a long
straight current-carrying wire
x
A long straight wire carries a current of magnitude I. Use the Biot-Savart law to
dx
rsP
Getting started: I begin by making a sketch of the wire (Figure 28.33). I choose
the x axis along the direction of the wire. Because the magnetic field produced by
the wire has cylindrical symmetry, I can set the origin anywhere along the axis
without loss of generality. For simplicity, I let the origin be at the height of point
P. I assume the wire is of infinite length.
2
Devise plan: To use the Biot-Savart law I need to divide the wire into small
segments, determine the magnetic field due to the segments, and then take their
sum. In the limit of infinitesimally small segments, this sum becomes the integral
given by Eq. 28.10 where the wire is the current path along which the integration
is carried out.
I indicate one such segment in my sketch; the magnetic field dBs at P due to a
segment dx of the wire is given by Eq. 28.12. The unit vector r sP in this expres
sion points from dx to P. The direction dBs is given by the right-hand current
rule: I point my right thumb along the direction of the current and curl my fingers
around the wire to find the direction of dBs (into the page at P in my sketch). Al
ternatively, I can use the vector product dx rsP to find the direction of dBs : I
line up the fingers of my right hand along dx in Figure 28.33 and curl them to
ward r sP , which points from the segment dx to P. When I do this, my thumb points
rsP
d
I
dBs
(into page)
Figure 28.33
24
Quantitative Tools
in the direction of the magnetic field. Both methods yield the same result: dBs
points into the page.
Note that all the segments dx along the wire produce a magnetic field in the
same direction. This means I can take the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of dBs
to determine the magnitude of the magnetic field at P, and so I can use Eq. 28.11
to express dBs in terms of dx and integrate the resulting expression from x
to x
to determine the magnitude of the magnetic field at P.
3 Execute plan: Because r and q in Eq. 28.11 both depend on x, I need to exsP
press them in terms of x before I can carry out the integration. By the Pythagorean theorem,
r2sP x2 d2 ,
and remembering that sin sin(180 ) , I write
sin
d
d
.
2
rsP
x d2
oI
d
1
Id
dx
,
dx o
4 x2d2 x2 d2
4 [x2d2 ] 32
and integrating this result over the length of the wire, I have
B
oId
4
dx
Id 1
x
o
[x d2 ] 32
4 d2 [x2d2 ] 12
2
B
x
,
x
oI
,
2d
Evaluate result: This is identical to the result I obtained using Ampres law in
Example 28.3.
25
wire 1 on wire 2, we must first determine the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field generated by wire 1 at the location of wire 2 and then substitute this information into Eq. 27.8, which gives the magnetic force exerted on a straight
FB Il B ,
(28.13)
I1
I2
B1
B
F12
where l is a vector whose magnitude is given by the length l of the wire and whose
direction is given by that of the current through the wire. Using the right-hand
current rule, we find that the magnetic field B1 generated by wire 1 at the location
of wire 2 points into the page (Figure 28.34). The result I obtained in Example 28.6
gives the magnitude of this field:
B1
oI1
.
2d
(28.14)
Because the magnetic field is perpendicular to l , Eq. 28.13 yields for the magnitude of the magnetic force acting on wire 2
FB12 I2lB1 ,
(28.15)
R
f
FB12
olI1I2
(parallel straight wires carrying constant currents). (28.16)
2d
The direction of this force follows from the vector product in Eq. 28.13: using the
right-hand force rule (place the figures of your right hand along l in Figure 28.34,
which points in the direction of I2, and bend them toward B1 ), you can verify that
the force points toward wire 1.
Example 28.7: The magnetic field of a circular arc
A circular arc of radius R subtending an angle f carries a current of magnitude I
(Figure 28.35). Use the Biot-Savart law to derive an expression for the magnetic
segment dl and the vector rsP pointing from the segment to P (Figure 28.36).
Using the right-hand vector product rule, I see that the direction of dl rsP (and
dl
rsP
Devise plan: Because all segments contribute a magnetic field in the same direction, I can simply integrate Eq. 28.11 over the arc to obtain the magnitude of the
magnetic field at P.
3
Execute plan: Because dl and rsP are always perpendicular to each other (Figure 28.36), I can write for Eq. 28.11
dBs
(into page)
Figure 28.36
26
dBs
Quantitative Tools
o I dl sin 90
I dl
o 2 ,
4
R2
4 R
(1)
2R
P
R
dBs
B
oI
d .
4R
oI
4
R
arc
I
B o
4R
dBs
d ,
dx
rsP
P
(a)
t
dq
28.16 What is the magnitude of the magnetic field (a) at the center of a circular current loop of radius R and (b) at point P near the current loop in
Figure 28.37? Both loops carry a current of constant magnitude I.
dx
t + dt
dq
(b)
Let us now use the Biot-Savart law to find an expression for the magnetic field
caused by charged particles moving at constant velocity.* Consider first a straight
wire carrying a current of magnitude I and aligned with the x axis, as in Figure
t
q
t + dt
dx
dBs
(c)
Figure 28.38 (a) A small segment of a straight current-carrying wire causes a magnetic
field at point P. In a time interval dt, (b) an amount of charge
dq and (c) a particle carrying
charge
q have a displacement
o I dx rsP
,
4
r2sP
(28.17)
where rsP is a unit vector pointing from the segment dx to the point at which we
wish to determine the magnetic field, and rsP is the distance between the segment
and the point P. Suppose the segment contains an amount of charge dq. Let the
charge carriers responsible for the current take a time interval dt to have displace
ment dx (Figure 28.38b). According to the definition of current (Eq. 27.2), we
*
In the derivation that follows, we assume v co and ignore any relativistic effects as described
in Sections 27.4 and 27.8.
27
[(H1F)]
have
I
dq
,
dt
(28.18)
dq
dx
Idx
dx dq
dq v ,
dt
dt
and so
(28.19)
where v is the velocity at which the charge carriers move down the wire. In the
limiting case where the segment dx contains just a single charge carrier carrying
a charge q (Figure 28.38c), dq becomes q and
Idx qv .
(28.20)
Substituting this result into Eq. 28.17, we obtain an expression for the magnetic field
of a single moving charged particle:
o qv rpP
(single particle),
4
r2pP
(28.21)
20 mm
B
rpP
rpP
where rpP is the distance between the particle and P, and rsP is the unit vector
pointing from the particle to P.
10 mm
Figure 28.39
Getting started: I begin by drawing the moving electron and the point P at
which I am to determine the magnetic field (Figure 28.39).
2
Devise plan: The magnetic field of a moving charged particle is given by Eq.
28.21. The unit vector rpP points from the electron to P, and so v rpP points into
the page. Because the charge of the electron is negative, the magnetic field points
in the opposite direction, out of the page.
3
Execute plan: From the figure I see that the magnitude of rpP is rpP =
(10 mm) 2 (20 mm) 2 22 mm, and sin q = (20 mm)/(22 mm) = 0.89. Substituting these values into Eq. 28.11 thus yields for the magnitude of the magnetic field
B
4 Evaluate result: The magnitude of the magnetic field I obtained is much too
small to be detected, but thats what I would expect for a single electron. I can verify the direction of the magnetic field by applying the right-hand current rule to the
current caused by the electron. Because the electron carries a negative charge, its
motion to the right causes a current to left. Point my right-hand thumb to the left,
28
Quantitative Tools
I find that my right-hand fingers curl out of the page at P, in agreement with what
I determined earlier.
v1
We can now combine the expression for the magnetic field caused by a moving
charged particle (Eq. 28.21) with that for the magnetic force exerted on another
moving charged particle (Eq. 27.19 FBp qv B ) to find the magnetic interaction
between two moving charged particles. Consider the situation illustrated in Figure
28.40. The magnetic field caused by particle 1 at the location of particle 2 is given by
Eq. 28.21:
q1
r12
r1
r12
q2
r2
B-field due to 1
y out of page here
q2
B
F 12
r12
B
F 21
q1
v1
(28.22)
v2
q v r
B1 (r2 ) o 1 1 2 12 ,
4
r12
v2
where r12 is the magnitude of the vector r12 pointing from particle 1 to particle 2
and r12 is a unit vector pointing along r12 . Substituting this expression into Eq.
27.19, we obtain for the magnetic force exerted by particle 1 on particle 2
o q1q2
v2 (v1 r12 ) .
2
4 r12
(28.23)
Notice the appearance of the double vector product: we must first take the vector
product of v1 and r12 and then take the vector product of v2 with the result of
the first vector product.
Equation 28.23 also shows that we need a moving charged particle in order to gen
erate a magnetic field ( v1 0 ) and another moving charged particle to feel that
magnetic field ( v2 0 ), in agreement with our discussion in the first part of this chapter.
In contrast to the electric force, the magnetic force does not satisfy Eq. 8.15
( F12 F21 ). To see this, consider the two positively charged moving particles shown
in Figure 28.41. Particle 1, carrying a charge q1 travels in the positive x direction, while
particle 2, carrying charge q2, travels in the positive y direction. The force exerted by
1 on 2 is given by Eq. 28.23. Applying the right-hand vector product rule, we find that
the vector product v1 r12 on the right side of Eq. 28.23 points out of the page. Ap
plying the right-hand vector product rule again to the vector product of v2 and
B
v1 r12 , we see that F12 points in the positive x direction.* The force exerted by 2 on
1 is obtained by switching the subscripts 1 and 2 in Equation 28.23:
B-field due to 2
into page here
FB21
o q1q2
v (v2 r21 ) ,
4 r212 1
(28.24)
where we have used that q1q2 = q2q1 and r212 r221 . Applying the right-hand vector
product rule twice we find that FB21 points in the positive y direction, and so the magnetic forces that the two particles exert on each other, while equal in magnitude do not
point in opposite directions, as we would expect from Eq. 8.15.
*
Here is another way you can determine the direction of the magnetic force exerted by particle 1 on
particle 2. The motion of particle 1 corresponds to a current directed in the positive x direction. Using
the right-hand current rule, it follows that the magnetic field of 1 points out of the xy plane at any
location above the x axis. The magnetic field due to 1 at the location of 2 thus points out of the
plane. The motion of particle 2 corresponds to a current directed in the positive y direction. To find
the direction of the magnetic force exerted on this current we can use the right-hand force
rule.
When you curl the fingers of your right hand from the positive y axis to the direction of B1 at particle 2 (out of the page), your thumb points in the positive x direction, as we found before.
[(H1F)]
We derived Eq. 8.15 from the fact that the momentum of an isolated system of two
particles is constant, which in turn follows from conservation of momentum, one of the
most fundamental laws of physics. The electric and magnetic fields of isolated moving
charged particles, however, are not constant and as we shall see in Chapter 30, we can
associate a flow of both momentum and energy with changing electric and magnetic
fields. Therefore we need to account not only for the momenta of the two charged
particles in Figure 28.41, but also for the momentum carried by their fields which
goes beyond the scope of this book. Even though Eq. 8.15 is not satisfied by the magnetic force, the momentum of the system comprising the two particles and their fields
is still constant.
Substituting Coulombs law and Eq. 28.23 into Eq. 27.20, we obtain an expression
for the electromagnetic force that two moving charged particles exert on each other.
FEB
12
1 q1q2
(28.25)
By comparing the result obtained in Example 28.6 with Eq. 27.38 and substituting
k 1(4o ) (Eq. 24.7), we see that
o 1( oc2o ) or
oo 1c2o , where co is
the speed of light. Using this information, we can write Eq. 28.25 as
FEB
12
1 q1q2
4o r212
r12
v2 (v1 r12 )
c2o
( v co ).
(28.26)
This equation is the most general expression for the electromagnetic interaction
between moving charged particles. Because in most applications the speeds of
charged particles are significantly smaller than the speed of light, the second term
in the square brackets in Eq. 28.26 is much smaller than the first term, which represents the electric contribution to the electromagnetic force from Coulombs law.
28.17 Consider two protons 1 and 2, each carrying a charge +e = 1.6 1019
C, separated by 1.0 mm moving at 3 105 m/s parallel to each other and perpendicular to their separation. (a) What is the direction of the magnetic force
that each proton exerts on the other? (b) Determine the ratio of the magnitudes of the magnetic and electric forces that the two exert on each other.
29
30
Quantitative Tools
31
Chapter glossary
(SI units of physical quantities are given in parentheses)
O B. dl oIenc.
(28.1)
Amprian path: Closed path along which the magnetic field is integrated in Ampres law.
Current loop: A current-carrying conductor in the
shape of a loop. The magnetic field pattern of a current
loop is similar to that of a magnetic dipole.
I dl rsP
dBs o
,
4
r2sP
(28.12)
B
dB.
current
path
(28.10)
o 4 107 T . mA .
Solenoid: Long, tightly wound helical coil of wire. The
magnetic field of a current-carrying solenoid is similar
to that of a bar magnet.
Toroid: Solenoid bent into a circle. The magnetic field
of a toroid is completely contained within the windings of the toroid.
32
Solutions
Solutions
28.1 (a) See Figure S28.1a. (b) The two particles exert
no magnetic forces on each other because it takes a
moving charged particle to detect the magnetic field
of another moving charged particle. (c) See Figure
S28.1b. The forces exerted on the horizontal wire cause
a torque that tends to align that wire with the vertical
one. Conversely, the forces exerted on the vertical wire
cause a torque in the opposite direction, tending to
align that wire with the horizontal one.
28.2 See Figure S28.2.
I
B
Few
Fwe
(a)
I
B
F12
P4
F21
B
P2
I
P1
B
B
F21
B1
1
(a)
B2
B1
(b)
Figure S28.2
P3
P5
F12
(b)
Figure S28.1
B2
28.6 See Figures S28.6, where the circular loop is approximated by a series of vertical and horizontal segments. The vertical segments experience no force, but
Solutions
current out
of page
lever
arm
pivot
current out
of page
lever
arm
pivot
F
current
into page
current
into page
(a)
(b)
B
current out
of page
pivot
33
current
into page
(c)
Figure S28.5
Amprian
loop 2
Amprian
loop 1
ent ou
curr
t
axis
R
r
r
w ir e
Figure S28.6
34
Solutions
Amprian
loop 1
Amprian
loop 2
O B. dl Boutside2r .
Because the loop encircles all of the current I through
the wire,
oIenc
oI , and so the magnetic field outside the wire is the same as that for a long thin wire:
Boutside
oI2r .
28.13 (a) Figure S28.13 shows a head-on view of the
magnetic fields of the two sheets separately and their
sum. The magnetic fields add up to zero between the
sheets. Below and above the sheets, the magnetic field
points to the left and its magnitude is twice that of a single sheet: 2( 12
oK)
oK . (b) With the current
through the lower sheet reversed, its magnetic field is
also reversed. Now the magnetic fields add up to zero
below and above the sheets. Between them the magnetic field is to the right and its magnitude is twice that of
a single sheet:
oK .
28.14 Outside the toroid, you use Amprian path 1 in
Figure S28.14. The left side of Ampres law is still
given by Eq. 28.7, but the loop now encircles both the
current upward through the inside of each winding and
the current downward through the outside of each
winding. The enclosed current is thus NI NI = 0, making B outside the toroid zero.
Inside the toroids inner radius, use Amprian path
2. This loop encloses no current, so here, too, B = 0.
28.15 For this wire the integration in Example 28.6
extends from x = 0 to x
:
Figure S28.13
Figure S28.14
B= 0
35
Solutions
B
oId
4
dx
[x d2 ] 32
v1
B
oId 1
x
4 d2 [x2d2 ] 12
x
x0
v1
r12
oI
.
4d
(b) The outer arc spans an angle f = p/2 and has a radius 2R. Using our result from Example 28.7 again, it
contributes a magnetic field
Bouter
oI( 2)
I
o .
4 (2R)
16R
oI( 2)
I
o .
4 (R)
8R
must first evaluate v1 r 12. The direction of the resulting vector is found by curling the fingers of your
1
r12
v1
r12
v1
v2 x (v1 x r12)
v1
v2
(a)
I(2 )
I
B o
o .
4R
2R
x r12
v2
(b)
x r12
v2
(c)
Figure S28.17
o q1q2
v1v2 .
4 r212
1 q1q2
.
4o r212
The ratio is
4 r v v
1 qq
4 r
o q1q2
FB12
FE12
2
12
1 2
oov1v2 .
1 2
2
12