HEAT

ENGINES

STEAM,

GAS,

AND

THEIR

STEAM

TURBINES

AUXILIARIES

BY

JOHN

ALLEN

R.
MECHANICAL

PROFESSOR

ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY

MICHIGAN

OF

-AND-

JOSEPH
JUNIOR

UNIVERSITY

WEST

239
6

BOUVERIE

EDITION

REVISED

McGRAW-HILL

MICHIGAN

OF

SECOND

TOTAL

ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL

PROFESSOR

THOROUGHLY

BURSLEY

A.

ISSUE

6,000

COMPANY,

BOOK
39TH

STREET,
STREET,

1914

RESET

ENTIRELY

AND

YORK

NEW

LONDON,

INC,

E.

C.

COPYRIGHT

McGRAW-HiLL

1914,

1910,

McGRAW-HiLL

THE.

BOOK

MAPLE.

THE

COMPANY,

BOOK

COPYRIGHT

BY

PBESS.

INC.

THE

BY

COMPANY.

YORK.

PA

PREFACE

advancement

The

been

has

of

such

this

to

as

in

desirable

rewrite

to

which

points
than

effort

it

of

made

been

the

has

the

to

not

shown

in

need

increase

At

Stumpf
ments
develop-

been

found

order

the

up

tion
explanatime

same

size

the

materially

also

clear

to

detailed

more

edition.

the

recent

has

years

edition

new

are

It

chapters

first

and

Pump,

four

past

treated

engines.

gas

the

publish

to

subjects

and

in

during

Gas

many

given

EDITION

desirable

new

experience

was

has

engines

Humphrey

turbines

steam

heat

the

the

Engine,

SECOND

make

Among

text.

Uniflow

the

in

TO

of

an

the

book.

desire

authors

The

mechanical

the

their

engineering
who

Michigan
timely

supplied

thank

to

of

many

the

in

and

suggestions,

new

members

the

cuts

the

of

of

department

assisted

have

those

MICHIGAN

ARBOR,
1,

1914.

this

who

manufacturers

have

used.

JOSEPH

Sept.

of

R.

ALLEN.

A.

BURSLEY.

of

of

University

the

preparation

JOHN

ANN

faculty

the

text

kindly

by

PREFACE

preparing

In
to

present

this

it has

book,

those

Engines, considering only

used
the

in

forms

with

its boiler

Under
in

of heat

engines,

each

division

detail

to

treated, and,
introduced

show
in

is used

in the

of the
that

used

and

the

of the

been

include

application

of

subject

did

The

its

been

text-book,
the

at

steam

engine

with

its producer,

worked

been

problems

out

the

only place
which

within

the

it

where

matter

it

as

higher
subject

The

untouched,

been

have
and

of calculus

phases only.

come

turbines.

steam

subject-matter just

of
use

left

properly

not

of

thermo-dynamics,

elementary
has

monly
com-

classes

engine

gas

the

largely avoided,
on

as

the

text, problems have

work.

Heat

most

are

the

principal types

chapter

in

treated

subject of

which

in

authors

of years.

number

of the

primarily

the
auxiliaries,

design of engines

that

the

addition, a large number

has

been

and

the

mathematics

has

for

for class-room

being

upon

engines discussed

plant

oil

intention

engines

been

subject-matter having

The

the

It is written

practice.

University of Michigan

EDITION

been

treatise

elementary

an

FIRST

TO

felt

was

of this

scope

work.
The

authors

Anderson,

A.

wish
H,

drawings,

kindly furnished

and

their

express

Knight,

compiling this work,

of the

to

and

to Mr.
to the

W.

J. A.
R.

various

illustrations

and

thanks

Mover,

to

for their

McKinnon

Sept. 1,

MICHIGAN
1910.

VI

assistance

in

who

manufacturers

number

have

very

descriptions of their apparatus.

JOSEPH

ARBOR,

C.

made

who

JOHN

ANN

H.

Messrs.

R.

ALLEN.
A.

BURSLEY.

CONTENTS
PAGE

PREFACE
LIST

y-v

TABLES

OF

xii

CHAPTER

HEAT
THEORY

MEASUREMENT

AND

SPECIFIC

HEAT

OF

HEAT

CONDUCTION,

RADIATION,
DEFINITIONS

ENERGY,

OF

CONVECTION

AND

WORK,

POWER

AND

CHAPTER
ELEMENTARY
FIRST

SECOND

AND

EQUATION

THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS

OF

PERFECT

OF

II

10

GASES

11

HEAT

OF

JOULE'S

13

LAW

RELATION

14

SPECIFIC

OF

WORK

HEATS

15
.

EXPANSIONS

GENERAL

IN

17

EXPANSION

OF

GENERAL
HEAT

LAWS

AND

ABSORPTION

LAWS

8
.

CASE
ADDED

ADIABATIC

18

OF
AT

HEAT

20

ADDED

CONSTANT

VOLUME

OR

CONSTANT

22

PRESSURE

24

EXPANSION

ISOTHERMAL

25

EXPANSION

RELATION

PRESSURE,

OF

VOLUME

TEMPERATURE

AND

DURING

PANSION
EX27

THEORETICAL
CARNOT

HEAT

29

"

ENGINE

29

CYCLE

34

PROBLEMS
III

CHAPTER
OF

PROPERTIES
FORMATION

OF

STEAM

STEAM
^

PROPERTIES

OF

40

STEAM
.

STEAM

TABLES

42

^
.

IV

CHAPTER
CALORIMETERS

AND

MECHANICAL

MIXTURES

CALORIMETERS
SEPARATING

CALORIMETERS

THROTTLING

CALORIMETERS

50

vii

CONTENTS

viii

PAGE

QUALITY

OF

53

STEAM

55

PROBLEMS
MECHANICAL

56

MIXTURES

61

PROBLEMS

CHAPTER

COMBUSTION
COAL

64

ANALYSIS

HEATING

COAL
AIR

FUELS

AND

VALUE

66

FUELS

OF

68

CALORIMETERS

REQUIRED

70

COMBUSTION

FOR

71

SMOKE
ANALYSIS

GASES

71

TEMPERATURE

74

FLUE

OF

THEORETICAL

OF

COMBUSTION

FUELS

75

PROBLEMS

79

CHAPTER

VI

BOILERS
RETURN

TUBULAR

INTERNALLY
WATER-TUBE

87

BOILERS

91

BOILERS

HORSE-POWER
HEATING

82

BOILERS

FIRED

BOILERS

OF

SURFACE,

BOILER

ECONOMY

BOILER

EFFICIENCY

BOILER

LOSSES

BOILER

ACCESSORIES

97

GRATE

SURFACE,

CHAIN

GRATE

GRATE

BOILER

VII

AUXILIARIES
109
110

STOKERS

113

STOKERS

115

STOKERS

FEEDERS

FEED-WATER

101
105

STOKERS

UNDER-FEED

98
99

BOILER

INCLINED

BREECHING

100

CHAPTER

MECHANICAL

AND

HEATERS

'.......

119
122

ECONOMIZERS

125

SUPERHEATERS

127

CHIMNEYS

128

MECHANICAL
PROBLEMS

DRAFT

132
133

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
STEAM

ix
VIII

ENGINES
PAGE

THE

SIMPLE

STEAM

HORSE-POWER
LOSSES

IN

STEAM

139

ENGINE

142

ENGINE

144

CONDENSATION

INITIAL

REDUCING

OF

CLEARANCE

STEAM

OF
THE

METHODS

ENGINE

147

COMPRESSION

AND

149

PROBLEMS

150

CHAPTER
TYPES

DETAILS

AND

CLASSIFICATION

IX

OF

STEAM

ENGINES

OF

153

DETAILS

ENGINE

160

CHAPTER
TESTING
STEAM

ENGINES

ENGINE

INDICATED

STEAM

ENGINES

INDICATOR

168

HORSE-POWER

DETERMINATION
ECONOMY

172

CONDENSATION

INITIAL

OF

VARIOUS

OF

BRAKE

OF

FORMS

OF

174

ENGINES

177
178

HORSE-POWER
EFFICIENCY

MECHANICAL
ACTUAL

179
180

EFFICIENCY

HEAT

DUTY

180

PROBLEMS

184
XI

CHAPTER

GEARS

VALVE
PLAIN

D-SLIDE

DEFINITIONS
RELATIVE

OF

VALVE

EFFECT

OF

TYPES

CORLISS

VALVES

REVERSING

OF

ANGULAR

VALVE

AND

ADVANCE,

188
.

196

ROD

198

VALVES

205
209

GEARS

212

SETTING

INDICATOR

ECCENTRICITY

190

PISTON

DIAGRAM

OF

AND

191

CONNECTING

VARIOUS

VALVE

LAP, LEAD,

POSITION

ZEUNER

187

VALVES

213

DIAGRAMS
CHAPTER

XII

GOVERNORS
216

TYPES
GOVERNOR

MECHANISM

217
.

CONTENTS

PAGE

222

ISOCHRONISM

222

HUNTING
.

223

WHEEL

FLY

CHAPTER

XIII
ENGINES

COMPOUND
COMPOUND

225

ENGINES

TANDEM

COMPOUND

CROSS

COMPOUND

RATIO

226

ENGINES

227

ENGINES

228

CYLINDERS

OF

HORSE-POWER
COMBINED

OF

COMPOUND

...

229

ENGINES

232

CARDS

INDICATOR

234

PROBLEMS
XIV

CHAPTER

CONDENSERS

JET

SURFACE
AIR

AIR

AND

CONDENSERS

PUMPS
237

"
.

...

240

CONDENSERS

240

PUMPS
.

COOLING

240

WATER

242

PROBLEMS
CHAPTER
STEAM

XV

TURBINES

HISTORY

244

CLASSIFICATION

246

ACTION

TURBINE

IN

247

TURBINE

248

NOZZLES
OF

TURBINES

249

LAVAL

TURBINE

251

SPEED
DE

STEAM

OF

CURTIS
RATEAU
KERR

255

TURBINE

257

TURBINE

259

TURBINE

STURTEVANT
PARSONS

260

TURBINE

262

TURBINE

DOUBLE-FLOW

TURBINE

264

LOW-PRESSURE

TURBINES

266

MIXED-FLOW

267

TURBINES
CHAPTER
GAS

XVI

ENGINES

HISTORY

269

CLASSIFICATION

270

THEORETICAL
LOSSES

EFFICIENCY

275
282

xi

CONTENTS

PAGE

FUELS

GAS-ENGINE
GAS

PRODUCERS
.

FUELS

LIQUID

MIXTURES

FUEL

HORSE-POWER

RATED

HORSE-POWER

ACTUAL

XVII

CHAPTER

CONSTRUCTION

GAS-ENGINE

OF

DETAILS

PARTS

DESCRIPTION

OF

METHODS

OF

IGNITION

METHODS

OF

GOVERNING
....

CARBURETORS
OIL

ENGINES

HUMPHREY'

SHIPS

FOR

PUMP

GAS

PROBLEMS
....

XVIII

CHAPTER

OF

ECONOMY

RELATIVE

HEAt

ENGINES

ECONOMY
.

31"

COMMERCIAL

ECONOMY

313
INDEX.

LIST

OF

TABLES
PACK

TABLE

I.

TABLE

II.

COLORS

TEMPERATURE

HEATS

SPECIFIC

GASES

OF

TABLE

III.

RADIATING

POWER

TABLE

IV.

CONDUCTING

POWER

TABLE

V.

HEAT

TEMPERATURE

AND

TABLE

VI.

TABLE

VII.

TABLE

VIII.

SPECIFIC

SPECIFIC
COMBUSTION

CHANGES
DURING

SATURATED

HEATS

18

STEAM

40

STEAM

LIQUIDS

OF

DEPENDENT

EXPANSION

SUPERHEATED

OF

OF

BODIES

OF

OF

HEATS

PROPERTIES

BODIES

OF

VALUE

UPON

SOLIDS

AND

57

ELEMENTS

TABLE

IX.

TABLE

X.

CALORIFIC

VALUE

OF

WOODS

76

TABLE

XI.

CALORIFIC

VALUE

OF

PEATS

77

TABLE

XII.

CALORIFIC

VALUE

OF

LIGNITES

77

TABLE

XIII.

CALORIFIC

VALUE

OF

BITUMINOUS

TABLE

XIV.

CALORIFIC

VALUE

OF

SEMI-BITUMINOUS

OF

ANTHRACITE

TABLE

XV.

TABLE

XVI.

TABLE

XVII.

TABLE

XVIII.

TABLE

XIX.

TABLE

XX.

TABLE

XXI.

PROPERTIES

42

CALORIFIC

VALUE

DIAMETER

OF

HEAT

COALS

78

COALS

78

COALS

79

TUBES

99

PLANT

BOILER

IN

101
131

HEIGHTS
CONSUMPTION

STEAM

DUTY

67

...

BOILER

BALANCE

CHIMNEY

OF

OF

VARIOUS

OF

RELATIVE

FORMS

CHANGES
PRESSURE

AND

CLASSES

VARIOUS

OF

ENGINES

178

PUMPS

OF

IN

VELOCITY,

OF

STEAM

181

SPECIFIC

FLOWING

VOLUME

THROUGH

249

NOZZLE

TABLE
TABLE
TABLE

XXII.

CALORIFIC

XXIII.

VOLUMETRIC

XXIV.

ECONOMIC
OF

TABLE
TABLE

VALUE

XXV.
XXVI.

OF

GASEOUS

EFFICIENCIES,
EFFICIENCIES,

GAS

THERMAL
COMPARATIVE

LIQUID

AND

vvj

vw,

AND

OF

FUELS.

287
.

ENGINES

GAS

289
.

AIR

CONSUMPTION,
290

ENGINES

EFFICIENCIES

COSTS

xni

OF

PER

PRIME

MOVERS

309
....

RATED

HORSE-POWER

311
.

HEAT

ENGINES

STEAM-GAS-STEAM

TURBINES-AND

THEIR

AUXILIARIES

CHAPTER

HEAT

1. Heat
this

being the

book,

of energy

source

of the nature

short discussion

for the devices

properties of heat will assist the student

subject-matter of this

of the

only
2.

of Heat.

Theory

is that

time

it is

the

heat,

the

or

Most
due

to

farther
The

bodies

when

apart and

is

its form.

If still more

heat

The
stated
As

in another
a

form

into mechanical
most

water.

the

to

the present

at

body.

The

ical
Phys-

intensity of

depend

the

upon

This

molecules

that

the

case

body.

the

and

overcome

probably

forces them

which

size of the

violent

is

expansion

the

attraction

body

solid becomes

attraction

no

liquid.

motion, and

by their violent

can

molecules

of the

tween
be-

may

the

liquid

gas.

phenomena

heat is

this

added,

overcome

becomes

then

In

the

so

partly

fact.

supposed

actual

become

molecules

is

the

of

sidered
con-

vibrations.

velocity of

may

will be

steam, and

the

expand.

increases

vibration

entirely

is

these

heated

longer retain
be

to be

temperature,

the increased

the

this

amplitude of

velocity and

understanding

phenomena

of the molecules

in

important

more

accepted theory of heat

motion

experiments indicate

better

These

text.

The

"

the

to

they affect perfect gases,

as

and

considered

of heat

is then

that

way,

form

is,heat

motion.

important methods

the

In

of

is
be

of motion, it must

form

of kinetic

is often
energy.

heat

possibleto transform

following

making

This

of motion.

this

therefore,the

pages,

transformation

will be

discussed.
3.

Temperature
of the

the

and

vibration

intensity of

the

Temperature
of the

Measurement.

molecules

heat, and

this
1

of

body

intensity

"

The

locity
ve-

determines

is measured

by

f"'*:
; :

If the

the temperature.
is at

molecules

low tempertaure; if they

The

temperature

rapidityof the
Temperature is

the

body considered
other bodies.

of

defined

sometimes

the thermal

as

state

referenceto its abilityto transmit

bodies

Two

move

slowly it
body move
perature.
rapidlyit is at a high tembody is then determined
by
of

of its molecules.

motion

with

there is no

when

ENGINES

; iff"AT

"

are

transmission

said to be at the

same

heat to

temperature
If there is

them.

of heat between

of

them, the one from which the heat

is flowingis said to have the higher temperature.
In mechanical
engineering work, temperatures are usually
measured
the Fahrenheit
on
scale, and in this text, unless
taken
will be
this
otherwise
on
stated, the temperature
scale. There
is,however, an increasinguse of the Centigrade
such as the increase
scale among
engineers,and certain quantities,
in temperature in a dynamo, are
always expressed in
Centigrade units.
In the Fahrenheit
scale the graduationsare obtained by noting
transmission of heat between

the

the mercury
when
the bulb of the thermometer
column
is placed in melting ice,and again when
it is placed in

positionof

under

boiling water

level barometer.

sea

divided

into

atmospheric

an

The

distance

corresponding

pressure

between

these

two

to

is
points

equal parts. The freezingpoint is taken as

212" above zero.
32",making the boilingpoint 32" -f 180"
In the Centigradescale the distance between
the freezing
point
and the boilingpoint is divided into 100 equal parts or degrees,
0".
and the freezingpoint on the scale is marked
The boiling
180

pointis then 100".

Both

the Fahrenheit

point for the

Since
the

Centigradescales

and

an

arbitrary

of the scale.

zero

in the Fahrenheit

scale there

freezingand boilingpoints and

it follows that 1" F.
the

assume

freezingpoint on

"

sions,
Centigrade 100 divi1" C.
ever,
f" F. As, how-

the

on

C.,

180 divisions between

are

or

the Fahrenheit

scale is marked

Centigrade scale 0, it is necessary to take account

difference when
converting from one scale to the other.

on

the

temperature Fahrenheit

be denoted

Centigrade by

the

other may

tc, then

be made

by tF

conversion

and

32 and

of this
If the

the temperature

from

one

scale to

the

by the followingequations:
"

+ 32;
*F=**c
f (tF 32).
*c
=

(1)
(2)

HEAT
The
is

as

of temperature is not

measurement

generallysupposed.
does

thermometer

The

mercury

expand equal

not

simple a process
of the ordinary glass

of

so

for equal ments

increthermometer
is not absolutely
amounts

heat, and the bore of the

uniform throughout the whole length of the tube.
These
be allowed
for by accurate
inaccuracies must
calibration. In
the depth to which the
measuring the temperatures of liquids,
is immersed
thermometer
affects the reading,and it should be
calibrated

the

at

depth

is used

bulb

When

bodies.

accurate

careful study

and

the

are,

When

mometer
ther-

radiant

be made

of those

heat

measurements

of the

hot

desired,

are

of the instrument

errors

in its use.

errors

below

however,

to 500" F.

above

usually nitrogen
under

or

the

is used for temperatures

For

measuring

filledwith alcohol

for
satisfactory

not

thermometer

mercury

tube

thermometer

40" F, thermometers

"

500" F., the space

gas,

the

temperature

should

If

used.

temperature of the air in a

objectsat a higher temperature, its

ordinary form of mercury

ranging from "40" F.

The

These

are

it is to be

the

protectedfrom

be

must

measure

there

in which

room

to

which

at

is used

use

at

for temperatures

carbon-dioxide,placed
the

some

in

the

above
inert
mometer
ther-

rises,the gas
is increased and the temperature of the boilingpoint of
pressure
the mercury
is raised,so that it is possibleto use
these thermometers
This is the
for temperatures as high as 1000" F.
limit,however, as the melting point of glass is comparatively
pressure.

As

used.

high temperatures.

is filled with

mercury

are

peratures
tem-

mercury

low.
For

temperatures exceeding800" F.,some

form

of pyrometer is

ical
simplest of these is the metallic or mechanpyrometer. This consists of two metals having different rates
of expansion,such as iron and brass, attached
to each other at
end and with the other ends free. By a system of levers and
one

generallyused.

The

over
a
a hand
expansion of the metals is made to move
dial graduated in degrees. This should not be used for temperatures

gears

the

1500" F.

over

There

are

two

types of electricalpyrometers in

use

to-day.

In

coupleis employed and the difference in

temperature of the junctionsof the two metals forming the couple
ference,
produces an electric current which is proportionalto this difand which is measured
on
a galvanometer calibrated in

one,

the thermo-electric

HEAT

junctionat

degrees. By keeping one

be computed.
other may
second

The

This

known

be used

may

temperature, the
up

to 2500"

F.

type, the electrical resistance pyrometer, depends

the increase

upon

ENGINES

in electrical resistance of metals

due

to

rise

in temperature.
still higher temperatures

For

results.
satisfactory

most

made
bodies

for each

have

opticalpyrometer gives the

is based

This

Pouillet

by

the

which

temperature

the

on

show

results of

that

definite and

periments
ex-

incandescent
fixed

color,as

follows:
"

TABLE

4. Absolute

Zero.

In

"

COLORS

I. TEMPERATURE

to have
some
standpoint,it is necessary
comparison for the scale of temperature,
scale is largelyused.

perfectgas

from

considering heat

contracts

TQI~~C

absolute

standard
the

that

so

of its volume

theoretical

of

absolute

at 32" F. for each

degree that it is reduced

be lowered

point is called
imaginary one.
(The
This

zero.
an

reached

to

if the temperain temperature. Hence

ture
below
its
volume
will be491.6"
come
32",
point

by experiment is about

it is
the

accurate
sufficiently
freezingpoint in the

convert

to

the

absolute

the

absolute

lowest

"488.9"

absolute

Fahrenheit

scale.
460

and

is manifestly

point so far actually

F.) For ordinaryusage

to consider

scale,add

zero

to

zero

as

In other

492" below

words,

to

the

pressed
temperature exin degrees Fahrenheit.
In this text absolute temperatures
will be denoted
T
in
heit
and
degrees Fahrentemperatures
by
by t.

On

the

Centigrade scale

the absolute

zero

is 273.1" below

the

HEAT

C in equation

ENGINES

(4)represents the

the

heat

required

the

body

one

to

capacity of the body, or

raise the temperature of a unit weight of
heat

degree.

compared with that of

capacity of any substance
an
equal weight of water is called its specificheat.
Expressed in English units, the heat capacityof one pound
of water
is one
B.T.U., and specificheat may be defined as the
heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of a substance
Units.
one
degreeFahrenheit expressedin British Thermal
The

heat

Since

of water

from

ratio of the

weight one
of the

same

requiredto

heat will then

39" to 40" the specific
heat

degree to the heat

weight of

necessary

from

water

raise

II. SPECIFIC

to raise the

pound

represent the

raise the temperature

to

necessary

TABLE

In

of heat

is the amount

B.T.U.

of

unit

temperature

39" to 40".

HEATS

OF

GASES

solid and

it is necessary
to consider
liquid substances
but one
when
heat, as the change in volume
a solid or
specific
is heated
is so small that its effect may
be
a liquidsubstance
when
the gas is
neglected. In gases the change in volume
under
heated is large,and if it is heated
constant
a
pressure
this change is directlyproportionalto the change in the absolute

temperature.
be

external

work

If there
done.

On

is

change in volume
the other hand, when
a

there
gas

is

must
con-

HEAT

fined and
is

there
the

heated, it

is

external

no

specificheat of

which

remains

the pressure

it is

heated; and

and

the

done.

consider

where

cases:

in

one

the gas expands when

the volume
remains
constant

when

increases

two

and

constant

the other

expand,
considering

not

Therefore, in

must

we

gas,

If it does

expand.

cannot

work

the

is heated.

Hence,
of a gas, there are two specificheats, the specific
in the case
heat of constant volume.
heat of constant pressure and the specific
pressure

specificheat of constant
heat of constant
the specific

volume

The

gas

will be denoted

by

pressure

cp, both

by

cv and

being expressed

expressedin foot-poundsthey will be denoted

by Kv and Kp respectively.
heat that passes
tion
The
from a body by radia7. Radiation.
When

in B.T.U.

"

be considered

may

lamp. There is always a

of a high temperature to
a

radiated

of heat

amount

which

they

will

depend

bodies
The

composed.

are

and

the

upon

the

upon

difference

in

substances

of

ating
radi-

followingtable gives the

of different bodies.

power

TABLE

Radiating power
per

the

between

temperature

lightthat is radiated from

transfer of radiant heat from a body
The
a
body of lower temperature.

similar to the

hour

of
for

III. RADIATING

POWER

OF

BODIES

bodies,expressed in heat units,given off per square

difference of one
(PECLET.)
degree Fahrenheit.

foot

B.T.U.

Copper, polished
Iron,sheet

0327

Glass

595

0920

iron,rusted
Building stone, plaster,wood,
color
Woolen
stuffs,
any

648

Cast

brick

7358
7522
1 .085

Water

8. Conduction.

"

heat

The

transmitted

by conduction

is the

of
amount
through the body itself. The
the
the material
of which
will depend upon
heat conducted
body is composed and the difference in temperature between
the two
sides of the body, and is inverselyproportional to the
be conducted
from one body
thickness of the body. Heat may
heat

transmitted

to another

The
bodies.

when

they

are

placed in

followingtable gives

the

contact

with

conducting

each

power

other.

of different

ENGINES

HEAT

transmitted

units

surfaces

the two

on

POWER

BODIES

OP

materials,expressed in the quantity of heat

inch thick,the
foot per hour by a plate one
per square
in temperature by one
sides of the platediffering
degree.

conducting

The

CONDUCTING

IV.

TABLE

of

power

(PECLET.)
B.T.U.

Copper

515

Iron

233

Lead

113

16.7

Stone

Glass

6.6

Brick work

4.8

Plaster

3.8

Pine

.75

wood

323

Sheep's wool
9. Convection.

by
with

hot

body

body.

Heat

the

by

of air.

contact

air

When

it is heated
carried

other

or

and

gas

comes

rises,carrying away

off in this

called loss
in contact
heat from

is said to

manner

be

lost

is independent of the
by convection
of the surface
wood, stone, or iron losing the same
and
but it is affected by the form
position of the

convection.

nature

is sometimes

by convection

Loss

"

The

loss
"

amount

"

body.
is the overcoming of
Work
Energy, Work, and Power.
resistance through space
and
is measured
by the resistance
come.
multiplied by the space through which this resistance is overThe
simplest form of work is the raising of a body
against the force of gravity.
10.

"

Let M

Then

If
work
If

the

the force of

the

the distance

work.

w, and

Mg
w

is

body.

gravity.

weight.

wl

through which

increase takes

to

place be
P

weight is moved.

I in

feet,then

the

unit

of

foot-pound(ft.-lb.).

consider the work

increased from

the

W.

expressed in pounds and

will be the
we

of the

mass

[(v+

d v,

p, then
5

v)

fluid,let the volume

and the pressure
against which

done

by

the work

v]

done

will be

d W.

be
the

HEAT

If

pressure

the

acts

an

upon

area

through

I, then

distance

work

Work

be

also

may

pla.

expressed

times

acceleration

times

mass

as

space.

is

Energy

is

Power
is

the

the

the

time

Ibs.

foot

one

in

the

determining

in

resistance

which

the

which

the

passed

_J

the

The

where

case

is

ampere

volt

often

is

is

unit

horse-power
horse-powers.

is

the

equals

of

used

is

engine
of

unit

the

the

watt

an

strength

current

746

of

employed

in

time

the

equals

feet

in

through
in

minutes

is

exerted

horse-power

force
the

watts,

drive

one

of

electrical

or

kilowatt

is

usually
An

generator.

rate

or

and

amperes
or

This

units.
to

electromotive

product

If

raising

m'

electrical

in

expressed

the

the

unit

the

power

Xr

33,000

Power

then

over,

to

distance

and

overcome,

equivalent

engine.

the

of

is

This
steam

pounds,
is

is

space

of

in

is

horse-power

minute.

one

unit

The

work.

doing

power

expressed

resistance

of

rate

work.

doing

(H.P.).

horse-power

33,000

for

capacity

the

flow.

The

pressure.
volts.

One

equals

1.34

CHAPTER

ELEMENTARY
11.

First
is

energy

Law

when

is

same

The

for every

produced

of work

spent."

of John

between

His

is

of work

heat

work

by Joule in 1850.
Hopkins University

great accuracy.

results

and

and

show

that

equals
12.

factor

Law

thermodynamics
it

by

law

as

be

that
the

"It

stated

is

"If

the

heat

Unit

called
J.

by

to

be

the

Heat

foot-pounds

given

convert

can

it into

to

work.

expression for the efficiencyof

heat

From
heat

added

be

to

body

one

the

second
and

homogeneous

divided

into

parts in causing work

from

the
small

this

law

engine, i.

heat

"

states

than

more

from

heat

of

follows

Clausius

ways.

Rankine
heat

of

law

self-actingmachine,

convey

effects of those
It

second

different

conceived

equal."

are

engine

actual

The

"

impossible for

total

substance

performed
heat

in

agency,

of equal parts, the

no

is often

in the ratio of 778

higher temperature.'7

uniformly hot
to

be

external

follows:

number

Thermal

usually denoted

Thermodynamics.

may

any

of

another

to

of

follows:

as

unaided

is

Rowland

B.T.U.

one

Second

states

accurately

equivalent with

British

one

for

existence

recently Professor
its

goes

energy,

first

was

redetermined

convertible

mutually

are

heat

conversely,

into

heat

More

equivalentof heat, and

work

done; and

comes

equivalent to 778 foot-pounds. This

mechanical

quantity of

expenditure of mechanical

the

by

mechanical

"'When

"

definite

unit

quantity of

relation

determined

heat,

definite

unit

every

Thermodynamics.

from

produced

heat

the

THERMODYNAMICS

of

of existence

out

II

we

second

law

fraction
derive

of
the

e.,

rejected

heat
The

second

law

experiments

our

is not
with

added

capable of proof but

heat

engines

go

to

show

is axiomatic.
that

this

All
law

is

true.

13.

the
gas:

Laws

of Perfect

Gases.

There

"

relation
the

are

two

laws

of pressure,
volume, and temperature
law of Boyle and the law of Charles.
10

expressing
in

perfect

ELEMENTARY
"

Boyle's Law.

The

"

volume

the pressure,

as

If p0
condition

THERMODYNAMICS

the

given mass

of gas

varies inversely

providedthe temperature remains

pressure,

of the

of

11

and

v0

and

and

gas,

the

volume

any

other

constant."

of

the

initial

of the

condition

gas, then

same

POVO

Charles'

"

Law.

"

pv

Under

constant.

constant

different gases increase equallyfor the same

Also if the gas be heated
under

of its volume

equal increments
increments

of

This

may

law

heat at

also be stated
volume

constant

varies

Letting
and

nearly to equal
a

When

mometer."
ther-

mercury

gas

constant

receives

the absolute
the

pressure

the absolute temperature.

as
directly

gas

pressure

as
directly

varies

receives heat at

constant

of

scale

of temperature.

increment

very

follows:

as

the pressure
gas

the

by

temperature

temperature, or when
volume

correspond

of

equal volumes

pressure

receive

absolute

heat

at

varying from

temperature

v0, the

volume

constant

T0 to

p0,

sure
pres-

T',

p,

then

If the gas

receives

now

changing

temperature

heat

to

at this pressure

T' ',then

and

and

p, the volume

14.

Equation of

we

have

the

gas

have

Pi and

then

we

v,

From

the volume
have

Perfect

equation of

volume

T.

the

Gas.

pressure

vf and

the law
the

pressure

Pl

be

changed

to

remains

Tr and

"f

p'T

T
=

ft' or

perature
tem-

changed

to

remaining constant,

p'',then
Pl

is

of

of Charles, if the volume

temperature

absolute

laws

pv

-,' or

an

two

pound

one

be at

p, and

Boyle's Law, if the

to v',the temperature
followingequation:
pi

From

Let

perfectgas.

these

Combining

"

PI

~r'

"/

the

constant

at

pressure

to

HEAT

12

ENGINES

Combining equations (1)and (2),we

have

p'T

pv

'

~~

Tf

v'

Hence,
p'v' p"v"
""

Denoting this

The

If

gas.
w

RTr,

of R given in this

value

wish

we

to state

equal the weight of the

p"v"

and

for

gas, then

one

than

more

the law

(4)

RT".

equation is for

this law

pv

(3)

then

RT, p'v'

f.

constant

==

v/

by R,

constant

pv

~rT

pound of the
one
pound, let

becomes

(5)

wRT.

equation is called the equationof the gas and holds true for
any point on any expansion line of any perfectgas.
These
laws were
first determined
for air,which is almost
a
A perfect
perfectgas, and they hold true for all perfectgases.

This

gas

and

is sometimes

Charles.

defined

It is

internal work

no

there

is

as

gas

done,

or

friction between

no

to define it

probably better

is

fulfilsthe laws

which

in other

the

as

words,

gas
gas

Boyle

in which
in which

change of

under

molecules

of

conditions.
In the above
per square

expressions,
p
foot,0 is the volume

in pounds
is the absolute pressure
in cubic feet,
and T is the absolute

temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.

Absolute

must

pressure

not

The

be

confused

with

gage

pressure.

tween
bein pressure
ordinarypressure gage
the atmospheric pressure
outside the gage tube and the
The absolute pressure
inside the gage
tube.
applied pressure
is equal to the gage pressure plus the barometric pressure.
reads

The

value

provided

we

of R
know

of pressure

for any

difference

given substance

the volume
and

the

of

one

temperature.

pound for

air under

per

at

volume

of 1 Ib. is 12.39

equation (4) we

have

cu.

ft.

be
any

determined,
dition
given con-

example, it has been

For

found

by experiment that for

inch absolute,and
square

may

pressure

temperature

of 14.7 Ibs.

of 32" F., the

Substitutingthese

values

in

HEAT

14

temperature, dl the heat

the
and

ing
the heat absorbed, dS the heat used in increas-

denote

Let dH

ENGINES

dH

dS

doing internal work,

the external work

equivalentof

the heat

dW

in

used

dl +

done.

Then
^

dW

(9)

stance
changing the internal energy of the subis representedby dS -f dl, and dl -f-dW represents the
heat equivalentof the totalwork done.
By ''internal work" is meant work done in overcoming changes
in the physicalstate of the substance, and in overcoming the
attraction of the molecules for each other,thus changing the potential

utilized in

heat

The

of the body.

energy

example of this is shown in the case of water at the boiling

In this case
dS in equation
point being changed into steam.
fore
There(9)becomes zero since the temperature remains constant.
all the heat added goes to doing internal and external work.
The external work will be equal to the change in volume
from
times the pressure under which the steam is being
water to steam
An

only a small part of the total heat added to

inaccomplish the change, the balance being the heat going to ternal
This will be

formed.

work
Since

no

term
goes

dl.

or

is done

internal work
in

in

equation(9)becomes

either to

heating a perfectgas, the

and

zero

increasingthe temperature

Therefore in the

of

case

all the heat absorbed

or

doing external

work.

perfectgas

dH

dS

CH*

.'

ond
sec-

dW

rs2

(dH

rv,

[dS +

dW.

Jvi

JSi

JHi

Integrating
#2

Hi

S2

Si +

] pdv

?
Let

#2

#1, S

S2

Si and

rn

I pdv

Jvi
Then
H
and

change in internal

S +

energy

W.

(10)

is indicated

by

change

in

temperature alone.
16.

When

Joules Law.

external work

and

without

temperatureremains

perfectgas expands

taking in

unchanged

and

or

giving out

there is

no

without

doing
heat, its
any
change in its

ELEMENTARY
internal energy.

THERMODYNAMICS

This

"

law

vessels

b, Fig. 1, connected

and

placed in
stop-cockc were
air compressed to a pressure
long enough

the bath

by

water-bath.

each

11

was

then

were

have

neither

had

gas

at the

were

in

same

further flow of heat

no

opened and

was

"

been

the

air

lost any

Although the

unchanged.

change in internal

depends

energy

no

and

work

and

volume

had
have

must

energy

pressure

of the

not, thus proving that

had

the temperature

vessels

external to the two

work

no

From

unchanged.

the gas had done

heat, its internal

As

done.

changed

to be

again and found

read

gained nor

remained

remained

Joule's apparatus.

1.

the conditions of the apparatus

could

vacuum

one

FIG.

water

vessel to the other until the pressure

in
atmospheres. The temperatures of the air and

to flow from

allowed

vessel contained

water

other, the stop-cock c

to the

one

containinga

After the vessels had

that the air and

so

tube

One

temperature and there could therefore be

from

followingexperiment

of 22 atmospheres, while

in the other.

maintained

was

the

by

Joule.

performed by
Two

established

was

15

change in temperature

upon

only.
17. Relation
is heated

at

temperature
to

volume

of
a

SpecificHeats.

constant

T2, and

the

the work

is

volume

Integratingbetween

pdv.

limits
/"",

r"
=

I pdv
Jvi

I dv
Jv\

volume

to

Vi

(ii)

done,
W

Ti

equal

ro

perfectgas

temperature

changed from

would

absorbed

v2, the heat

pound of

one

from

pressure

KP(T,
and

If

"

p(v2

HEAT

16
Since from

the

ENGINES

equationof
pv2

perfectgas

RT2, and

pv\

expressionfor

substitutingthese values in the above

the

work

have

done, we

p(v2

vj

R(T,

(12)

7\).

H
W, then the difference
equation (10),S
between
equation (11) and equation (12) would be the heat
which goes to increasingthe temperature, which equals

from

Since

(Kp
If the gas

Ti

to

R) (T,

is heated

at

as

no

(13)

!Ti).

from

volume

constant

temperature T2, then the heat added

KV(T,
and

external

ture
temperabe

would

(14)

T,),

all goes to increasing

(13) also represents the

this heat

is done

work

temperature. But since equation

heat which
goes to increasingthe temperature, equations(13)
and (14)are equal to each other,or

the

(Kp

R) (T2

TO

=K9(T*

TO,

therefore

Kv

Kp

R,

(15)

Kv.

(16)

or

R
The

of work

difference between
in

the two

foot-poundsdone

degree Fahrenheit

one

KP

when

at constant

heats,R,
specific
one
pound of a

is the amount
gas

is heated

pressure.
7^

The

ratio of the

two

heats, that
specific

is

-^, is

denoted

/Vtf

by

7.

Kp

Since

"

Kv

J*

R, and

A.

7,

then

Xp

R
_

Kv'

Kv
or

^"^^
and

hence

K,

K,

-^

(17)

Similarly
(18)

ELEMENTARY
For

THERMODYNAMICS

17

air
R

184.77

--

131.40

53.37

(compare equation 6)

and
K

184.77
1.406.

(19)

131.40
18.

Expansions in General.

air,steam, or any other gas

is'Used as the working substance
in an engine, the gas is allowed
to expand, doing work
for a portion of the working stroke of
the engine. The variation in pressure
and volume
during this
be graphicallyrepresented by a mathematical
expansion may
the pressure-volume plane. The
is true in the
same
curve
on
On this plane the ordinates of any
compression of these gases.
represent

curve

and

pressures

When

"

FIG. 2." Paths

the abscissae

of

an

represent volumes.

expanding

gas.

compression curves
ordinarily
occurring in steam, or gas engines, or the various forms of
be representedby the equation
can
compressors,
all the

Almost

expansion

or

pv

(20)

constant.

During expansion,or compression, n in equation (20) may have

for any given
but is constant
and infinity,
zero
any value between
curve.
Fig. 2 shows how the path of a gas will vary during expansion
depending
The

value

of

upon
n

rejected,or remain
rise,fall,or remain
of
Table

V.

gas.

the value of

n.

will determine

constant, and

whether

heat

must

be

added,

the temperature

will

during the expansion,or compression,

varying conditions are clearlyshown in

constant

These

whether

HEAT

18

TABLE

V.

HEAT

"

CHANGES

TEMPERATURE

AND

DURING

OF

For

ENGINES

path lying between

any

the .temperature falls.

DEPENDENT

VALUE

UPON

EXPANSION

a/, heat is added

ad and

In other

the

words

heat
specific

and

yet

is negative.

the gas is being compressed instead of expanding, the

changes in heat and temperature will be justthe oppositeof those
In

case

in the table.

shown

19. Work

of

Expansion.

graphicallythe
expansion.

Let

relation

The

is pi and

the

pz and

the volume

this

curve

in

Fig. 3 represents

and

during

volume

be

constant.

representedby ordinates and volumes

the pressure
gas expands from a point a, where
volume
the
b
the
is
to
where
point
pressure
v\,

figurepressures

by abscissae.

pressure

equation of

the

ab

curve

between

pvn
In this

The

"

are

vz.

The

abed represents the work

area

done

during this expansion.

Let

equal the work

done

Since every

for the

point in the curve

equation of the curve,
pvn

during expansion.

r2

pdv.
fulfilthe

must

Then

as

(21)
conditions
original

hence

(22)

Substitutingthis expression in equation 21

r
,

I
"/Mi

(23)

ELEMENTARY

Integrating,W

Multiplying out
w

PlPl *

THERMODYNAMICS

piVin
the

"

"

we
parenthesis,

have

(25)

l-n

But

(24)

^-

FIG.

19

3.
"

l-n

diagram of

Pressure-volume

r, the ratio of

expansion for

an

expanding

gas.

the gas,

therefore
W

or

piVi
=

"

rl~n)

(26)

^j-y"

substituting
p2^2n for piv^
W

(I

in

equation (25),we

n-l

have

(27)

ENGINES

HEAT

20

Substituting for

of R

its value

in terms

"^:="

JiTi"

pv

and

T} equation

(27)becomes

If

pounds of the

gas is

C28)

"

expanded, then equation(28)becomes

te#JTi_2\)t
=

Added

20. Heat

General

"

"

Case.

In

"

the

of any

case

sion,
expan-

of heat
algebraicsum
equivalentof the work done and the change in internal energy.
of a
As has been previouslyshown, the change in internal energy
the change in temperature only and is equal to
gas depends upon
the

added

heat

the

heat

is

to

the

the

change

to

necessary

equal

temperature

at

constant

volume.

Therefore
H

in the

S +

of

case

perfectgas

W
,m

m\

K
wKv(1"t

/om

li) +

"

(30)

li

Kv

n-

result will be

expressed in foot-pounds since

expressedin pounds per square foot, and v\ and

This
are

-1

pressed in cubic feet. To

equation (31)by 778.
also
Equation (30) may
~

,,,JT (T
wKv(l

"

T
L

find

be

the

pi and
vz are

pex2

equivalentB.T.U., divide

changed

to

read

as

follows:

"

^ _L
H
i)
_

T,
H

T,) + wKv(*Y

=wK,(T1-Ts)(y~
|
-1

"

'

-L

(32)

HEAT

22

(-

8280

\.2

ENGINES

(5-2.463)

8280

8280

.406/

2.537

ft.-lbs.

21000

27 B.T.U.

21.

Expressions for Heat

Constant

be

Pressure.

"

from

determined
is not

added

The

heat

the

volume

given,in

at Constant

added

at

and

Volume
volume

constant

when

pressure,

and

the

at

may
perature
tem-

followingmanner:

the

P2v2 T3

PiV2T4

FIG.

4.

Pressure-volume

"

Let

when

diagram

volume

and

aHb represent the

heat

is added

at constant

heat

to

gas

at constant

pressure.

added

along

the

line

aby Fig. 4

Then

aHb

(T2
(T2

cvw

Kvw

TJ in B.T.U.,
Ti) in ft.-lbs.

(33)

But
m
wT2

l
=

and

It

Substitutingthese

values

equation (33),we

in

have

Kvv\
aHb

-^- (PZ

But

from

equation (17),-jr
zL

Hence

(34)

Pi).

1
f

*V

""""*

J.

in equation (34),
substituting

"

nb

expressedin

=
_

B.T.U.

(35)

ELEMENTARY
In the

same

manner

the heat added

Example.

constant

(a)

Find

the

followingexpressionfor

that in

151bs. per square

inch absolute,
Fig.4,pi
inch absolute,
5 cu. ft.,and vz
25
v\
added
in B.T.U.
jected
(6) Find the heat re=

in B.T.U.
Solution.

(a) Heat
equation (35),

From

"

added

HI

aHb +

bHc.

(P2 Pi)
(7
1) X 778
f i

77

15) X
(75
(1.406 1) X

144

5 X

144

60 X

43200

778

.406X778

316

136.7 B.T.U.

From

equation (36)
.

(^2
(7-1) X778
Pa

77

"

75 X

(25

144

(1.406

5)
1) X

75 X

1.406

778

144 X

20 X

.406 X

1.406

778

303700

316"
#1

136.7 +

(p2

^2

rr
~

(7

1097.7 B.T.U.

//2

cHd +

Pi)

(75

15) X
(1.406"-1) X
-

144

25J* 6"^XJ44

216000

778

.406 X

316

778

683 B.T.U.

(^2
(7
1) X
P^

15 X

778

144(25-5)
(1.406 1) X
-

1.406

778

60740

683

192

875

15 X

144 X

20 X

"319"
#2

rfffa.

1) X"778

25
= =

961

rejected

(b)Heat

(36)

expressed in B.T.U.

-"

heat

the

23

pressure,

/^N

Suppose

"

derive

may

75 Ibs. per square

ft.

cu.

we

at

bHc

pz

THERMODYNAMICS

B.T.U.

.406 X

778

1.406

HEAT

24
22. Adiabatic

ENGINES

Expansion.

which

the

in the

form of external work.

expanding

conduction
work
If

gas.
gas

of heat

to

is done

at the

internal

internal

energy

Adiabatic
of

of

is

without

depends

gas

heat except

and

gas,

have
in

upon

increase

an

temperature,

in

one

radiation

no

of the internal

decrease

the

ternal
ex-

in the

energy

the

upon

change

any

change in
in the

or

or

perature,
tem-

internal

decrease

in

in temperature.

only be produced in a cylinder

perfectlynon-conducting material with the working
expansion could

this is

compressors,

chemical

no

In

change.

the

never

and

case,

actual

adiabatic

engines,
expansion

only approximated.
Taking the expression
(T,

R
W

have

we

In

now

paragraph

to

find

17

it

the

change of temperature

of

for adiabatic

that

the

expansion.

loss of energy

due

to

equals
Kv (T,

or

value

shown

was

T2)

expanding

expense

increase

an

fluid itself undergoing

or

is

is,there

the

impossible to

without

made

That

from

or

energy

it is
energy

does not

gas

is

expansion
receive or rejectany

done
compressed adiabatically,the work
Since
to increasing its internal
energy.

goes

in the

Adiabatic

"

7\),

expressed in B.T.U.,

cv(T2

Ti).

Equation (10),paragraph 15, is

H
In adiabatic
becomes

zero

change

to

be

understood

expansion
and

S +

heat

no
=

"

S.

W.

is absorbed
That

or

is,all

rejected,hence
the

heat

in

temperature, goes to doing work.

that the negative sign before S does

negative work, but does

But

therefore the work

mean

decrease

KV(TZ

in internal

lost, due
(It must
not

mean

energy.)

Ti);

done,
W

KV(T,-

but
R

!F2);

(37)

ELEMENTARY
and

THERMODYNAMICS

substitutingthis value in (37)we

hence

25
have

tfCTv-jy
7"1

Comparing equations (28) and

for work

value
n

Therefore

7.

in

done

equation for

the

pvy

adiabatic

an

pn)

expansion,

adiabatic

pzV2y

of which

(38),both

express
we

the
that

see

expansion is
(39)

constant.

Example. Five cubic feet of air under a pressure of 75 Ibs. per square
until the pressure is 25 Ibs.
inch are expanded adiabatically
the
air. (b) Find the work done during
(a) Find the final volume of
the expansion. (See example, paragraph 20).
Solution.
(a) From equation (39),
"

"

or

v"?

Vi7.

Therefore

log v2

1.406

log v,
log V"

1.406

v2

(b)

From

log 2.26 +

.354 +

1.337

.95

8.915

1.406

1.406

log 5
.699

ft.

cu.

=
"

89.7 X

144 X

39.7 X

1.406
64650

144

13700

50950

.406

.406
33700

23. Isothermal

ft.-lbs.

Expansion.

"

gas

expands

contracts

or

iso-

change
constant
remains
during
Since
the temperature
expansion no heat is absorbed in increasing the

thermallywhen
volume.

isothermal

its temperature remains

temperature, and
isothermal

8.915

becomes

.983

equations(38) and (4),

of

.354 +

zero

and

in the
H

case

of

equals W,

expansion

of

a
or

during

constant

perfectgas, S
all the heat

perfectgas

goes

to

in

equation(lO)

absorbed

during

doing external

HEAT

26
work.

ENGINES

expansion,equation (4) becomes

for isothermal

Hence

pv

(40)

constant

(which is the equationof a rectangularhyperbola)

form as equation (20),and the
Equation (40) is of the same
exponent n is in this case
equal to 1. Substituting 1 for the
value of n in equation (28),we derive an indeterminate
sion.
expresthermal
In order to derive an expression
for the work done in isoexpansion it is necessary therefore to proceed differently.
Assume
the curve
ab, Fig. 3, to be an isothermal curve, or
an
equilateralhyperbola. The work done by the gas in expanding
isothermallyfrom volume
Vit representedat the point a,
to the volume
abed;
v2, representedat the point 6, is the area
.

rv2

or

I pdv.

(41)

.'"1

To

integratethis expressionthe pressure

terms
From
of volume.
equation(40)we
=

must

be

expressedin

have

pv;

hence

(42)
Substituting
equation(42)in equation (41)we
W

piwi

j -^.

PiVi

(logeV2

have

Integrating,
"

log*Vi)'}

hence

Since piVi

but
and

"

piVi

r, the ratio of

expansion,

pv;

(43)

RT, then

hence

If

pivilog,.

pounds of

gas

is

RT
pv

loger
\oger.

expanded, then
W

wRT

(44)

(45)
equation (44) becomes

log,r.

(46)

ELEMENTARY

THERMODYNAMICS

During the isothermal

internal energy,

27

expansion there is
remains

since the temperature

no

change

constant.

in the
Hence

of
in, during isothermal
expansion, an amount
heat equivalent to the work done during the expansion. Equations
then
the
work
done,
(44),(45),and (46)
represent not only
of heat taken in or rejectedduring
but the equivalentamount
isothermal
expansion or compression.
is suddenly compressed, the
In actual practice,when
gas
is approximately an
adiabatic, and when
compression curve
the

takes

gas

slowlycompressed

be

may

approximatelyisothermal.

Example. If in the example given in paragraph 20, the air expands

of the air;(6) the work done
isothermally,find (a) the final volume
in foot-pounds;(c)the heat added in B.T.U.
Solution.
(a) From equation (40),
"

"

PlVi

P2V2

PlVl
or

Vz

Pi
7

cq

Therefore

v2

y2

(b) From

'397

44

[44X

11.30

\/

2'26 X

ft.

cu.

equation (45),
W

pivi

loger,

*2

but

"^

Vi

2.26.

Therefore

(c) Heat

added

144

89.7 X

144 X

54,200 ft.-lbs.

Relation

Compression.
compression is
"

5 X

2.3 X

and

.354

--g=

24.

51oge2.26

89.7 X

W=

69.5 B.T.U.

between
Since

the

p,

v,

equation of
pvn

during Expansion or
gas during expansion or

constant, (seeequation20).

pzVz",

then

piVin

(47)
(48)

'"

Pi

"

ENGINES

HEAT

28

:;
equation of

the

From

perfect gas,

have

Multiplying equation (47) by (50),we

Substituting in equation (51) the value

of

in terms

"

of p\ and

v%

have

equation (49),we

p2 from

Equations (48),(49),(51),and
or

the

in

temperature

relations

any

tween
be-

expansion

compression.
In the

of

and

volume,

pressure,

(52) give

of adiabatic

case

expansion

equations become

in these

7,

or

compression, the value

(seeparagraph 22).

pressure of 75 Ibs. per square

inch and at 60" F. are expanded adiabatically
until the pressure is 25 Ibs.
(See example, paragraph 20.) Find the temperature at the end of

Example.

Five cubic feet of air under

"

expansion.
Solution.

"

T~i

expansion is adiabatic,
equation (52) becomes

Since the

'

i^)1'4^
(gg'y

(60 -f 460)

log 772

log T2
772

log 5^0 +

2.716 +

2.612

410"

410

.29

log .442

.29 X

1.645

abs.

460

50" F.

2.716

.104

520

.442

HEAT

30
in this

body, H, Fig. 6, as an
temperature T\\ a cold body, C, at

cycle,imagine a

of heat

at the

is lower

T2 which

hot

infinite
a

source

temperature

sorbing
TI, and with an infinite capacity for abany change in temperature; a non-conduct-

than

heat without

FIG.

ing cover, N;

ENGINES

and

FIG.

6.

Carnot

5.

"

cycle.

cylindercovered, except on the outer end,

with a perfectlynon-conductingmaterial and containinga nonconducting,
frictionless piston. The
end of the cylinder
outer
is assumed
to be a perfectconductor.

The
a

Engine working

"

in Carnot

cylinder containingvi cubic feet of

pressure

pi

contact

with

volume

vz and

is first
the hot

placed

body

pressure

p2.

so

and

that

the

cycle.

perfectgas
conducting end
a

under
is in

the gas allowed to expand to a

Since the supply of heat is infinite,

ELEMENTARY
the

will remain

temperature

isothermal.

N,

volume

vs

falls to

T2 ".

and

the

C, the temperature

to

expansion will be

expand

to

the

adiabatically

time

same

ducting
non-con-

the

ture
tempera-

body, (7,is placed in contact

is compressed, rejectingheat

the gas

of which

the

remains

constant

Tz,

at

that

so

Finally the non-conducting cover

cylinder head and the gas compressed

compression is isothermal.

the

again placed

is

At

cold

the

Then

allowed

ps.

pressure

31

placed against the

next

gas

cylinder head, and

the

with

and

and

constant

cylinder is

The

cover,
to

THERMODYNAMICS

the

on

of pressure,

adiabatically to the originalconditions

carried

The

heat
to

isothermal

or

is

compression

point, D, Fig. 5, that the adiabatic

along

absorbed

DA

and

AB,

rejectedalong CD

heat

are

isothermal

the

BC

As

the

and

"j- loge

loge --"

"jJ

step,

and

through

through A.

will pass

equal

such

to

third

The

temperature.

volume

adiabatics

Fig. 5,
is

there will be

equal

is
to

heat

no

v"

lines,and all the heat

and all the heat rejectedalong CD.
received along AB
is TI, and
Since the temperature
along CD
along AB

received

or

these

rejectedalong

will be

is

r2,

then

Tl

=-

T2
Hence

Let HI

the heat

equal

added,

and

H2 the heat

rejected,and

let

W
j

equivalent of

equal the heat

the

work

done.

Then

w
"

j
and

the

77
JnLi

"

rr
ri2,

is
efficiency
W

#1

-*

#2

ST
Substituting
absorbed

and

in

this

the

expression, the

heat

rejected as

expression for the

given above,

efficiency
v3

we

have

heat
the

HEAT

32

for
Substituting
the

its value

"

the

in terms

of

v%

and

v\, and

fying
simpli-

expression,
E

From

ENGINES

equation of

(56)

perfectgas,

piVi

RT1} and

psvs

RT2.

Substitutingin equation (56),

E

T^f-

(57)

expression for efficiencyis generalfor all engines using

perfectgases, as in deriving the expressionwe have not assumed
This

specialconditions dependent upon the nature of the gas.

T2
Equation (57)can only be unity when
0, that is,when
the temperature of the condenser, or cold body, is absolute
The nearer
zero.
unity equation (57)becomes, the higher the
efficiencyof the engine. In order to obtain this result,T\
T2 must be made
as
large as possible. This can only be
In actual practice
attained by making T\ larger,
Tz smaller.
or
any

there

limits to the values of TI and

are

in the different forms

T% which

may

be available

of

engines.
It may
also be shown
that
by the followingdemonstration
in any working medium
in which
equal increments of temperature
increments
the
of heat,
expression for
represent equal
efficiency
applies.
scale of temperature so that each degree on
Assume
the
a
temperature scale represents

perature
unit, then heat and temwould
be represented by the same
cally.
quantity numeriFrom
equation (55)

heat

one

Hi"

H"i

//i
but

on

temperature scale

the assumed

#!
fji

hence

Tlt and

imperfect gases

as

applies to

working medium

may

T",

rrt

(compare equation57)

"

testing engines using either perfect or

their working medium
to show
that
goes
all forms
of engines no
matter
what
the

experience in

this law

#2

All

'

be.

ELEMENTARY

THERMODYNAMICS

Reversibilityof Carnot

27.

33

Cycle. The

Carnot

cycle is a
the gas may
considered
to first expand
reversible one
as
and then isothermallyalong DC, then
adiabaticallyalong AD
to be compressed adiabatically
along CB, and finallycompressed
It is thus possible to work
isothermally along BA.
"

be

cyclein the
Having proved that

around

the

direction.

reverse

the Carnot
rp

its

is equal to
efficiency

no

it is

"

^r

no

the Carnot

"

efficient than

cyclecan be more
reversible cycle can

that

cycleis

reversible

and

necessary

to

that

np

have

now

show

reversible one, and that

than that of
greater efficiency

cycle.

Assume

non-reversible engine A
the

and

Carnot

engine B,

limits in temperature.

Engine
A takes QA heat units from the hot body and rejects
Q'A heat
units to the cold body, while engine B takes QB heat units from
the hot body and rejects
Q'B heat units to the cold body.
take less
If engine A is more
efficient than engine B, it must
both

working between

heat

from

the hot

body

same

rejectless

and

to the

cold

body,

or

in

other words

and
Now

assume

that A

that

is to drive

QA

"

QB

Q'A

"

Q'B.

is to

5, which

in the

run

acts

as

heat

reverse

pump.

direction

and

Since

is

running
engine, it will rejectto the hot body,
of heat that it takes
amount
in a reverse
direction,the same
from that body when
running direct. Therefore the combined
unit of A
B will,in each cycle,take from the hot body the
quantity of heat QA and rejectto the hot body the quantity of
heat QBBut
QB " QA
when

reversible

"

unaided
by any
self-actingmachine
external agency" is transferringheat from a body of lower to
This is contrary to the Second
of higher temperature.
one
for engine
It is,therefore,
Law
of Thermodynamics.
impossible
As these represent any
A to be more
efficient than engine B.
engines of these particulartypes, no non-reversible engine can
be more
efficient than a reversible one
working in the Carnot
which

means

that

this

"

cycle.
Now

assume
3

engine A

to be

reversible engine also.

It

can

HEAT

34

It

the Carnot

also be

can

cycle that

any

more

reached

is therefore

conclusion
efficient than

more

be

that it cannot

similarlyproven
Carnot
engine.

be

The

ENGINES
efficient than

the

cycle can

be

that

no

cycle.

cycle is the
follow when
working
this

that

proven

engine can

efficient

most

between

any

necessitates,however, a more
of thermodynamics than
thorough expositionof the principles
This

given temperature limits.

it is deemed

wise

will therefore be

in this text, and

to include

omitted.
PROBLEMS

GAS

PERFECT

inch absolute
pressure of 100 Ibs. per square
is its temperature in degreesF. ?
What
cubic foot in volume.

1. One

pound

of air under

occupies.3 of a
2. Ten
pounds of air under a pressure of 10,000 Ibs. per square inch
Find the volume occupied.
absolute have a temperature of 100" F.
of 50
3. Five pounds of air at a temperature of 60" F. occupy
a volume
ft.

cu.

pressure per square inch.

containingair has a volume of 300

Find

the gage

4. A tank

cu.

ft.

The

pressure

in the

is 100 Ibs. per square inch absolute and the temperature is 70" F.
the weight of air in the tank.

Find

tank

of
is the weight of the quantity of air which occupies a volume
of
100"
Ibs.
F. under a pressure
50
10 cu. ft. at a temperature of
per square
inch absolute?
6. What

is the temperature of

6. What
and

per

inch

absolute

square
8. A quantity of air at

of the

of 5

volume

cu.

is 5

the pressure

cu.

ft.

is 50 Ibs.

F.?

temperature of 60" F. under

What

ft.

pressure of 14.7
is the volume

120" F. at constant

is changed to

its temperature

air when

same

inch absolute has

Ibs. per square

160"

the temperature

and

its volume

pound of air when

the pressure is 35 Ibs. per square foot absolute?

7. What
is the weight of a cubic foot of air when

pressure?
'"9.The

of

volume

quantity of air

at

temperature of 60" F. under

is the volume
of 14.7 Ibs. per square inch absolute is 10 cu. ft. What
pressure
the pressure is changed at constant
of the same
air when
temperature to
inch absolute?
60 Ibs. per square
10. A tank contains 200 cu. ft. of air at
a

pressure

How

many

of 200

(a)

Ibs. absolute,

cubic feet will the air occupy

11. A tank

containing1000

cu.

temperature of 60" F. and under

What
at

weight of the air?

atmospheric pressure?
is the

ft. is half full of air and

assuming
12. The
per square
the
when

absolute?

the temperature
volume
inch

volume

of

to remain

is 4

cu.

cu.

ft. and

will be the

If

resultingpressure,

constant?

quantity of air

absolute is 20

half full of water.

the temperature is 60" F.

pressure in the tank is 60 Ibs. absolute and

from the tank,what
half the water iswithdrawn
The

(b)

ft.
the

at 70" F. under

What

is the

pressure

pressure

of 16 Ibs.

temperature of this air

is 70

Ibs. per

square

inch

ELEMENTARY
13. A

THERMODYNAMICS

air

compressed

transmission

pipe

35

is 1 mile

long.

The

What

be the

must

velocityas

of the

pipe

the exit end

at

The

velocity
(a)

second,

have

to

the

same

stant?
entrance, the temperature of the air in the pipe remaining con-

(") What, if the velocityat exit is to be 90 ft. per'second?

street car
has an air storage tank for its air brakes with a volume

14. A
of 400

at

diameter

at

pressure

is 1000 Ibs. per square

inch absolute;at exit,500 Ibs.
is 12 in. in diameter, is 100 ft. per
at entrance
to pipe, which

entrance

ft.

The

in the tank

startingis 200 Ibs. absolute and the

air-brake cylinderstake air at 40 Ibs. absolute
temperature
and have a volume
of 2 cu. ft. How
times can
the brakes be operated
many
tank
of
the
the
air
of
to remain
constant?
one
on
air,assuming
temperature
15. To operate the air brakes on a car requires1 cu. ft. of air at 40 Ibs.
The car has a storage tank containing 100 cu. ft. of air at
gage
pressure.
cu.

pressure

is 60" F.

250 Ibs. gage

The
The
are

times

many

air tank

compressed

on

in the tank is 250 Ibs. gage

air

cylinderseach
60"

and

pressure

How

pressure.

pressure

two

at

The

8"

will the tank

street

has

car

and

operate the brakes?

volume

of 250

the temperature is 60" F.

10".

The

temperature.

How

many

brakes

take

times

There

aT*40Ibs.

air

will the

ft.

cu.

tank

gage

operate

the brakes?
17. How

18. A

B.T.U.

many

at constant

pressure

filled with

tank

60" F. is heated

to 150".

and how

many

B.T.U.

A tank

contains

AX^^

\ibk"lute.

tank

200

the volume

of 1 Ib. of air

melting ice?
at atmospheric pressure,
and at
resultingair pressure in the tank
of

ft. of air

cu.

will be the

will be required to heat the air?

200

ft. of air at 60" F. under

cu.

added

B.T.U.

1000

of 40 Ibs.

pressure

will be the

it,what

to

resulting

in the tank?

pressure

contains 100

cu.

ft. of air at 60" F. under

If the air in the tank

absolute.

double

requiredto

the temperature

What

If the air has

temperature and
20. A

will be

from

of

receives 100 B.T.U.

of 50 Ibs.

pressure

will be

heat, what

the resultingtemperature and pressure?

\J

21. Ten

are

heated

100"

to

in

F.

will be the finalpressure?

(") What
to heat

of air enclosed

pounds

Ibs. absolute

tank

at 60" F.

(c) How

under

of the

will be

B.T.U.

many

of 100

pressure

is the volume

(a) What

air?

required

it?

22. A tank

contains

(a) Ho w
required to

absolute,
will be

(c) What

200

many

cu.

pounds

of air in the tank ?

raise the temperature

will be the pressure

pressure of 50 Ibs.
B.T.U.
(6) How many

ft. of air at 60" F. under

of the air in the tank

in the tank

to

the air has been

when

100" F.?

heated

to

100" F.?
23. A certain auditorium

will seat 3000

people.

being

admitted

Weight
24. A
into

hour,

per

of 1

cu.

and

vessel
is

heat
specific

\/ 25. How

many

will be

B.T.U.

ft. of air at 0" F. is .0863

piece of iron

the water

how

Ibs.;at

5 Ibs. is heated

weighing
containing 16.5 Ibs. of water
increased five degrees by the

outside temperature

pounds of air will be

required to heat it?

70" is .075 Ibs.

to 212"

at 60" F.

heat

is supplied

If each person

the
ft. of air per hour for ventilation,
cu.
0" F. and that in the hall being 70",how many

with 2000

from

F. and

then

dropped

If the temperature of
the

iron,what

is the

of the iron?
many

foot-pounds of

heat

must

be absorbed

by

Ibs. of air in

HEAT

36

its initialvolume

to double

expanding
26. How

B.T.U.

many

ft. of air

cu.

of work

be

at

from

expands

temperature of 100" F.?

at constant

must

its initialvolume

of air to one-fourth
27. If 1

ENGINES

expended
constant

gage

temperature of 60" F. to an absolute pressure of 1

transmission
of heat, find the final temperature.
air compressor,
the cross-section
takes in air at 14 Ibs. absolute pressure
3 ft.,
without

pressure

and

and

of 4

atmospheres
atmosphere without

is 2 sq. ft.,and
60" F. and compresses

transmission

the

3 Ibs.

of 15" C.?

of which

28. An

Ibs. gage

compressing

temperature

pressure

60

in

of heat.

Find

the

stroke

the

it to
final

temperature.

problem 28, if the air

to a final pressure
adiabatically

at 60 Ibs. gage

29. In

70" F.

expands

of 20 Ibs. gage, find the final temperature.

60"
of 1 atmosphere
cubic feet of air at
F. and an initial pressure

30. Two
absolute

and

pressure

in

cylinder to 5 atmospheres gage pressure.

If there be no transference
of .heat,find the final temperature and volume.
the
of the base of which is 1 sq. ft.,
contains
31. A cylindrical
area
vessel,
2 cu. ft. of air at 60" F. when
compressed by a frictionless piston weighing
it. Find the temperature and volume
of the air if the
2000 Ibs. restingupon
of air or heat.
vessel be inverted,there being no transmission
volume
is 3 cu. ft. at 60" F. under a
the quantity of air whose
32. Given
and temperature of this
of 45 Ibs. absolute,
(a) Find the volume
pressure
air after it has expanded adiabatically
until its pressure
is 15 Ibs. absolute.
done during the expansion?
is the work
(b) What
(c) What is the heat in
B.T.U.

compressed

are

into work?

converted
Given

33.
pressure

of 80

quantity of air whose

Ibs. absolute,
(a) What

will be the final temperature and

until its volume

is 8

cu.

ft.?

(d) How

much

until its volume

is 8

expansion?
34.

Given

work

is 2

ft. at 60" F. under

cu.

is the weight of the air?

(6) What
expanded adiabatically
will be done during this
air be expanded isothermally

ifthe air be

pressure

(c) How

work

much

will be done

if the

ft.?

cu.

quantity of air whose

of 100

volume

Ibs. absolute.

volume

It is made

is 2.2

ft. at 80" F. under

cu.

through

the

following
pass
Carnot cycle: it is expanded isothermallyuntil its volume
is 4 cu. ft.;then
expanded adiabaticallyuntil its temperature is 30" F.; then compressed
and finallyit is compressed adiabatically
until its volume, presisothermally;
sure,
and absolute temperature are the same
at the beginning of the cycle.
as
(6) Find the total heat rejected
(a) Find the total heat added in B.T.U.
in B.T.U.
(c) Find the work done in foot-pounds during the cycle, (d)
Find the efficiency
of the cycle.
35. Given
is 10 cu. ft. at 60" F. under
a
quantity of air whose volume
a
pressure

pressure

of 20 Ibs. absolute.

is 200
40

at

Ibs.

Heat

absolute;then

is added

added

to

at constant

at constant

volume

pressure

until its sure

presis

until its volume

lute;
ft.;then rejectedat constant volume until its pressure is 20 Ibs. absoand then rejectedat constant
until
its
volume
is
the
as
same
pressure
the beginning of the cycle, (a) Find temperature at end of first step.
cu.

(6) Find

temperature at end of second step, (c) Find

of third step, (d) Find total heat added
in B.T.U.

rejected in
of
efficiency

B.T.U.
the

(/) Find
cycle.

work

done

in

temperature at end
(e) Find total heat

foot-pounds, (g) Find

the

CHAPTER

III

PROPERTIES
28.

Formation
of

properties of
is

of Steam.

and

vapor,

suspension,

often
does

as

that

suppose

that

heat

is

the

water

in

the

increase

of

of the
is

the

applied

boiler

boiler

the

to

is heated

until

the

boiler.
of

the

water

"to

the

is at

applying

on

the

remaining
will

water

pressure

Steam

under

In

the

the

the

to

the

same,

is added

this

of steam

is said

be

to

divide

we

boils

depends
from

produced
the

as

is

If

we

pressure

and

steam

water

and

water,

saturated.

the

the

ticles
par-

is then

water

the

evaporated.

is converted

water

kept unchanged,

condition

formation

all the

pressure

small

boiler, the

of

all the

until

after

still being

in the

water

temperature

constant

The

be

to

perature
tem-

rise* through

steam

is said

steam

the

upon

temperature

same

As

boiling point

the water

The

us

water,

initial

They

at which

the boiler.

the

heat

remain

heat

more

the

in

the

surface.

Let

boiler.

is reached

steam.

the

to

temperature

this condition

keep

into

escape

the pressure

boilingwater

under

If

The

depending

in

slowly rises.

of the

temperature

boiling point

changed

and

boil."

entirelyon

the

are

of water

mass

said

When

of the

from

boiler

water

cold

its temperature

continues

the

of

weather.

foggy

and

ordinary

amount

shell

tion
opera-

nature

partly filled with

reached, this latter temperature

in

in

external

temperature

water

in the

certain

the

study the

to

atmosphere
a

understand

to

produced

as

contains

have

we

and

This

Steam

steam.

order

In

"

it is necessary

engine

steam

STEAM

OF

into

steam,

will rise.

temperature

superheated.
the

used

heat

into

three

different parts:

(1)

The

heat

from

water

its

which

The

heat
of

of the

(3)
the

the

which

"Heat

heat

temperature

raising the

of the

goes

to

boiling point

boiling point, called

The

to

original temperature

boiling point, called

(2)

goes

which
of

the

to

into

the

temperature

of

the

the

steam

water
at

the

at

the

perature
tem-

temperature

Heat."

changing

boiling point
38

of

Liquid."

changing

"Latent

goes

the

to

temperature

the
into

saturated
steam

steam
at

at

higher

PROPERTIES

temperature but

at the

OF

same

STEAM

39

called "Heat

pressure,

of

heat."
Super-

Saturated
Steam.
steam
Dry Saturated
always exists at
the temperature of the boilingpoint correspondingto the pressure.
29.

"

If this saturated

contains

steam

it is said to be

of water, then

no

moisture

dry saturated steam,

in the form
or, in other

words, dry saturated steam is steam at the 'temperature of the

boiling point and containing no water in suspension. Water
contained

so

added

to

is often

dry

it will become
saturated

and

saturated

it will

The

has been

the

from

away

the relation of pressure,

does not follow any
steam

determined

is

dry

saturated

Dry

steam.

heat

of water

presence

is taken

wet

If

and

perfectgas,

volume,
simple

by experiment.

determined
propertiesof dry saturated steam were
originally
by Regnault between
sixty and seventy years ago, and
his work

was
carefully

so

become

moisture.

in

not

steam,

temperature for such

law, but

entrained

superheated. If heat

steam

is not

steam

called

until within

apparent

done

that

recent

very

no

errors

years,

in his results

when

were

culty
great diffi-

the

in

which
is exactly dry and saturated
obtaining steam
became
appreciated,and new
experimentsby various scientists
proved that Regnault's results were
slightly
high at some
sures
presand slightlylow at others.
tables given in
The
steam
this book
these recent
based upon
are
experiments,and are
probably correct to a fraction of 1 per cent.
30. Wet

Steam.

entrained
a

is saturated

steam

moisture.

saturated

When

engine,it almost always

steam

of

Wet

"

water, so that the substance

fluid is
in this

case

mixture
are

of steam

at the

used

and

is used

steam

moisture

The

steam

in

in the form

by the engine as

water.

tains
con-

working

and

water

temperature.

same

31.

contains

which

steam

Superheated Steam.
Superheated steam is steam at a
temperature higher than the temperature corresponding to the
times
of the boilingpoint at which it was formed. It is somepressure
"

called steam

remains

pressure
any

as

the

If water

were

to be mixed

with

heated
super-

evaporated as long as the

at the same
superheated. Superheated steam
boilingpoint at which it was produced can have

steam, this
steam

gas.
water

would

temperature higher than

that

be

of the

boilingpoint. When

raised to any
considerable temperature above the temperature
of the boilingpoint, it follows very closely
the laws of a perfect

ENGINES

HEAT

40

perfectgas. The
superheated steam, considered as a perfectgas, is

gas,

and

be

may

treated

pv

as

T, approximately.

85.5

equation for

is a variable and
specificheat of superheated steam
depends upon the pressure of the steam and the temperature to
is superheated. For approximate calculations,
which the steam
The

for the

followingvalues

the

heat
specific

of

superheated steam

be taken.

may

TABLE

When

more

VI.

accurate

heat should

be taken

and

Steam

Davis's

The

value

32. Heat

HEATS

SPECIFIC

results
from

OF

SUPERHEATED

desired

are

STEAM

the value

of

given in Peabody's,or

results

specific
Marks

Tables.

is
of y for superheated steam
of the Liquid. The heat necessary
"

approximately 1.3.
to raise one
pound

of water from 32" to the temperature of the boilingpoint is called

be expressednumerically as
the heat of the liquid. This may
follows: let c be the specific
heat of the water, t the temperature
of the boilingpoint,and h the heat of the liquid;
then
h

(t

32).

(1)

approximate results c may be taken as 1, but where great

is required the heat of the liquidshould be taken from
accuracy
For

PROPERTIES
tables

the steam

change in the volume

the

the amount
of the

heat

of external

work

liquidmay

be considered

done

heat

boilingpoint, more
into steam.

The

the temperature

heat necessary

Experiments show
the pressure
When
water

is

that

to external

work.

is

volume

be

taken

work

done

the external

then

(V

or

about

is increased

volume

work

goes

done

that

the

1072.6

the

condensing steam

is

equivalentto

of steam

heat

diminishes

degree the temperature of

.695

(i

(3)

32).

of heat

amount

same

the

temperature of the boiling

t be the

conditions may
212" the external

those

of the latent heat.

latent

for each

equals
(2)

under

one-thirteenth

units

is

given

up

required to produce it.

was

34. Total
necessary

Heat

of Steam.

change

to

dry saturated

pound

one

steam

will be
H

the total heat may

H
more

heat from

given.

designatedby
=

h +

total heat

of

H.

(4)

L.

given in the table for the value of

be approximated very closelyby the formula

experimental results

It is

total heat of steam is the heat

of water at 32" to one pound of

The

"

temperature of the boilingpoint. The

at the

steam

The

diminishes

v).

of water

pound

one

If
boilingpoint is increased.
point,then, approximately,

as

by

Let P

heat

.695

In

of steam

portion of the latent heat

considerable

Experiments show
about

tempera-

same

the latent heat

approximately .017 cu. ft. At

in producing one
pound of steam

units

73 heat

will denote

at

equal the pressure at which the steam

equal the volume of the steam, and v equal the

of
as

pound of water

at the

steam

the

this water

convert

one

into steam, the

changed

of the water:

volume

to

that the latent heat

P
The

added

increasingthe

has reached

the water

to convert

We

to

all the

increases.

rapidly so

formed;

neglectedand

going

as

of the boilingpoint into

lure is called the latent heat.

as

be

must

be

may

When

"

41

During this operation

is extremely small, and

3.

of the water

of the water.
heat energy
33. Latent Heat of Steam.

L.

STEAM

in Column

shown

as

OF

as

1072.6

accurate, however,
the tables than

it is to

.305
to

(t

take

(5)

32).
the

compute them

values
from

of the total
the formula

HEAT

42

ENGINES

let q represent the percentage of dry steam

of steam
and water, then the latent heat in one
If

steam

in

we

pound of

wet

equals
(6)

qL
and

mixture

the total heat

of

pound

one

h +

of wet

steam

equals
(7)

qL.

followingtable shows the properties

of dry saturated
More
steam.
complete tables will be found
and Davis's Steam
in Peabody's Steam
Tables, Marks
Tables,
Books.
Column
1 gives the abin the Engineering Hand
solute
or
35. Steam

Tables.

pressure

The

"

of the steam

in

pounds

per

square

inch.

Column

heit
gives the corresponding temperature of the steam in Fahren3 gives the heat of the liquid,
or the heat
degrees. Column
ing
to raise one
pound of water from 32 degrees to the boilnecessary
4 gives the
Column
point corresponding to the pressure.
latent heat, or the heat necessary
to change a pound of water
at the temperature of the boilingpoint into steam
at the same
Column
5 gives the total heat of the steam, and
temperature.
is the sum
of the quantitiesin Column
Column
4.
3 and Column
2

6 is the volume

Column

of

pound of steam
7 is the weight of one
one

at the different

different temperatures.
TABLE

VII.

"

PROPERTIES
ENGLISH

OF
UNITS

tures.
tempera-

cubic foot of steam

SATURATED

STEAM

at the

PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES

OF

SATURATED
ENGLISH

STEAM

OF

STEAM
UNITS

"

43

Continued

HEAT

44

PROPERTIES

OF

ENGINES

SATURATED
ENGLISH

STEAM

'UNITS

"

Continued

HEAT

46

PROPERTIES

OF

ENGINES

SATURATED
ENGLISH

STEAM
UNITS

"

Continued

PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES

OF

SATURATED
ENGLISH

47

STEAM

OF

STEAM
UNITS

"

Concluded

CHAPTER

CALORIMETERS
36.

is meant

steam

have

we

already

steam

seen,

the

saturated

of dry and

cent,

per

be

may

of

By "quality"

saturated, or superheated.

wet, dry and

either

As

"

MIXTURES

MECHANICAL

AND

Calorimeters.

IV

in

steam

the

sample.
The

quality from

the

classes

two

are

100

of these

In each
but

will

be

Mechanical

as

shown

along

tested

of the
in the

is
37.
that

depends
is the

pressure

only

one

the

at

Calorimeters.

the

pounds

passing through

orifice

per

the

in

orifice

of

two

square

inch, and

square

into

main,

As
this

J-inch

of

series

the

steam

to

nipple, a

fair

should

nozzle

be

ture
mois-

entrained

the

of

weight

size
the

on

This

mixed.

The

"

given

pressure

of

and

where

point

nozzle,

the steam

across

sampling

thoroughly

most

through

area

in

main

steam

Society of

sampling

through

The

makes,

or

calorimeter.

the

end

calorimeter

is insured.

the

upon

the

steam

the

on

cap

of

use

with

types

American

39, the

imeter.
Calor-

of each.

two

or

present

Throttling

several

are

There

at the

use

its cylindrical surface.

enter

Separating
pass

around

likely to be

will

and

the

there

Paragraph

Fig. 9, with

must

inserted

classes

general

nipple, in connection

and

by subtracting

Calorimeter.

in

piece of pipe extending nearly

in

sample

in

seen

calorimeter

holes

be

of these

Engineers recommend

nipple is

of

means

instruments

it will suffice to describe

As

or

by

Separating Calorimeter

time, the

is found

steam

cent.

per

determined

quality is

The

in the

of moisture

percent

the

in

orifice
sides

the

of the

inches, P
W

the

dry

given

time
If

orifice.

the

absolute

pounds of

atmosphere

steam

steam

second,

per

then
PA

W=-7Q
From

Napier's

orifice of known
This

exceeds

law

.6 of the

Rule

area

the
is

holds

higher

weight

of steam

proportional
true

(1)

(Napier's Rule).

until

pressure.
48

the

to

the
lower

flowing through
absolute
pressure

steam

an

sure.
pres-

equals

or

MECHANICAL

AND

CALORIMETERS

MIXTURES

49

fore,
flowingthrough any orifice may, thereR. C. Carpenter has a calorimeter
Professor
be determined.
eter,
steam
enters the calorimbased upon
this principle. Wet
Fig.7,throughthe pipe 6,,and is projectedagainst the cup
then turned
and
water
14.
The
steam
are
through an angle
outward
the water
to be thrown
of 180", which
trifugal
causes
by cenThe

of steam

amount

directly into
thrown

3, prevents
being picked up again

carried

4, and

is

around
annular

known, is so small

there

that

of the steam

loss in pressure

the

same,

and

there

temperature
is

chamber

inner

glass 12, connected

gage

chamber,
dredths

so

same,

from

with

the

the
The

the

ner
in-

graduated in hun-

is

of pounds,

so

that

the

separatedfrom

of moisture
-can

is the

radiation.

by

no

sure
pres-

being

loss of heat

no

is

The

chambers

two

fice
ori-

it flows

as

through the calorimeter.

in the

space

which
orifice,

of this

area

any

flowing
already

the

the

dischargedthrough

The

8.

moisture

of

chamber

outer

in the

instead

cup,

and

upward

down

flows

chamber

inner

is

top of the

the

into the inner chamber

after

steam

passes

cup

It then

7.

The

on.

leaving the
enters

chamber

the

out

and

to strike the

the steam

Causing

3.

in the cup

through the meshes

force

weight

the steam

directty. The gage 9 is

calibrated
to read directlythe
as
be read

FIG. 7.

Carpenter'simproved
separating calorimeter.
"

pounds flowingthrough the orifice 8 in a given time

(generallyten minutes). These readings are not proportional
to the pressure
readings on the gage, which has two scales,for
number

the

of

latter

atmosphere and
of the

proportionalto

readings are

results

not

to

obtained

the

absolute

by \isingthe

the pressures

pressures.
gage

may

The
be

above

the

accuracy

checked

at

fice
by condensing and weighing the discharge from ori8 for a given period of time.
If now
call w the weight of dry steam
discharged from
we
the orifice 8 in any given period of time, W the weight of mois-

any

time

HEAT

50

collected in 3 in the

ture

ENGINES

periodof time, and

same

q the

quality

of the steam, then

be

may

either from

obtained

reading of

the

and

by actuallyweighing

the

steam,

the

difference

the

readingson

and

end

38.

between

Throttling Calorimeter.

by

Prof. C. H.

FIG.

used,but

of the steam

"

Committee

at

is unsuitable

form

for

steam

pressure

through

doing any

up, and

as

it takes
at the

up

the

calorimeter

was

recommended

over

at

lower

work,

only objectthat

higher pressure,

can

is at

it

ture,
of mois-

cent,

is below
low

very

sure
pres-

pound of saturated
than

If steam

space

at

at

lower

of this heat must

absorb

If this steam

heat

pressure.

some

39

where

thermometer

more

4 per

or

follows:

orifice into

an

external

this heat.

steam

contains

(see paragraph

determiningthe quality

temperature of the lower

of saturated

without

beginning

of calorimeter

in

use

contains

high pressure

pass

of

Standards

on

225", which will be the case if the

(below 5 or 6 Ibs. gage).
The principle
of its operationis as
steam

by taking

at the

is the form

and

accurate

if the steam

if the

or

form

This

"

Peabody,

It is the most

below).
be

scale 12

or

Carpenter'sthrottlingcalorimeter.

8.

A.S.M.E.

the

can

is found

9,

gage

of the test.

invented

by

the

pressure

be

heat is the steam

contained

some

part of the heat liberated when

pound
a
high
given
itself,

moisture
the pres-

AND

CALORIMETERS
is lowered

sure

will go to

excess

Let q
ti

MECHANICAL

will go

superheating the

the

the temperature

51

evaporating this moisture,and

to

MIXTURES

quality of the

the

steam.

steam.

of the wet

before

steam

passingthrough

trieorifice.
Pi

fa

the absolute

the temperature

correspondingto

the temperature of the steam

The
water

L2

heat
at

fa,or the absolute

of

heat

liquid

and

latent

the temperature

fa.

contained

Ib. of the

in

temperature fa,or

heat

contained

A2 + Lz +

corresponding to

mixture

of steam

steam

expansion would

cp(tsup. fa)
-

H2

on

the

Solvingfor

qLi

H2 +

cp(tsup. fa),

But
on

since the

one

(tsup. fa).

side of

(3)

#,

H2 +

cp

(tsup. fa)

percentage of moisture

q=

The

cp

low-pressure

be

cp is the

hi +

and

be

heat of superheatedsteam.
specific
be the same
heat in a pound of the substance must
the orifice as it is on the other,
where

p\.

qLi.

in 1 Ib. of the

side of the orifice after

pressure

heat

pi, would

pressure

hi +
The

the thermometer

by

the

temperature
h2 and

shown

as

low-pressureside of the orifice.

heat of liquid and latent heat correspondingto the
on

hi and Z/i

in the main.

steam

the absolute pressure

the low-pressureside of the orifice.

on

i sup-

of the wet

pressure

hi

Li

equals 1

"

(5)

q.

the tables by looking up

the
Ordinarily fa is found from
rimeter,
temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure in the calothe sum
of the atmospheric pressure
and the presi.e.,
sure
This
shown
the
is
manometer.
not
practice,
by
however,
rules for finding the quality of
permitted by the A.S.M.E.

steam, since tsup.is taken

with

thermometer

that

has

part of

52

exposed,and

its stem

account

may

be considerable

calorimeter

the calorimeter

from

that

described in

as

take

we

does it

which
itself,
Therefore

well covered.

though

even

for

"normal reading"

paragraph 39

in

shown

Fig. 9

to. correct

differs from- the

for

instead

is observed

calorimeter

shown

one

being admitted

in that the temperature of the steam

Fig. 8

the

subject to radiation,*nor

errors.

The
in

is thus

it is necessary

work

of the thermometer,
these

ENGINES

of the radiation

take

accurate

HEAT

of the

In

pressure.

to

other

FIG.

throttlingcalorimeter.

Barms'

9.

"

words, hi and LI correspondto the temperature ti rather than

the

to

difference is that in the

Another
p\.
pressure
calorimeter,the exhaust is made very free and the pressure,

absolute

Barrus

pz,

on

the lower

long

calorimeter

side of the orifice is assumed

exhaust

where

pipe

will

back

the

assumed

have

we

cause

to be atmospheric.

in the

pressure

to

pressure

be

atmospheric.
In

the

case

atmospheric

pressure

is not

known,

it

can

be

of a thermometer
column
considerable portion of the mercury
K must
be
correction
the
to
is
a
air,
measuring high temperatures
exposed
added
to the readings to obtain the true temperature.
*When

Let

reading of

the observed

t'

the temperature

the thermometer.

of the air

surrounding

the

exposed

stem

of the

thermometer.
D

number

of

Then

.000088

the scale from

degrees on

the thermometer
D

to

cup

(t

"

the

upper

t') in Fahrenheit
,

the surface of the

end

of the

degrees.

mercury

liquidin
column.

ENGINES

HEAT

54

If the steam

pressure is constant.
the observations are

steam

falls during the time

pressure

being made, the test should be continued long

the
When
enough to obtain the effect of an equivalentrise of pressure.
normal readinghas been obtained,the constant to be used in determining

when

at the observed

is the latent heat of the steam

the percentage of moisture

heat of superheatedsteam at atmospheric

specific
is forty-six hundredths
(.46). To ascertain this
pressure, which
of degreesof coolingby the constant, and
percentage, divide the number
divided

pressure

by

the

100.

multiplyby

quantity of steam used by the calorimeter in an

is passed through an orifice under a given
where the steam
instrument
enough to calculate the quantity from the
pressure, it is usuallyaccurate
the

determine

"To

If it is desired to determine
of the orificeand the absolute pressure.
the quantity exactly,a steam hose may be attached to the outlet of the

area

carried to

and
calorimeter,

is condensed

barrel of water

steam

and

thereby the quantitydischarged per hour."

Steam

"

the

manometer

29 in.

Find

Solution.

"

blows

Ibs. pressure

100

at

temperature of the lower

The

calorimeter.

platform scale.

time, and its weightdetermined,

certain

The

Example.

for

placed on

through

throttling

is 275"

thermometer

reading is 5.6 in. of mercury.

the qualityof the steam.
First find the atmospheric pressure

reading

Barometer

and

and

the pressure

in the

calorimeter.

Atmospheric
Pressure
Now

from

the

main,

pressure

Then

pressure

in calorimeter

the steam

.491 X

29

.491 X

5.6

14.25 Ibs.

2.75 Ibs.

tables find hi and LI correspondingto the pressure

114.25 Ibs.

absolute,and also Hz and

17 Ibs. absolute.
in the calorimeter,
from equation (4),
Hz +

cp

1153.1

(275

.46

correspondingto the

hi

(tsup. "2)
-

"2

in

219.4)

308.5

880.1
1153.1

.46 X

55.6

RQ a
869.6

308.8

Answer:

"

98.8 per

.988.

880.1

880.1
cent.

(a) Find the qualityof the steam in the precedingproblem

if the data is as follows : weight of
by a separatingcalorimeter,
lected,
col4.5 Ibs.;weight of moisture
escaping through orifice,

Example.
"

as

shown

dry

steam

.05 Ibs.

(6) Find
20 minutes.

the

diameter

of

the

orifice if the

length

of

the

run

is

CALORIMETERS
Solution.

AND

(a) From

"

MECHANICAL

MIXTURES

55

equation (2),
w

(6) Find
it w'.

weight

of steam

-988'

=4.55

4^+^05

orifice per

flowingthrough

second,and

call

Then
45
w'

From

45

6n""7"n
Zi\J X
OU

=
"

Ibs

-00375

equation (1),
PA
W

70
70
P

1004-

.OOS^1

-26250
114.25

.49O"29

%V^*"
*
"--S"-000732

*r*

"

.0023

.027

.054

(a) 98.8 per

(6) .054 in.

Answer:

gV
*

(.

Pr
^-r

cent

PROBLEMS
1. Steam

at 100 Ibs. pressure

after

at

temperature

at

absolute

above

"

an

^eam

through

of

246".

perature
Tem-

calorimeter.

Barrus

is the

What

an

the

is in the
a

at

mixture

What
pressure

an

quality of the

passing through
originalsteam?
of steam

pressure

and

orifice to 15 Ibs. absolute.

Ibs. pressure
orifice into a chamber
a^

95

What

containing 2

water

expands through

Ibs. and

What

where

will be its
per

per

pressure?
cent,

blows

temperature?

cent,

moisture

blows

is 8.2 in. of mercury

is the temperature of the steam

tested

cent,

per

orifice to 15 Ibs.

at the lower

the pressure

atmosphere.
through the orifice? Barometer, 29.8 in.
6. Find the qualityof the steam
if,when
4.5 Ibs. of dry steam
blow through

an

quality of 98

containing 2|

What

this orifice is 240".

will be the temperature

of 100

The

orifice into the atmosphere.

after

150 Ibs. absolute

pressure.

4. Steam

vJ

Ibalbliwsthrough

of the steam

pound

moisture

through

110

of moisture

cent,

3. One

Q^ni

(2)Steam

through

passing through orifice is

steam?

per

passes

with

the orifice while

after

passing

imeter,
separatingcalor1.5 Ibs. of mois-

HEAT

56

ENGINES

If the run
is thirtyminutes
long and the steam
separatedout.
orifice.
determine
the
diameter
the
of
Ibs.,
pressure
blows
7. Steam
at 10 Ibs. pressure
through a separating calorimeter.
flow through the
The run
is forty-five
minutes
Ibs. of dry steam
10.5
long,
Find the qualityof the steam
orifice and .5 Ibs. of moisture-are
collected.
ture

are

is 100

and

the

of the orifice.

area

40. Mechanical
and

temperature
mixed

Mixtures.

final condition

mechanically are

involvingthe resulting

Problems

"

various

when
with.

often met

They

substances
are

are

best treated

by first determiningthe heat in B.T.U. that would be available

for use if the temperature of all the substances were
brought to
32" F., and then using this heat (positive
or
negative)to raise

(or lower) the

and

mixture

weight of

total

to

its final temperature

condition.

Another

method

the heat absorbed

solvingmixture problems is by equating

and letting
the heat rejected
z. represent the

of
to

resultingtemperature. It is often difficult

which
side of the equation a material should

to

be

decide

upon

placed.

In

made, and the temperature

determined
this
trial
will
settle
this
question.
by
In the mixture of substances
which pass through a change of

such

state
a

case

trial calculation should

mixture

during the

trial calculation.

other substances.
water

the steam
each
If

Take, for example, the mixing of

The

steam

one

pound of dry saturated

and

the

sulting
re-

then

the

at

steam

temperature ti is

temperature of the condensed

temperature "2,the

amount

of heat Hr

steam

given off

be
=

Li + c(t,
-

(6)

tz).

LI is the latent heat correspondingto the temperature t\.

If the steam

was

only, the heat given off would

condensed
H'

and

and

be different.

H'
where

with

steam

also;the steam may be condensed only;or

be only partiallycondensed.
The equationsin

case

to

all be condensed

may

to make

necessary

cooled

may

is lowered
would

it is almost

process,

would

condensed

be

(7)

Li

the temperature of the mixture

be

is the

temperature

sponding
corre-

to the pressure.

If the steam
of steam

is only

condensed.

partlycondensed, let q equal the

the temperature

cent,

Then
H'

and

per

of the mixture

to the pressure.

(8)

qLi
is the

temperature

sponding
corre-

AND

CALORIMETERS

MECHANICAL

MIXTURES

57

thermodynamics do not apply in the

the equations become
The
of mixtures
discontinuous.
as
case
general expressionfor heat absorbed in passing from a solid to
The

of

general laws

state

gaseous

be stated

may

follows:

as

liquidand c3
in the gaseous
state, w the weight of the substance,t the initial
temperature, t\ the temperature of the melting point, t2 the
temperature of the boilingpoint, t3 the final temperature, Hf
Ci be

Let

heat
Hr

of

and
liquefaction,

w[d (t,

heat

c2

SPECIFIC

HEATS

of fusion

of ice

144

solid,c2

of

L heat

t) + Hf +

VIII.

TABLE

Latent

in the

heat
specific

the

in the

vaporization.
+ L +

(tz
-

LIQUIDS

OF

AND

c3

(h

fe)] (9)

SOLIDS

B.T.U.

Example." Find the final temperature

after mixing 10 Ibs. of ice at 20"; 20 Ibs.
Mixture
steam
at atmospheric pressure.

and

condition of the mixture

50", and 2 Ibs.

placeat the pressure

of water
takes

at

the steam.
Solution."

First Method

Heat

to raise ice to 32"

Heat

to melt ice

Total

10 X

heat necessary

change

to

(32

60

20)

144

10 X

.5

given

lowered
Heat
=

by

to 32"

in steam

20 X

above

32"

32)
(from tables)
(50

heat

steam

given

1500 B.T.U.

360

=2300.8
up

in

lowering

water

to 32"

available for

temperature is

when

water

2X1150.4

Total

Heat

up

1440

the ice to water

at 32"

Heat

and
=

use

2660.8

1500

2660.8

B.T.U.

1160.8

B.T.U.

of
of

HEAT

58

ENGINES
1160

Degrees this heat will raise the

mixture

36.3.

oZ

.'.final

temperature of mixture

36.3

Second

mixture

is t".

Then

the heat

F.

Method

is all condensed

that the steam

68.3"

at 68.3" F.

32 Ibs. water

Ans.

Assume

-f 32

and that the temperature of the

to raise the ice to the

necessary

melting

pointequals
.5(32

10 X
The
to

heat

to melt

necessary

raise "he

melted

the ice
the

ice to

20).

equals 10

temperature

the heat necessary

the mixture
equals

144;

of

32); the heat necessary to raise the water to the temperature of

equals20 (t 50); the heat given up by the steam in changing
the
2
of
to water
at the temperature
boilingpoint equals X 970.4,
and the heat given up by the condensed
when its temperature is
steam
lowered to the temperature of the mixture equals2 (212
t).
the
have
into
one
Combining
preceding parts
equation,we
10("

"

the mixture

"

"

10 X

.5

(32

20) +

10 X

2 X

60

'+ 1440

Wt

144 +

970.4 +

320

20*

+
32"
t

(t
(212
10

32) +
t)

1000

20

1940.8

(t

424

50)

2t

2184.8
68.3"

Since t is less than the temperature of the boilingpoint corresponding

to the pressure
the mixture
takes place,all the steam
is conat which
densed.
Ans.

10 Ibs.
Ibs. of
Mixture

at 68.3" F.

resultingtemperature and condition after mixing

of ice at 20", 20 Ibs. of water at 50",40 Ibs. of air at 82", and 20
and containing2 per cent, moisture.
steam
at 100 Ibs. pressure
takes place at the pressure
of the steam.

Example.

Solution.

Find

32 Ibs. water

"

First Method

"

10 X

.5(32

10 X

144

the

20)

60
1440
1500

B.T.U.

heat

to

raise ice to

at 32".

water

AND

CALORIMETERS

MECHANICAL

(50
32)
40 X .2375(82
32)
20(308.8 +.98 X 879.8)

20 X

MIXTURES

360

475

23420

B.T.U.

24255

heat

1500

40

.2375(337.9

32)

59

given

water, and

by

up

air,

steam.

heat available.

22755

B.T.U.

2905

B.T.U.

heat to raise air to,337.9".

19850

B.T.U.

heat available to raise the

15440

B.T.U.

water.

50 X

308.8

heat

raise

to

water

to

337.9".
B.T.U.

4410

heat

available

to

rate
evapo-

water.

4410
.

Iks. steam,

5.01

oTft

o/y

o
o

40 Ibs. air

Ans.

44 .99 Ibs. water

5.01

Ibs

dry

" at

saturated

Second
Assume

the

the mixture
and
10

steam

be t".

.5(32
20) +
20
.2375(1 82)
-

60

+
6758

1440
-

IQt

10

144

320

879.8

.98 X

and

have

we

20*

10(" 32) + 20(*

+ 20(337.9
0
-

50) +

40 X

1000

9.5Z

779

17250

20t

This result is of

higherthan

pressure

Method

all condensed

59.5*

be

steam

let the temperature of

Equating the heat gained by the ice,water and air,
be

to

the heat lost by the steam,

X

337 .9".

course

24670

413. 6" F.
the temperature of the mixture

absurd, as

the temperature of the

at which

the mixture

takes

cannot

boilingpoint correspondingto the

place. Therefore our assumption

that part
and we know
be wrong,
ture
of it remains in the form of steam, and hence the temperature of the mixis equal to the temperature of the boilingpoint correspondingto the

that all the steam

pressure

is condensed

at which

must

the substances

are

mixed.

for t its value,and letting

x represent the number
substituting
pounds of steam condensed, we have
Then

10

.5(32

20) +

10

of

50)
32) + 20(337.9
10(337.9
879. 8*
82)
+ 40 X .2375(337.9

144 +

60

HEAT

60 +

1440

3059

5758

879. 8

20 X

.98
Ans.

10 +

(20

14.49

The

originalweight of dry

19.6) +

Ibs.

5.11

difference between

14.49

[at

337.9".

steam

in these two

the results obtained

methods

is due to the fact that in the first method

this

account

of the variation in the

problem

Ibs. water

44.89

dry saturated

working

we

of

took

heat of water by using the heat of

specific
tables,in place of (t 32) wherever possible,

the liquid,h, from

the

while in the second

method

and

steam.

40 Ibs. air

20 +

19.6

879. 8x

Ibs. condensed.

14.49

19.6 Ibs.

2431

12748

ENGINES

"

assumed

we

this

heat
specific

to be constant

equal to 1.

Example.

Find

"

10 Ibs. of ice at
pressure

and

the

resultingtemperature

20",20 Ibs. of water

400" temperature.

Solution."
10 X

.5(32

10 X

144

at

50",and

and

condition after mixing

30 Ibs. of steam

at 100 Ibs.

takes placeat 25 Ibs. pressure.

Mixture

First Method

20)

60
1440
1500 B.T.U.

heat

to raise ice to water

at

32".
20 X
30 X

(50
32)
.57(400
337.9)

30 X

1188.6

360

1062
35658
37080

B.T.U.

heat

given up by

water

and

steam.

1500

60 X

235.7

35580

B.T.U.

heat

14142

B.T.U.

heat

available.
to

raise

water

to

266.8".
21438

B.T.U.

heat available to evaporate

water.

21438
97 Ibs. steam

22
.

933.3
Ans.

37
.

03 Ibs. water

at 266. 8" F.

97 Ibs.

22

'

dry saturated
Second

Assume
mixture

the steam
be t".

Then

steam

Method

to be all condensed

and

let the temperature of the

HEAT

62
of steam

-7- 8. Five pounds

2 Ibs. of ice at

and

20"

at

ENGINES
10 Ibs. of water

atmospheric pressure,
at atmospheric

mixed

are

pressure.

resultingtemperature?
at 60" and
9. Ten pounds of ice at 10",20 Ibs. of water
atmospheric pressure are mixed at atmospheric pressure.

at

60",

will be

What

the

and

temperature
10.

Y-

50 Ibs.

60" and

at

all

not

11. A

mixture

of ice at

20", 10

by weight

of

12. What

at 60"

of water
and

,4

and

are

Five

at 20 Ibs. pressure

at

steam

at

60"

)~^is.

of the mixture.

and

after

mixing
of

temperature

at 40" F.

takes

Mixture

at 60".

condition

temperature
at

What

is condensed?

steam

and

100

after

of 500"

at

is the temperature

at

the

pressure

having

mixed

are

mixing

and

Ibs. absolute

pressure

pressure,
is
What

of

quality

atmospheric

and

condition

resultingmixture?
Thirty pounds
temperature

condition

of water

of 400"

will the

What

60", 10

at

Ibs. of steam

115

at

10 Ibs. of ice at 20"

F., and

be?

resulting temperature

Ibs. absolute

mixed

are

at atmospheric

What

is the

of the mixture?

Ten

pounds

at 75 Ibs. pressure

What
Two

5 Ibs. of ice
Find
22.

much

at 5 Ibs. gage

10 Ibs. of water

pressure.

21.

2 Ibs. of steam

of 98 per cent.
Five pounds of steam

20.

at80",

of the steam.

100", 10 Ibs. of steam at atmospheric

mixed
at atmospheric pressure.
are

absolute,and

20 Ibs.

of the steam.

100 Ibs.

and

of air

at the pressure

20 Ibs. of water

of the air 100 Ibs. of air at

19.

at 5 Ibs.

32", and

50",20 Ibs.

Ibs. absolute

of 30

pressure

with

mixture

will be the temperature

condition of the mixture

the temperature of the mixture and how

17. Required the final temperature

of the

at

mixed

condition

and

F.,and

of air at

10 Ibs. of water

pressure

of

8 Ibs. of steam

1 Ib. of ice at

What

of water

are

and

pressure

F.,2 Ibs. of ice at 10"

place at the pressure

16. Fifty pounds
and

condition

60", and

at

at 5 Ibs. pressure.

resultingtemperature
Required the temperature

10 Ibs. of
250.3"

and

5 Ibs. pressure.

at 5 Ibs. pressure,

the

15.

water

resultingmixture?
pounds of ice at 5", 10 Ibs.

5 Ibs. of steam

Find

40", 20 Ibs. of
place at

of steam

will be

(a) What

will be the percentage

in the mixture?

water

takes

mixed

60".

5 Ibs.

pressure,

of the

condition

14.

at

pounds

atmospheric

be the resulting temperature

Mixture

13. Ten

at

at

air,steam, and

will be condensed.

of the steam

cent,

per

50", 30 Ibs. of air at

(6) What
resultingmixture?

of the

of 10 Ibs. of water

pressure?

what

Ibs. of water

would

at

of 10 Ibs. of steam

is made

the temperature

resulting

the

10 Ibs. of water
atmospheric pressure,
mixed
of air at 100" are
together at the pressure of the
is
will be the resultingtemperature?
(6) If the steam

of steam

(a) What
condensed, determine

steam,

Find

at

of the mixture.

condition

pounds

Twenty

5 Ibs. of steam

is the

of ice at 20"

and

90 per

F., 18 Ibs. of water at 80",and 10 Ibs. steam

mixed
at atmospheric prescent, quality,are
sure.

resultingtemperature
of steam

pounds
at 22",and

at 150

10 Ibs. of water

the final temperature

Required

and

condition

Ibs. absolute and

and

the final temperature

at 60"

are

condition
and

mixed

of the mixture?

temperature of 400",
at

atmospheric pressure.

of mixture.

condition

after

mixing

at atmos-

AND

CALORIMETERS

pheric

containing

of

steam

at

60"

Find

23.

Ibs.

50

and

Ibs.

of

and

temperature

absolute

Ibs.

and

22"

at

MIXTURES

steam

at

63

Ibs.

100

and

pressure

moisture.

resulting

150

at

ice

of

cent,

per

the

F.,

Ibs.

pressure

MECHANICAL

and

air

of

at

condition

of
of

temperature

112"

F.

20

Ibs.

Mixture

mixture

400"

takes

F.,

of
Ibs.

10

place

10
of

Ibs.

water

atmospheric

at

pressure.

50

at

Ibs.
is

What

150"

to

140",
27.

pressure.

and

resulting

the
10

what

What

of

steam
cent,

of

steam

is

the

of

will

water

Ibs.

moisture
and

quality

Ibs.

100

100

10

in

the

of

Ibs.

and

mixed

are

of

raises
the

occupies

water

75",

at

at

the

dry

Ibs.

15

Ibs.

20

of

steam

absolute.

mixture?
heat

steam

from

50"

gage?

gage
is

of

water

condition

and

is
at

of

quality

cent,

per

pressure

of

per

pound

95

temperature

steam

Ibs.

0",

at

pounds

many

if
If

26.

ice

of

absolute
the

How

25.
to

pounds

Five

24.

steam?

93

steam,
3

cu.

Ibs.

of

radiation
ft.

at

from

water

being
110

Ibs.

zero?
absolute

50"

CHAPTER

COMBUSTION

Analysis.

Coal

41.

in

steam

all fuels
the

For

for different

the

of

volatile

gases

pitch,

before

after

been
It

that
to

the

the

and

ultimate

an

product

of these

value

calorimeter

fuels

proximate

ascertain

to

its

is

carbon,

fixed

matter,
such

of

hydrogen,

determined.

as

these

The

ash.

off.

the

left

are

The

ash

after

remains

gas,

from

ash

and

the
The

olefiant

distilled

be

driven

which

and
or

carbon

been

material

carbon
marsh

of

made

are

must

fixed

have

gases

of

determinations

burned.

sists
con-

fuel

the

burned.

noted

analyses

various

that

the
"

only

term

"

does

proximate"

approximate,"

of

of "coal
moisture
Mines

of fixed

and
as

received,"

and

ash

Bulletin

States,"

United
the

values

of

made

are

percentages

analysis,

from

of

proportions
are

All

naphtha.

analysis

between

facts

the

not

mean

being actually

contrary.

The

of

the

hydrocarbons

are

be

to

coal

analysis

completely

the

in

incombustible

should

duce
pro-

of

relative

the

sulphur

volatile

of the
has

and

being

all the

to

principal ingredients

comparison

moisture, volatile

and

tar

is used

value.

proximate

amounts

The

subjected

analysis

nitrogen

In

is

it is tested

ultimate

oxygen,

which

heat

hydrogen.

determine

coal

heating

the

fuel.

making

to

uses,

calorificor

fuel

and

and

analysis,

In

of

of

source

is the

and

purpose

mines,

various

boiler

carbon

are

The

"

FUELS

AND

air-dried

carbon,

free"

"moisture

No.
"were

obtained

or

22
not

the

on

obtained

by

the
64

of

"Analyses
directly but

analyses

of

analysis

coal," and
in the

U.

air-dried

"coal,

S. Bureau

Coals

were

the

ultimate

the

proximate

"dry

given, for example,

as

Therefore,

etc., in

hydrogen,

ash, etc., in the

carbon,

free,"

coal.

in

the

calculated

coal."

COMBUSTION
"Calculations from

AND

FUELS

to 'Moisture

'Air Dried'

'Air dried' condition

65

Free'

"*

Condition

'Moisture

free' condition

100

Volatile matter

"

100

volatile matter

fixed carbon

moisture

100

Fixed

carbon

Ash

100

molstur^

-Toisture

100

ash

sulphur

100

SulPhur

"

100

moisture

100

Hydrogen (-1/9

moisture) X

hydr"gen

100

moisture

100

Carbon

"

Nitrogen

Oxygen (- 8/9) moisture)

"

Calorific value

"

carbon

100

moisture

nitrogen
-Toisture
=

100

100
oxy^en

100

"The

analyses are

calculated

to the

(moisture+ ash) as
in the calculation to the

taking100"
exactlyas

"The air-drying
loss of

mine

weight after mining from

The
moisture.
analysisof the

loss in

compositionof

coal in the

the

and

'drycoal' or 'moisture
sample
the

coal

indicates to

free' basis.

degreethe

some

evaporationof looselyretained
'as received' shows

mine.

After

the

coal

the
has

actual

left the

the limits of coal 'asreceived."

coal 'airdried.'

"The analysis
on

'moisture free' basis represents the composition

dryingat
"The analysis
stated on

of the coal after

221" F.
a

This relation

matter.

to

seems

(105"C.).

'moisture and

approximately the heating value

bed

moisture

'moisture and ash free' basis by

divisor and proceedingotherwise

lies between

mine its moisture content

calorificvalue

100

and
be

free' basis represents

ash

compositionof

fairlyconstant

in the
in certain districts,
especially

the

dry organic

for the

same

coal

parison
Appalachian region. Com-

analysesshows that the 'moisture and ash free'

mine and bed
calorificvalues of different samples from the same
provided the proportionand the character of
usuallyagree closely,
the ash and the sulphur do not vary greatly.
of

numerous

"For the commercial

calorific value
of

are

determination

importance;they
matter, but

valuation of coals

U. S. Bureau
5

the

of Mines

not

are

and
proximateanalysis

usuallysufficient.

only displacetheir

evaporationof
Bulletin No. 22.

the

own

Moisture

weightsof

moisture

wastes

and ash
bustible
com-

heat.

HEAT

66

high

plant and

power
"The
the

of

percentage

of

type

increases

ash

decreases

best

furnace

the

of

cost

fixed carbon

to the

matter

burning

for

adapted

in

coal

handling

furnace.

efficiency of the

the

of the volatile

ratio

ENGINES

coal

in

indicates
with

way

maximum

efficiency.
volatile
a

coal

of coke

and

Heat

42.

in

result

carbon

in coal used

with

of

percentage

burn

to

suitably designed furnace.

ordinary steaming

for the

ture
manufac-

sulphur is

purposes

such

elements,

The

"

iron

as

perfect

combustion

term

of oxygen

union

The

heat.

requires

associated

low

ordinary types, but

of

is undesirable

Combustion.

of

containing

not

lime,

or

ering."

refers to the

here

For

unless

clink

that promote

smoke

sulphur

gas.

drawback

serious

without
of

high percentage

coal

of

difficult in furnaces

is not

matter

high volatile

combustion

smokeless

"The

with

substance

of ordinary

combustion

dioxide, nitrogen,

other

some

water

applied

as

fuel

and

vapor,

ducing
pro-

should

of

trace

sulphur dioxide.
"The

calorific power,

developed by the

of heat

amount

is

vapor

falls

as

The
latent

the

The

the

the

lower

nearly all
of the

of the

use

heat
in

in either

given

case

off per

fuels,together

combining

volumes

For

cases.

are

and

both

pound

by

and

air

in

above

therefore
lower

the

and

gases,

is the

with

for

is the
in

the

this

available

boiler

plant

engine

of the

are

shown

of

fuel.

ordinarily

required for combustion

weights,

the

able
actually avail-

value

elements

and
"

temperature

heat

heating
the

gas

the

tain
main-

use.

value

example,

this

atmospheric

at

This

the

as

to

necessary

higher heating

water

long

is unavailable

heating value.

stack

exhaust,

heat

rimeter
calo-

when

only

of steam

heat

vapor,

the

boiling point of water,

for

with

in

temperature

temperature

latent

the

by

So

unit

fuel is burned

condensed

of vapor,

between

is called

calorific value"
the

form

When
be

of

determined

as

boiling point.

weight of

the

difference
heat

will

the

such, i.e.,the

times

pressure

this

below

in the

remains
it

and

formed,

fuel is the total

combustion

complete

higher heating value.

temperature
water

value, of

calorific power

The

weight of fuel."
is the

heating

or

in Table

IX.

met

and

COMBUSTION

AND

FUELS

67

HEAT

68

When

ENGINES

analyzed the percentage of hydrogen shown

only the free hydrogen in the sample but also that

coal is

includes not
which

existed in combination

water

(forall
As

the

with

the

in the coal will be

oxygen

by weight of

16 parts

in the

oxygen

united

form
with

of

drogen)
hy-

unite

with 2 parts
in combination

oxygen

hydrogen, the weight of hydrogen which was

will be equal to one-eighththe total weight of
with the oxygen
The balance of the hydrogen is available for producing
oxygen.
heat, and in determining the heat value of a fuel,the number
of

from

be found

in the coal may

of B.T.U.

the

ultimate

analysis

by the followingformula:
Heat

of fuel in B.T.U.

value

per

pound

14,650 C + 62,100 (H

S,

4000

--

(1)

bon,
symbols C, H, 0 and S represent the weights of carhydrogen, oxygen and sulphur in 1 Ib. of the fuel. This is
called Du Long's formula.
The heat value obtained from equation (1)is only an approximate

where

the

is desired it is necessary
result,and where greater accuracy
actuallyto test the coal experimentallyin a coal calorimeter.
43. Coal

Calorimeters.

for

used
is the

Mahler

steel vessel

"

One

form

of calorimeter

determining the heating value

Calorimeter.

Bomb

into

which

This

very

monly
com-

of solid fuels

consists

of

strong

weight (usually1 gram)

known

of

This coal is placed

finelypowdered air-dried coal is introduced.
in a platinum cup or dish suspended from the cover
of the bomb
by a wire electrode. Another wire passes through the cover,
although well insulated from it,and extends down into the coal.
The cover
is then screwed down
tightand the bomb charged with
to
oxygen
considerable

for the

of from

pressure
excess

combustion

150

of oxygen
over
of the coal.

to

250

that
After

Ibs.

This

allows

theoretically
required
the

bomb

has

been

containinga known weight of water

and an
is passed through the wire electrodes,
electric current
ignitingthe coal. While the combustion is going on, the water
in the containingvessel is kept thoroughly stirred by the apparatus.
charged it is placedin

vessel

temperature of the water is carefullynoted, and

after making allowances for radiation,the heat generatedby the
The

rise in

electric current, etc.,the

heating value

of the coal

can

be

com-

ENGINES

HEAT

70

in a vessel
by shaking. The calorimeter is then immersed
containingwater and a short pieceof white hot wire is dropped
end opens
in the top of the long neck and a blow on the upper
the valve at M, Fig. 10, and allows the wire to drop into the
charge ignitingit. The water is stirred by fins attached to the
sides of the cartridgewhich is turned on a pivot bearing at the
The rise in temperabottom
ture
by a belt run by an electric motor.

mixed

of the water
After

noted.

in the

as

for

of the bomb

mechanical

The

furnished

oxygen

from

containingby weight
nitrogen,and by volume 21

mixture

23

Air

air.

the

cent,

per

to

is

oxygen

and

per cent, oxygen

only is used in the combustion

inert gas and
having no
an

the combustion.

effect upon
the

For

"

it is obtained

79 per cent, nitrogen. The oxygen

of the fuel, the nitrogenbeing
chemical

just

of the coal is found

calorimeter.

to burn

77 per cent,

the

peroxideand by

of the sodium

Required for Combustion.

the fuel in order

and

for the heat radiated,the heat

the heatingvalue
ignition,

case

44. Air

of the coal is carefully

combustion

allowances

making

the combustion

given up by
wire used

to the

due

of

complete combustion

Ib. of

hydrogen

there

and for the complete combustion

oxygen,
dioxide there is required32 -f- 12
to carbon

required8 Ibs. of

is

of 1 Ib. of carbon

Ibs. of oxygen.

2.66

For

there

pound of hydrogen

each

will

be

required "^
.

f\

34.8 Ibs. of

air,and for each pound of carbon

Zo

C*C*

11.6 Ibs. of air to

"=

00

produce combustion.

Zo
.

As

in the fuel unites with

stated,the oxygen

has already been

equivalent of hydrogen to form water and in determining

the weight of air theoretically
drogen
required for combustion this hy-

its

should

the

air

requiredfor

then be found

fuel may

of any

combustion

by

disregarded. The

be

from

the

plete
com-

its analysis

followingexpression:
Weight of
=

11.6 C +

In

equations (1) and

of

hydrogen

and

of oxygen.
exist and an excess

pound

air per
34.8

(H

--

|)+

(2) it has been

carbon
In

comes

actual

of fuel

assumed

in contact

(2)

4.35 S

with

each

that
a

proper

practice this condition

of air is furnished

in order

to

does

insure

atom
portion
pronot
com-

AND

COMBUSTION

plete combustion.

FUELS

71

coals require for comTheoretically most

plete
approximately 12 Ibs. of air. In actually

combustion

burning coal under a boiler with natural draft we find that

For
the coal requires about 24 Ibs. of air per pound of coal.
forced draft there is usually requiredabout 18 Ibs. per pound
to the fire,only a porof coal. If insufficient air is admitted
tion
of the carbon

with

will unite

to form

the oxygen

C02,

the

forming CO.
of the most
In the actual operation of a boiler plant, one
important considerations is the admission of a proper quantity
of air to the fire. As will be seen
later,the less the quantity
of combustion,
of air given to the fire the better the efficiency
balance

provided enough air

enters

all the

that

so

is burned

carbon

to

C02.
45. Smoke.
The

state.

of carbon

amount

usually small,
in the

is unburned

Smoke

"

coal.

Its presence,
handling of the boiler,which
of fuel.

Smoke

is

carried

exceeding 1

not

are

in

cooled

the

Any

oxygen.

in carbon

being cooled

the

total carbon

improper
largerwaste

much

the incandescent

before

of the furnace

point of

with

into contact
that

It is necessary

condition

condition
below

coming

them.

is

indicates

boiler when

before

sufficient oxygen
to unite with
carbon be in an
incandescent
with

result in

may

finelydivided

of the

cent,

per

by the smoke

away

however, often

produced

particlesof carbon

in

carbon

the

it will unite
which

incandescence

results
before

sufficient oxygen
has been furnished to unite with it,will result
in smoke.
Smoke
formed is very difficultto ignite,and
once
the boiler furnace must
be handled
not to produce smoke.
so
as
Fuels very rich in hydrocarbons are most
apt to produce smoke.
When
the carbon gas liberated from the coal, is kept above the
tion
for its combustemperature of ignitionand sufficient oxygen
The
red, yellow, or white flame.
slower the combustion
When
the flame
the larger the flame.
heat
is chilled by the cold heating surfaces near
it taking away
be incomplete, and part of the
by radiation,combustion
may

added, it burns

gas

and

smoke

enough

above

to burn

and

pass

with

If the boiler is raised

off unburned.

the grate
not

so

as

for the volatile matter

giveroom

to

strike the tubes

high

at once,

the amount

of smoke

given off and of coal used will both be reduced.

46.

Analysis of Flue

carefullyconducted

all

large power

plants the

flue gases

Gases.

power

"

In

houses

and

leaving the

HEAT

72

boilers

ENGINES

In some
records
cases
analyzed from time to time.
are
device, of the percentage of carbon
kept, by an automatic
dioxide in the flue gases.
In analyzing the flue gases it is customary
are

to

use

modification

some

of the Orsat

This

apparatus.

consists of three

pipettes,a measuring tube, and a wash bottle,

shown
in Fig. 12.
The first pipette D contains a saturated
as
solution of potassium hydrate and
absorbs CO2, the second
pipette E contains potassium pyrogallateand absorbs O, and
the third pipette F contains cuprous
chloride and absorbs CO.
The gas is passed through the pipettesin the order named, and

FIG.

the remainder
from

is assumed

this apparatus

12.

"

Orsat

apparatus.

to be

givethe

nitrogen. The readingsobtained

per cent, compositionof the gases by

volume.
The

followingdirections

the Orsat

apparatus

Potassium

Hydrate.
"

dissolve 500 grams

1

c.c.

the

how

the

reagents used in

prepared.

(1) For

the

of the commercial

of this solution will absorb

(2) For
in

are

will show

determination

hydrate in
40

c.c.

of

C02,

1 liter of water.

of C02.

preparation of potassium pyrogallate for

the per cont. of oxygen

is high,dissolve
case
commercial
hydrate in 100 c.c of water.

120 grams

use

of the

AND

COMBUSTION

73

FUELS

cent,

of the solid pyrogailic

Pyrogallate.Put 5 grams
in a funnel placed in the neck of the pipette E, and pour
lution
this 100 c.c. of potassium hydrate, solution (1)or (2). Sothan 25 per
there is not more
be used in case
(1) may
solution (2)must be used or CO
Otherwise
of 0 in the gas.

may

be

Potassium
acid
over

"

given

up.

of this solution absorbs

c.c

Cuprous Chloride.
"

into

long piecesof

of

Let

bottle

number

fillthe bottle with

Then

scale

of copper

inch

an

place in the

also

wire.

copper

to

chloric
hydro-

acid of 1.10 sp. gr. (1 part muriatic acid to 1 part water).

the bottle stand, shaking it occasionallyuntil the solution

colorless. Then

becomes
which
1

and

of 0.

c.c.

from

Pour

2-liter bottle

is filledwith

copper

the

pour

pipetteF,

wires.

of this solution will absorb

c.c

the

liquid into

from

1 to 2

c.c

of CO.

Example. A stack gas shows the following analysis:C02, 12 per

Find the air used
cent. ; CO, 1 per cent. ; 0, 7 per cent. ; N, 80 per cent.
in burning a pound of coal,if the coal contains C, 80 per cent.; H, 4 per
cent.; 0, 2 per cent.
"

Solution.

"

Vol. in 100
cu.

Carbonic

acid,C02
Carbonic oxide,CO
Oxygen, 0
One

pound

of carbon

1 Ib. of carbonic

in 100

cu.

dioxide

oxide contains

ft. of the flue gases

would

ft.
X

.12341

.07806

.078

.08928

.625

i\

pound.

pound

weight of

weight of

1.481

* X

.078

would

oxide

1.077

.045

.625

1.481

2i X

.078

.404

X)33
437

Air contains 23 per cent, of oxygen

by weight; hence
requiredto burn .437 Ibs. of carbon would be
^

oxgyen

1.747*
pounds

Total weight of carbon

1.747

and

be:

In carbonic acid
In carbonic

oxygen

the carbon

of oxygen,

weight of the

oxygen

Total
the

The

In carbonic oxide

and

of

therefore be:

In carbonic acid

Free

1.481

12

contains
of

Weight

Density

.23

7.6,

the

pounds

pounds of

air

HEAT

74
and

the

pounds

the flue gases

pounds

would

1 Ib. of carbon

of air to burn

would

under

the conditions

of

be
7.6

The

ENGINES

-f-

to burn

of air used

.437

17.4

pound

given analysis

of coal of the

be
17.4

17.4 X

34

.80 +

34.8

(0.4~\

13.92 +

1.31

15.23 Ibs.

ally
weight of air theoreticrequiredto burn the hydrogen has been added to the weight actually
requiredto burn the carbon as shown by the stack gas analysis. While
this is,of course, not exactlycorrect,it is approximately
so, and the error
is slight,
of air used to burn the hydrogen is small as compared
as the amount
with the total amount
required.
The above results are such as might be expectedin a boiler plantusing
It should

induced

be noted

draft.

47. Theoretical
and

here that in this solution the

Combustion.

of

Temperature

heats of the materials of

specific

temperature that might result from

given coal

total

If the

"

known, the

are

their combustion

may

be

approximatelycalculated.
The

calculated

temperatures

are

often

much

very

higher

practice,this being probably due to

the fact that the specific
heat of the products of combustion
is very much
larger at the high temperatures, and also to the
fact that carbon and oxygen
will no longer unite above a given
temperature, probably about 3500" Fahrenheit.
than

be obtained

can

in

Carbon, 75
3 per cent.; nitrogen,2 per,
per cent.;hydrogen,5 per cent.; oxygen,
be disregarded. Find the theoretical
cent.; the ash and sulphur may
and actual rise in temperature of the products of combustion.
Solution.
A coal of the above compositionhas a heat value of 13,860
B.T.U.
The theoretical amount
of air required to burn 1 Ib. of it is
10.62 Ibs. 10.62 Ibs. of air contain 10.62 X .77
8.18 Ibs. nitrogen,
to which
be added
must
the .02 Ibs. of nitrogen in the coal,givingus
a total of 8.2 Ibs. nitrogen.
Example.

"

Assume

the

of coal:

following composition

"

Total

C02 formed

.75 X

3.66

Total

H20 formed

.05 X

The

thermal

through

1" would

units
be

required to

2.745 Ibs. }
.45

Ibs.

raise the

(See
IX)

Table

products

of combustion

COMBUSTION

Carbonic
Water

AND

FUELS

acid

Sp. ht.

B.T.U.

2.75 X

.217

.596

45 X

.460

.207

.244

vapor

Nitrogen

75

8.2

2.000

Total

2.803

theoretical

The
would

rise in temperature

of the

products

of combustion

be
2.8

13,860 -h
In the

actual

operation of

4950"

boiler it is found

necessary

to

add

50

tional
This addirequiredfor combustion.
air,as the following calculation shows, materiallyreduces the
theoretical temperature of combustion.
Assuming 100 per cent. more
to be required,there would
then be added
10.62 additional pounds of
air. The heat to raise this 1 degree would be

to

100 per

cent,

more

air than

is

10.62 X
Add

for undiluted

Total
The

B.T.U.

hand

is

degree

5.325

temperature would
5.325

nearly the temperature

more

be, then,

2600"

obtained

in

boiler

plant with

firing.

If the

temperature
of the

temperature

adding

coal

of the

boiler

the

assumption being

is the

same

room

is

products of combustion

this temperature

to

above, the
the

2.522
2.803

13,860 -^
This

products

per

theoretical rise in

.2375

as

that

given,
be

may

the

final

found

by

temperature as found
that the temperature of

rise in

made

of the

boiler

room.

stokers,temperatures in the
fire of over
3000" F. have been observed.
Such temperatures are
when
the boilers are
usually obtained
being crowded to their
full capacity and their operation is being given careful attention,
In boilers

operated by automatic

with reference
especially

to the

amount

of air admitted

to

the furnace.
48. Fuels.

"

Fuels

may

be divided

into three

general classes,

and gaseous.
solid,liquid,
The
larger proportion of the fuels used are in solid form.
The principalsolid fuels are wood, peat, lignite,
and coal. Coal
be divided into three principalkinds, anthracite, semimay

bituminous

and

bituminous

coal.

HEAT

76

ENGINES

of the mineral oils,

generally
liquidfuels are usuallysome
unrefined petroleum. In some
gas plants liquidtar is used.
fuel is natural gas, but
The
most
commonly used gaseous
there are a good many
plants using gas which is a waste product
from a manufacturing operation. In the steel mills the "down
The

comer"

for the
In

from

gases

producer gas used

49. Woods.

Woods

"

hard.

The

producer, and

be divided into two

may

hard

commonest

woods

from

fuel

this

10

20

to

per

oak, hickory,

soft woods

are

first cut, wood

being dried
followingtable

after

The

cent.

generalclasses,

are

The
commonest
maple, beech, and walnut.
pine, elm, birch,poplar, and willow. When
contains about
50 per cent, of moisture, but
this is reduced

similarly used.

are

gas

as

fuel.

as

often used

are

gases

coal is distilled in

the

cases

soft and

Coke-oven

boilers.

steam

some

blast furnaces

the

of the
composition and heat value of some
woods.
(From Poole's Calorific Value of Fuels.)

gives the chemical

common

more

X.

TABLE

In boiler tests
to .4 of

pound

50. Peat.
It is formed

These

chemical

in blocks
60

per

of oxygen

table

is

from

intermediate

an

the immense

change which

carbon, and

70

and

cent,

80

leaves
per

cent,

air dried.

Good

to

of

OF

WOODS

usuallyassumed

as

equal

of coal.

that grow
in the swampy
in the presence
of heat

mosses

is

pound of wood

Peat

"

VALUE

CALORIFIC

"

carbon, 6

per

an,d nitrogen,and

givesthe heat

value

of

wood

and

coal.

quantity of rushes, sedges, and

regionsof the temperate zone.
and moisture are subject to a
the hydrocarbons, fixed
behind
It is usually cut
of moisture.
air-dried peat contains
cent, of

3 per
some

between

cent,

hydrogen, 31
of ash.

The

per

about
cent,

following

of the different peats:

HEAT

78
XIII.

TABLE

CALORIFIC

53. Semi-Bituminous.

but

in appearance

anthracite and

ENGINES
VALUE

This

"

burns

A
than

XIV.

CALORIFIC

semi-bituminous
20

per

cent,

latter.

rapidly,and

more

intense

VALUE

coal

should

volatile matter

BITUMINOUS

COALS

softer coal than

it looks like the

it is necessary
to keep a very
given in the followingtable :

TABLE

is

OF

is

heat.

It is
valuable
Its

not
as

coal where

compositionis

SEMI-BITUMINOUS

OF

anthracite,
lighterthan

COALS

contain, usually, more

compared with the fixed

carbon.
54. Anthracite.

"

This

ignitesvery slowly and burns at

principalcomponent is fixed carbon.

coal

high temperature. Its

Consequently it givesoff almost no smoke and the
short.
Owing to its smokeless burning, it is almost
a

for domestic
comes

from

purposes.

flame

is very

all consumed

Nearly all anthracite used in this country

Pennsylvania.

An

anthracite coal should contain not

COMBUSTION

AND

FUELS

79

92 per cent, of fixed carbon as compared with the volatile

The following is a table of the composition of various

less than
matter.

anthracite coals:

Efficiencyof Fuels.

55.

into steam
the

hour

per

the

they should

be

of

the

value

and

character

to

in the

burned

compare

in

are,

fact, so

In

It is easy

supplied,and the
variables

many

in

almost

than

40

boiler.

any

arch

the

over

40

containing over
form

some

use

with

be

with

good results.

With

brick
firecoals

volatile matter, it is desirable

these

so

that

the gases

are

to

mixed

chamber

large combustion

cost to

This

at 212".

the

economical

given coal

evaporate 1000 Ibs. of

varies from

cost

principalcost of

usually more

from

results obtained

by the

and

Where

very

containing less
bars

plain grate

arranged

with

coals

coal

provided.

determined
from

of furnace

commercial

The

give

cent,

per

air, and

warm

should

fire

semi-bituminous

or

bituminous

For

volatile matter,

cent,

per

either anthracite

burn

accurate

an

of the different coals.

the value

to

practice
the form

by

entering into the problem that it is difficult to make

comparison of

involves

fuels in actual

is affected
of air

fuel is

it will evaporate

boiler.

same

given plant

There

draft.

of

This, however,

of the furnace,the amount

the

intensityof

that

COALS

value

water

at 212".

boiler,so

fuel in any

pounds of

and

from

of
efficiency

use,

of

ANTHRACITE

OF

commercial

The

"

the number

by

determined

VALUE

CALORIFIC

XV.

TABLE

to

water

10 cents

are

usually

into steam
to

18 cents.

freightrate, it
good grade of coal than

the coal is in the

burn

is
a

cheap grade.
PROBLEMS

anthracite

1. An
2 per

cent.;O,

2. A

2 per

has
cent.

semi-bituminous

cent.;H, 5

per

cent.;O, 3

followingcomposition: C, 90 per cent.; H,

Find the heating value of the coal.
coal has the followingcomposition: C, 80 per

the

per

cent.

Find

the heat

units in the coal.

HEAT

80

ENGINES

Pennsylvania bituminous

3. A

cent.;O, 12
burn

Find

cent.

per

the heat value

Illinoisbituminous

coal has

cent.; O, 15 per
cent.; H,
the air required to burn 1 Ib.
5 per

coking coal has

; O, 4 per cent.

5. A
cent.

to burn

the

the

followingcomposition: C, 62

Find

cent.

the heat

units in the

followingcomposition:C,

Find

the heat value

80 per

cent.;H, 2

85 per

of the coal and

per

coal and

cent.; H, 5

the air

required

1 Ib.

6. A coal contains

75 per cent.; H, 5 per

of the coal and the air requiredto

C,

1 Ib.

4. An

per

coal contains:

is its heat

C,

and

value

how

many

per

of

pounds

cent.; O, 6 per cent.

What

air will be required to burn

1 Ib. of it?
7. A

coal contains
and

is its heat value

C, 70

how

cent.; H, 5 per cent.; O, 8

per

much

per

air will be required to burn

cent.

What

1 Ib. of it?

coal has the followingcomposition: C, 80 per cent.;H, 3 per cent.;

O, 4 per cent. How much heat will be lost if one-half of the carbon is burned
is the weight of air requiredto burn
to CO and the balance to CO2, and what
8. A

1 Ib. of the coal under

"~"

9. A coal contains

these

C, 90

quarters of the carbon

given

1 Ib. under

the above

flue -gas

10. A
0 per

cent. ;

pound

per

O,

pound,

N,

and

what

will be

the

air

required to

burn

conditions?

shows

14 per

the
cent.

of coal if the coal

cent.;and

If threecent.;H, 1 per cent.;O, 2 per cent.

will be
to CO2 and the balance to CO, what

per

is burnt

off per

the B.T.U.

conditions?

followingcomposition: CO2, 8 per cent.; CO,

Find the pounds of air used
; N, 78 per cent.
contains C, 80 per cent.;H, 5 per cent.;O, 3 per

1 per cent.
shows
the

^/.5 "

11. A
followingcomposition: CO2, 8.1 per cent.; CO,
Find the pounds of air
cent.
0 per cent.; O, flrtper cent.;
contains
^u;75 per cent.;H, Skper cent.;O, '8 per
per pound of coal, n the coal
flue gas

Nj^fc"pjer

us^d

cent.

12. A

flue gas

shows

the

followingcomposition: CO2, 5 per cent.; CO,

Find the pounds of air used
cent.;H, 5 per cent.;O, 8 per

cent.; O, 15 per cent.; N, 80 per cent.

per pound of coal if the coal contains C, 75 per
0 per

cent.

followingcomposition: CO2, 4.1 per cent.; CO,

Find the pounds of air used
cent.;O, 16 per cent.; N, 79.9 per cent.
pound of coal if the coal contains C, 75 per cent.;H, 5 per cent.;O, 8 per

13. A

flue gas shows

the

0 per
per

cent.

flue gas shows

the followingcomposition: CO2, 4.3 per cent.; CO,
Find the pounds of air required
0 pelf
cent. ; O, 12.7 per cent. ; N, 83 per cent.
if
coal
contains
75
coal
the
of
C,
per cent.; H, 5 per cent.; O,
per pound
14. A

8 per cent.
16. A flue gas shows
per

cent.;N, 80.9

per

the
cent.

followingcomposition: CO2,
How

much

air is burned

per

8.3 per

pound

cent.;O, 10.8
of coal if the

coal ContainsC, 75 per cent.;H, 6 per cent.;O, 4 per cent.?

16. A coal contains C, 80 per cent.;H, 5 per cent.;O, 3 per cent.; N, 1 per
cent.

Find

the theoretical

temperature of combustion

air is used in the combustion than is necessary.

70".

if 30 per cent, more

Temperature of boiler room,

AND

COMBUSTION

17.

coal
Find

cent.

air

is

used

C,

has

80

cent.;

per

theoretical

the

is

than

H,

per

for

the

O,

cent.;
of

temperature

necessary

FUELS

81

per

if 50

combustion

combustion.

and

cent.;

N,
cent,

per

of

Temperature

per

more

boiler

80".

rjaom,

18.

O,

in

burning

per

coal

gives

cent.;
it.

and
What

following

the

N,

is

per

the

cent.

ideal

C,

analysis:
Seventy-five
rise

in

75

per

temperature

cent.;

per
cent,

excess

of

the

H,

6
of

gases?

cent.;

per

air

is

used

CHAPTER

VI

BOILERS

56.

into
In

Boilers

fire-tube

the

tubes, while

the

tubes.

Boilers

divided, from

tubular

fire-tubeor

the

be

may

boiler

the

in the

hot

position of the fire;these

boiler

the

these

the

by

boilers.

fire pass

through
around

pass

depending

the

on

externally fired and

as

fire,

tubulous

gases

classes

two

known

are

or

from

gases

into

taken

path

water-tube

water-tube

divided

also

are

and

boilers

the

nally
inter-

fired boilers.
In
the

the

externally fired boiler, the

boiler

boilers

and

internally
and

forms

are

of

The

for

fired

marine

steel shell of the

boilers

usually confined

largely used

are

The

is

boilers.
and

forms

Return

elevation
The

burns

coal

boiler
and

Tubular

of the

along

chamber

the

through

the

chimney.

of

used

for

motive
locoin the
These

necessary.

the

than

ordinary

Fig.

"

fire-tube

nozzle

nozzle

smoke

rest

and

in

back

of

at

return

the

type.

front

of the
under

pass

combustion

boiler, then

the
the

and

plan

flames

the

through

is shown

the

upon

The

tubes

the

of the

boiler

turn

the

through

pass

shows

wall.

bridge

shell, then

results.
13

which

tions
condi-

operating

proper

economical

the

boiler

The

setting is

under

grates,

upon

smoke

to

These

entirely enclosed

horse-power

per

same

the

upon

and

brick

no

Boilers.

setting

setting and

chamber.

commonly

fire is

of boilers

give essentiallythe
57.

external

boilers.

stationary

various

brick

is most
The

expensive

more

in

entirely

stationary plants.

boiler

boiler

fire is

breeching
front

out

to

of the

the

boiler

setting.
There
under

the
are

are

tubes

and

reenforced

made

66,000 Ibs.
together.

man-holes

usually two

are

of

with

boiler
The

The

top

flanged steel

steel

shell
heads

in the

one

in

having

of the
of the

boiler
boiler
82

the

of the

boiler,
boiler.

These

reinforcements.

tensile

which

The

strength

is rolled

to form

form

in

one

the

of

front
ings
open-

shells

55,000

and
tube

to

riveted
sheet

BOILERS
and

into which

the tubes

are

83

fastened

are

made

of

flangedsteel

of
55,000 Ibs. tensile strength. The tubes are made
Charcoal iron tubes are the best,but
steel,usuallylap welded.
difficult to get,so that most
manufacturers
use
a hot-rolled,
are
of about

lap-weldedsteel

Feed

tube.

Pipe M

Manhole

settings,and in all brick-set

boilers great care
should be taken in building the setting. Air
leaks in the brick work should be carefullyavoided as they cause
These

boilers

are

set

serious loss in economy.

in brick

All brick should

be set with

full flush

HEAT

84
mortar

jointsso

Fig. 13

shows

as

to make

the return

ENGINES

settingstrong and avoid leakage.

boiler with the boiler restingupon

the

flue

the brick work.

FIG.

FIG.

15.

Boilers
as

"

Return

14.

tubular

of this type

shown

in

leaves the boiler

boiler support.

Steel frame

"

are

boiler with

often

14 and 15.
Figs..

independentof

the

loops for suspension setting.

supported by
This method

steel framework

is preferableas it

setting. The brick settingof

86

HEAT

ENGINES

BOILERS

87

filtration of air

through the settingand

of the hot gases

passingaway

58.

InternallyFired

tubular
have
an

boilers

Boilers.

used
extensively

been

In

furnaces.

FIG.

made

with

three

be built in

or

19.

Scotch marine

"

The
shown
In very

in

are

very

steel back

of the boiler.

boilers

are

combustion

common

two

often

boiler.

compact, making them

chamber
brick

can

ticularly
par-

combustion

stationary purposes.
used in marine work,

Fig. 20.
provided at each

construction in

largeboilers of this type, furnaces

a

shows

boilers built for

Fig. 18, is replacedby

end, opening into

cut

work.

of these

one

boilers

Fig. 18 shows

The

these

These

four furnaces (see Fig. 19). These

even

largesizes,and
shows

boiler.

largersizes

of return

large class

purposes.

the

suitable for marine

Fig. 20

for marine
marine

internallyfired Scotch

internal

the fire.

Another

"

consequent cooling

internallyfired boilers.

the

are

from

the

are

chamber

in the middle

88

HEAT

ENGINES

BOILERS
59. Locomotive
boiler is used

Type of Boiler.
locomotives.

on

by a water space.
fire through the tubes and
fired

of the boiler.

boilers,often
boiler

are

They

are

combustion

gases pass
the stack.
As

up

in the

in contact

come

of

use

pit are
directlyfrom

rounded
sur-

the

internally

with

the shell

higherpressures

in these

high as 225 Ibs. Modifications of this type of

used for threshingand other types of portable boilers.
sometimes
used for stationarypurposes,
particularly
as

heating where

21 shows

this boiler the

The

hot gases
This permits of the

FIG.

for

special type of fire-tube

the sides of the ash

do not

the
boiler,

"

In

includingthe grates,and

space,

89

21.

"

type of boiler.

Locomotive

form

compact

the side elevation

of

of boiler is desirable.

boiler of this class

Fig.

designedfor

stationaryuse.
60. Use

of Tubular

Boilers.

"

The

fire-tube

boiler,as

shown

Its construction is such

Fig. 13,has certain limitations in use.
that hot gases pass outside the shell,
with cold water on the inside
of the shell. This produces a largedifference of temperature on
the two sides of the shell,and a strain is produced in the metal
of the shell,
owing to this difference of temperature. The thicker
in

the shell the greater is the difference in temperature

two

sides of the shell.

of the

shell should

not

practiceit is found

In

exceed

in.

This

thickness of the shell limits the diameter

pressure

that

the boiler

can

carry.

It is

between

the

that the thickness

limitation

in the

of the boiler and

customary

to

use

the
this

HEAT

90

ENGINES

class of boilers for pressures

inch and
A

majority of

used.

the

In addition
a

and

square

horse-power.
plants are being operated

recent

more

Ibs. per

125

125 boiler

largerthan

125 Ibs. pressure

over

that

in sizes not

to exceed

not

therefore

fire-tube boiler cannot

of boiler units would be necessary.

largenumber
plant of say 50,000 horse-power, such as exists in

larger cities,if this type of

required400 boilers and the
units would

it almost

make

be

horse-power of each boiler unit is so small

the

very

power

at

boiler

used, there

were

requiredfor

space

would

this number

impossible to install such

In
the
be
of

plant.

Safety Valve

FIG.

The

can

come

made

"

Babcock

is the return

carry as
in contact

thicker.

with

The

the

increased

and

Wilcox

is not

internallyfired boiler

that it
not

22.

boiler.

limited

as

fire-tube

pressure

type, since the fire does

boiler shell and

thickness

in the

of

shell

the
shell

can

permits

be
the

building of largerboilers of this type than of the return fire tube,

and they have been built in units of 500 horse-power carrying
200 Ibs. pressure.
purposes

conditions

owing
are

They

have

not

to their first cost

not

been
and

favorable to their

much

used for

the cost
use.

of

stationary
repairswhere

BOILERS
61. Water-tube

Boilers.

The

"

91
demand

for increased pressure

led to the introduction
of

larger sized boiler units has

water-tube
boilers,and all the larger power

and

for

stations

to-day

are

boilers almost
exclusively.The
using water-tube
principal
water-tube
boilers
the
in
for
using
reasons
largepower stations
are:
adaptabilityto high pressure, reduced space taken by the
boiler,and greater safety in operation. There are a great many
makes

different
boilers

of various

market

the

on

water-tube

of

types, both vertical and horizontal.

Fig.

shows

22

Wilcox

boiler in

section.

Gases

and

Babcock

crosslongitudinal

from

the

Hand

fire pass
flected
being de-

Hole

PlatesN

through the tubes,

verticallyby a baffle wall

up

located

between

the

directly above
They then pass
tubes

to

the

and

tubes

the

bridge wall.

down

around

of the

back

space

the

bridge wall, being deflected by

another
baffle,then up between
the
tubes
and
out
through the
smoke
opening which is in the rear
of the boiler settingand above
the
As

it is

tubes

heated, the

FIG.

23.

"

their per,
upfront end, then rises through

the front header

where

and

the steam

enters

and

the boiler

of the drum

Fig. 52 shows

and
a

and water

the water, and

through the

down

cock
header in BabTube
boiler.
Wilcox
and

into the steam

connection

separates from

in the drum

water

end

in the

water

tends to rise toward

or

back

Front view of
vertical header

of
Side view
vertical header

tubes.

rear

drum,

the latter flows

The

header.

feed

through a pipe passingthrough the front

extending back about one third its length.

Babcock

and

Wilcox

boiler with

superheater

attached.

Fig. 23 shows
and

Wilcox

the front and

boiler and

side views of

indicates

clearlythe

header
way

in

Babcock

the tubes

are

"staggered."
gives very satisfactoryservice for highwork, having largedisengagingsurfaces for the steam to
pressure
leave the water, and ample ste'am space.
This

class of boiler

HEAT

92

ENGINES

Fig. 24 shows a sectional side elevation of a Stirlingboiler.

and
drums
water
"This consists of three transverse
steam
paralleland

set

curved
the

connected

their ends

that

surface.

This

to

mud

one

the tube

enter

drums

steam

FIG.

24.

above

the

water

line,while the rear

equalizingtubes

curved
The
the

steam

middle

water

generated

drum,

give additional
steam

line and

steam

outlet,which

the drum.

which

tubes

sheets

at

rightangles to

gives ample and

The

so

cient
effi-

front and

tubes
by curved ^equalizing

Stirlingboiler.

"

and
above

middle

drums

the water

in the three
is set

below

the

connected

by

circulating tubes

curved

space,
may

water

contraction.

connected

are

by

of the tubes

curvature

provision for expansion and

middle

drum

are

line

banks

higher than

thence

be located

only.

of tubes

it passes

the

passes

other

through

two

into
to

the main

anywhere along the top of

94

HEAT
There

is a man-hole

the removal

in

ENGINES

of the man-hole

Fig. 25 shows

platesthe drums
of

cross-section

In this boiler the gases of combustion

into the combustion
chamber, where

They then
consists of
and
up

upward

pass
a

of

row

FIG.

back

The

the

around

feed water

into the
then

enters

flows

then

forward

end.

From

down

the

tubes

in the Heine

25.

"

Heine

back

where

tubes,
they turn

boiler,where

baffle wall and

opening

through the

the

dirt and

along the bottom

along the top and

the

around

then

boiler.

the

the boiler

(which

baffle wall

forward

of the upper

shell to

drum

mud

end

bridge wall
completely burned.
the

over

lower

of the

boiler.

water-tube

they are

then

by

be entered.

may

Heine
pass

of the

to the front

in front of the forward

pass

back

and
tiling)

parallelto them,

and

end of each of the four drums

one

out

the

breeching.
front head, passing

to

sediment

of the

of the drum

here the circulation is toward

the back

at

are

drum
the

posited,
deand

front

of the boiler,

water-leg,forward through the tubes, and up the

front water-leginto the boiler again. The steam, which is formed
largelyin the tubes, is carried along with the water and
very
dischargedinto the boiler from the front water-leg.
Fig. 26 shows a side elevation of the water-legs,shell and
rear

boiler.

BOILERS
Where

plant is

desirable

shows

cross-section

located

are

boiler

to

"

in

limited

very

is often

use

in the floor space available,

it
vertical water-tube
boiler.
Fig. 27

of the Wickes
Oven"

Dutch

setting. The

gases

pass

half of the boiler and

leaving the boiler in the

inside the tubes
front

the

and
and

steamers

Fig.28
and
as

Dutch

FIG.

occupy

"

The

Heine

and

pass

boiler

water-and-mud

pass

to

the

then

steam-and-water

as

half,

rear

The

water

the gases, in both

boilers are
quick

The

type.
front

furnace

of the

boiler

shell
showing water-legs,

travel

the

up

and

tubes.

first pass,

down

of the

rear

water-and-

tubes to the
through the circulating
drum, up the vertical tubes in the front

front

passes

in the

drum.

the

is fed into the center

steam-and-water

generated in the front

water

direction

in the forward

across

passes

front

the main

to the stack.

out

"The water, which

drum,

the lower

grates

front.

products of combustion

the second

mud

same

them

projectfrom

chamber

"

around

near

from

the tubes

vertical boiler of the Rust

Oven"

26.

around

up

The

These
compartments.
relativelysmall floor space.

rear

combustion
"

rear

vertical boiler.

front built out

down

flows in the

shows

95

over

drum

drum

where

the

steam

The
separated from the water.
through the circulatingtubes to the rear
pass

and

is

down

the

rear

bank

of tubes

to the

startingplace.
"The

steam

liberated in the front steam-and-water

through the steam

and-water

tubes

drum, the

into the steam

entrained

space

moisture

of the

drum
rear

dropping

passes
steam-

into

the

96

HEAT

ENGINES

Steam

Outlet

Manhole

SafetyValve

Water

Column

Feed Inlet

FIG.

27.

"

Wickes

boiler.

Downcomers1

BOILERS

water

space,

while

the

steam

97

along the top of the drum

passes

through the dry pipe to the steam outlet."

term
power,"
horse62. Horse-power
Rating of Boilers. The
as
appliedto boilers,has no definite value and is only
"

"

used

as

matter

of convenience.

and Water Drums

Steam

boiler to

-,

Steam
Tubes
;

Steam
Outlet

abilityof

The

\
!

Water
Column
Water

Circulating
Tubes--

^-Blow-off
'

Water and

FIG.

make

steam

depends

28."

the

on

Experience has determined

ordinary form of boiler,a
not

evaporate
7

more

than

Mud

'

Drums-''
boilef.

Rust

for

that
square

the

foot of

3 Ibs. of

heating surface in it.

of

amount

water

best

results

in

the

heating surface should

per hour (ifeconomy

HEAT

98

is

ENGINES

highly desired). In

it is customary
surface

to

for
writing specifications

number

the

state

and

the boiler is to contain

evaporate

under

hour

per

the

boilers,
heating

of square
feet of
the pounds of water

given conditions,rather

it is to

than

the

"

boiler

boiler horsepower"
horse-power. In order to give the term
Society of Mechanical
a definite meaning, the American
Engineers has adopted the followingrating for boilers: A
"boiler horse-power"is 34.5 Ibs. of water evaporatedper hour from

and

212"

at

produce from

depending

the amount

The

amount

and

the

upon

cent,

of heat

in

generated in

the

rating,
furnace

of the

of draft,
grate, the amount
A very rapid rate of combustion

area

of heat to the stack and

largeescape

their

will

given to the water in the boiler.

by the fuel will depend upon the

the skill of the fireman.

usuallyresults

than

steam

more

boilers

that is

given off

used, the

Most

steam.

of heat

amount

of heat

of fuel

saturated

25 to 50 per

and

kind

dry and

into

reduced

economy.

There

is

relation between

no

number

horse-power. The

of

boiler

horse-powerand

boiler

engine

an

horse-power required to

supply steam for a given engine horse-power will be determined

by the number of pounds of steam the enginerequiresto develop
steam
a horse-power. The
requiredper horse-power hour varies
through a wide range in the different types of engines.
Surface, and Breeching. The
Heating Surface, Grate
heating surfacein a boiler is that part of the boiler which

63.

"

water

has

water

surfacehas

on

side and

one

steam

on

one

hot gases
side and hot

on

The

the kind of fuel and

the

such

heatingpurposes,

as

are

used

coal it is usual

for
to

allow

intensityof the draft.

1 sq. ft. of

with

locomotive

50, to
The

boilers with

forced

In small boilers

lightdraft

grate to from

heating surface. In largepower

surface to heating surface varies from

and

20 to

hard

30*sq.

boilers the ratio of grate

1 to

50, to from

draft the

1 to

ratio is from

70.
1 to

1 to 100.
rate

draft.

of combustion
With

five-tenths
per

In both

the other.

on
(jases

ft. of

the

Superheating

the side in contact with the hot gases is the one to be measured.
proportionof grate surface to heating surface depends upon

cases

In

the other.

square

coal from

foot of

varies with

anthracite
of

an

inch

coal

The

of coal and

moderate

of water, it is from

draft,not

with
ceeding
ex-

12 to 15 Ibs.

hour, and with bituminous

air opening in the grate depends

grate surface

15 to 20 Ibs.

and

the kind

per

BOILERS
the kind of coal and

upon

of the

grate

requireless

coal

usuallydoes

Anthracite

area.

99

air

and

the

opening

exceed

not

50 per cent.
minous
grades of bitu-

better

than

the

grades of

poorer

coal.

of

is used for

followingrule

The

horizontal

determiningthe heatingsurface

flue fire-tube boiler: the

return

heatingsurfaceis
equal to two-thirds the cylindricalsurface of the shell,plus the
internal area
of all the tubes,plus two-thirds the area of both tube
external cross-sectional area
sheets,minus twice the combined
of
all the tubes,all expressed
in square feet.
a

water-tube

In

boilers it is customary

surface

heating

to

allow

s_q. ft. of

in fire-tube boilers

bQi]grrsp-pnwr,nrl

per

10

12 sq. ft.

carrying the hot gases from the boiler

the chimney is called the breeching. The area
of the breeching

The
to

for

connection

is from

to

of the

strength of the draft.

steel well
and

braced,and

of the grates,depending

area

The
should

the

breeching is usuallymade of sheet

be providedwith a door for cleaning

inspection.
XVI.

TABLE

DIAMETER

OF

BOILER

TUBES

Outside

64. Boiler
as

pound

Inside

Economy.

The

"

the number

of

of

economy

pounds of

water

boiler is

pressed
usuallyex-

fed to the boiler per

of coal fired.

The

water

water

fed to

steam

formed

equal to the weight of

the boiler (corrected
for leakage),provided that the
evaporated by
is

necessary

to make

dry and

saturated

dry and
a

be made

weight of

steam

boiler is

saturated.

correction

percentage of moisture
may

on

in order to determine

might have
is less than

been
2 per

by simply subtractingthe

water

fed.

If the

is wet, it is

If the steam

formed.
cent,

moisture

percentage is more

how
When

much
the

this correction
from
than

the total
2 per

cent.

HEAT

100
if

or

great accuracy
"

multipliedby

is

and

q is the

(1

/h
ff)

which

(t

water

is

fed must

equal

be

to

32) \

{H^T- ~d)
}

the steam, h is the heat

qualityof

the total heat

desired,the weight of

factor of correction"

ff +

where

ENGINES

of the steam

at the

of the

liquid

given pressure,

and

the

temperature of the feedwater.

In order to compare
boilers working under

of feed temperature and steam pressure

is better to reduce
them
all to the
economy

be

may

expressedas

different conditions

and with different

coals,it

conditions,and

same

the

the number

of pounds of equivalent
per pound of combustible burned.

evaporationfrom and at 212"

is meant
the number
By "equivalent
evaporationfrom and at 212"
of pounds of water that would be evaporatedfrom a feed temperature
of 212" into dry and saturated steam at 212" by the expenditureof
"

the

under

of heat

amount

same

as

in evaporatingthe water
actuall^ased

is

the

The "factor of evaporation" is that

given conditions.
factor by which the water evaporated,corrected for moisture in the
in order to get the equivalent
steam, must be multiplied
evaporation.
It is equal to the heat necessary
1 Ib. of dry and satuto make
rated
under
the given conditions
steam
divided
by the heat
1 Ib. from and at 212".
necessary to make
With
a good boiler and
high-gradebituminous

will evaporate from

The

8 to

12

performance

average

from

9 to

Ibs. of

under

10 Ibs. of water

per

water

usual

per

coal, a boiler
pound of coal.

working conditions
of coal.

pound

The

is

economy

of boiler
the

operationdepends not only upon the construction of

but also upon
the skill of the fireman.
This is parboiler,
ticularly
and a careful record of the firetrue with hand firing,
man
should

be

kept,in order

to

prevent

improper handling of the fires.

65. Efficiencyof Steam
Boilers.
furnace and

"

The

waste

of coal due

to

efficiencyof boiler,

grate is the ratio of the heat absorbed

per

pound of

dry coal fired,to the heatingvalue of a pound of dry coal.

The
of boiler and furnace is the ratio of the heat
efficiency
absorbed per pound of combustible burned to the heating value
of

pound of combustible.

The

"heat

pound of dry coal or combustible

found by multiplyingthe equivalentevaporation from and
212" F. per pound of dry coal,or combustible,by 970.4.
absorbed"

per

is
at

HEAT

102

ENGINES

20 per cent.
It is often much
that the fireman
admits
too

much

owing to the fact

than
the coal; more

this

than

more

air to

is necessary
for its complete combustion.
This
is heated from the temperature of the boiler room
of the stack
passes

important
be

not

by

the

up

that

the amount

has

as

under

is,therefore,very

This

absolutelynecessary.

is determined

of carbon

shown

by the analysisvaries from 9 to 10

exceptionalconditions an analysisshowing

12 to 13 per

It is
of CO2

cent,

A 48 in.'
X

Example."

in the stack

at 100 Ibs.

16.8 per
to have

What

cent,
more

Larger

gases.

centages
per-

of CO.

flue fire-tubeboiler has

12 ft. return

It evaporates 1400 Ibs. of water

of 120" into steam

cent.,and

per

usuallyundesirable

the presence

generallyindicate
tubes.

fire should

to the

of air admitted

of C02 has been obtained.

than

for this purpose

dioxide in the stack gas analysiswhich

previouslydescribed. In a well-operatedplant, the

been

CO2

is

It

the temperature

to

used

heat

all the
is wasted.

and

chimney

the amount

than

more

and

gases,

of air

excess

thirty4-in.

feed temperature
per cent, of its ratingis the boiler
per hour from

developing?
heating surface from
cylindrical
portion of shell
^-*"

H.S. of

"

First find

the rule in paragraph 63.

,

?~X-3.l4i6
X 4

H.S. of tubes

30 X

3.1416

-^r*

-.

H.S.

of tube

X 3.1416
-(30

2)

Total

12

sq.ft.

352.5

sq. ft.

'
-

2(8

38

X
-

"
2
.

62)

=11
.

heatingsurface

j"sq.

464
.

ft.

5 sq. ft.

'

From
Now

=100.

sheets

2[f(3.1416XJ2

12.

\."i

"

"

3^74

"

Solution.

paragraph 63, the rate4 horse-power

find actual

38
.

horse-power developed.

The

heat

The

heat used in evaporatingwater

used in evaporating
is equal to the
a pound of water
actually
the heat
total heat in a pound of steam
at thfc given pressure minus
in
the
feed
water.
already

From

1400

[1188.6

(120

1,541,000
-Q7Q

from

32)]

1,541,000B.T.U.

evaporation from
paragraph 64, the equivalent
=

and

under actual conditions

paragraph 62, the

boiler

1588 Ibs. per

horse-power

hour,

and

at 212"

BOILERS

103

1588
46.
34.5
46

5^

1.19

119 per

cent.

00.

Boiler is developing19 per cent, overload.

Ans.

Example.
fired. Feed

boiler evaporates 8.23

"

Ibs. of water

temperature, 120";steam

pressure,

pound

per

100 Ibs.

Coal

of coal
fired

as

coal contains 5 per cent, ash and

has a heating value of 12,800 B.T.U. per pound. Twelve
per cent, of
(a) Find the
coal fired is taken from ash pitin form of ash and refuse,
contains

2 per

moisture.

cent,

Dry

and
of the boiler,
furnace
(6) Find
grates combined.
efficiency
of the boiler and furnace.
efficiency
Solution.
(a) Heat necessary to evaporate 1 Ib. of water
"

1188.6

Water

(120

of

evaporatedper pound
8.23
=

1.

Heat

utilized per

B.T.U.

coal fired

=T98

pound of dry
8.4

coal fired

1100.6

furnace
Efficiencyof boiler,
Heat

dry

1100.6

8.23

00^02

32)

and

9245

B.T.U.

grates combined

utilized per

pound

of 1 Ib.

Heating value

dry coal fired

of dry coal

of

0045
=

(6) Heating

.7223

72.23

per cent.

value of 1 Ib. of combustible

12800

12800

13'474RT-U'
,

Water

EOO"-

evaporated per pound

"

~96~

.05

of combustible

burned

8'13
=

1.00
Heat

-(.02+

.12)

utilized per pound of combustible

9.57

of boiler and
Efficiency
Heat

1100.6

9.57

Ibs.

.86
burned

10,533 B.T.U.

furnace

utilized per

pound

of combustible

Heating

value

of 1 Ib. of combustible

burned
,

the

HEAT

104
10533

ENGINES

-7817"

78-17

Percent.*

13474

f (a) 72.23

per cent.
17 per cent.

78.
?"\(6)

Example. If 26 Ibs. of air are used to burn a pound

13,500B.T.U.,and the temperature of the stack gases
if the temperature of
cent, of heat is lost up the stack,
"

of coal

containing

is 550",what

per

the boiler room

is

70"?
Solution.

If there

"

no

were

of gas and the total weight of stack gas per

27 Ibs. This, however, is never
be 26 + 1

pound

coal,and hence the

is something a littleless than

actual

giveoff a pound
fired would

the

there is alwayssome

would

ash in the coal,each pound burned

ash and unburned

of coal
case

as

weight

27 Ibs. The
pound of coal
heats of the various components of the stack gase?
average of the specific
is a littlehigher than that of air,.2375.
To be absolutelycorrect,then,
itwould be necessary to multiplythe weight of each of the various gases
in the stack gas by its particular
ucts
heat,and then add these prodspecific
of
raise
the
to
bustion
comB.T.U.
to
the
products
together
get
necessary
done, the method used
one
degree. This,however, is never
as that
heat of the stack gases to be the same
the specific
beingto assume
that 1
of air,.2375,although reallyit is slightly
higher,and to assume
Ib. of gas is given off from 1 Ib. of coal,although in realityit is a little
of stack gas per

result

offsetsthe other,and the

assumption practically
is approximately correct.

less.

Thus

Hence,
degree

one

productsof combustion

to raise the

the heat necessary

.2375(26 + 1)

6.41

one

B.T.U.

Rise in temperature of the stack gases

=

This

answer

550

may

70

480".

be checked

as

follows:

of grate alone
Efficiency

Combustible

burned

per

Combustible

fired per

pound of coal fired

pound of coal fired
=

Efficiencyof

boiler and

furnace

of boiler,
furnace
Efficiency

and

Efficiencyof grate
722S
=

1)237

alone
-

-9237

-7819

=78-19Per

cent-

grate

92-37

per

cent-

BOILERS
Heat

105

to raise the stack gases

necessary

480

6.41

Per cent, of heat lost up

480"

3080B.T.U.

the stack

3080

=.2281

22.81

1Q"

cent.

per

loOUU

67. Boiler
condition

Accessories.

of the

provided with

In

"

and

steam

order to determine
in

water

the

physical

boiler,all boilers

are

showing the pressure

per square
inch in the boiler,a gage glassto indicate the water
level in
the boiler,
and a safetyvalve which
automaticallyrelieves the
in the boiler should it exceed the safetypoint. The
pressure
other
feed-waterpump,
or
feeding device, suppliesthe boiler
steam

gage

Elevation.

Interior mechanism

FIG.

with

to take

water

"

Pressure

place of

gage.

which

water

blow-off cock is attached

The

steam.

the

29.

the- boiler and

drains the water

time

opened from

to

time

the

to blow

the

the

made

into

lowest

point of
boiler.
This is usually
and settlings
mud
out

to

from

has been

of the boiler.

ordinary form

The
Pressure

gages

of pressure
is shown
in Fig. 29.
gage
be placed at a convenient point for easy

should

observation,and the piping should be as short as possible. The

gage should always be providedwith a siphon containingwater so
that the hot steam
gage

the

it changes
calibration

cock

and

union

portion
in
in

enter

of the instrument.

If hot steam

the

enters

gage-tube,which changes

It should

also have

gage

that it may
be easilyremoved.
The operating
of the gage consists of a flattened copper
tube bent

circle and

Fig. 29,

the gage.
the length of the copper
cannot

so

closed at the end.

there

are

two

such

One
tubes.

end

is

When

fixed,or,

as

shown

fluid pressure

is

HEAT

106

ENGINES

appliedto the inside of the tube,its cross-section tends to assume

and the tube tends to straighten. The greater
a circular form
the pressure
the more
the straightening
of the tube.
By proper
mechanism
this change of form due to pressure
is registered
on
a
when
in
which
calibrated
shows
the
the
dial,
properly
pressure
boiler.

Fig.

shows

30

column

the

and

elevation

with

arranged

its gage
glass. The section shows
that it will blow a whistle when
the

boiler is too

high

or

low.

too

is called

This

Elevation

The

water

the water

and

gage

important
gage

30.

accessories
on

attached

to

or
tri-cocks,

the

water

Water

float

water

in

"high

and

so

the

low

column.

column

in boiler

the boiler should

water

gage

"

water

fluctuations of water

lowest

the

Cross-section.

FIG.

as

water

alarm."

water

are

of

cross-section

cocks, used

column

point in the

On
as

length of

operation. The

boiler.

as

check

glassshould

to

the ordinary

cover

always be

It should

this water

is sometimes
gage

it is attached

which

be such

in the

column.

to

upon

column

are

the water

clogged

with

be set about

placed
column,

dirt.

The

3 in. above

BOILERS

of the

attached

and

the

to

bottom

the

The
steam

of the

point in the boiler.

the

water

and

gage

the

column

should

the

and

ordinary arrangement of water

water

and

gage,

the

should

get dry steam,

water

The

at

space

blow-off valves

gage.

off

position

column

it will

to

be

water

blown

be

should

cocks

column

The

usually determined

water

that

so

space

There

is

of the

top

water

boilers.

boilers

glass in water-tube

gage

by the manufacturers.
be

in tubular

highest point of the tubes

the

107

both

on

columns

water

frequently. Fig.

30

shows

column,

tri-cocks.

Safety valves

constructed

are

in

forms, but in general

they consist of a valve opening outward
and held in place by a spring, and in the
old forms
and
by an arm
weight. Fig.
different

great many

shows

31

the

safety valve.
valve

is

surface
The

of the

construction

size of the

The

usually determined
and

the

steam

followingrule

Let G

the

the

be used

grate surface in

safety

the

by

grate

carried.

pressure

may

nary
ordi-

square

feet;

pounds

per

FIG.

inch

square

the

in

pressure

total

31.

"

Safety valve.

gage;

safety valve, or

of

area

valves, in

square

inches.
22. 5G

Then,
Some

authorities

sq. in.

of

Formerly
it

the

lever

allow

to

usually 2 Ibs. less than

the

on

if it is in
In

an

to be used

one

that

At

pressure,

and

seat

which

they

open.

at

be

the

tried

once

day

at

are

pressure

The
at

pop

safety

least, to

condition.

A.S.M.E., the following expressions

developed for determining the size of safety

presented

been

the

was

grate surface.
used, but
type most

ft. of

sq.

present time the

Safety valves
universally used.

should

working

article

have
valves

boiler

every

with.

at

spring-loaded safety valves

safety valve

blow

8.62

in

for

is almost
as

safety valve

safety valve
adjusted so

see

T"

easily tampered

was

valve

"~

AJL

on

to the

boilers:

HEAT

108

45"

For

valve

seats

Z)
For

locomotives

For

fire-tube

ENGINES

and

-0095ifp'-

water-tube

boilers

stationary
H
J

LXP'
For

marine

boilers

Pounds

of steam

discharged,

boiler-evaporation,

or

per

hour.
L

Vertical

Steam

Nominal

Total

The

this

on

for

diameter
boiler

subject by

G.

pounds

in

surface

in

in

feet.

about

of

an

to

inch.

obtained

Darling

inches.

square

is

inch.

square

per

(inlet) in

safety valve
be

may

P.

in inches.

of valve

heating

lift for

results

exact

valve

(absolute)

pressure

average

More

lift of the

reference

by

A.S.M.E.

the

paper

Proceedings

1909.

The

and

feed

pipe

check

check

to

valve.

In

will

close

valve

boiler

the

is

of

case

and

provided

always

accident
the

prevent

feed

the

to

from

water

with

valve

valve

the

leaving

the

boiler.
It

sometimes
and

accidents

are

a
are

consisting
before

happens

any

called

of

boiler
avoided
a

brass

damage

that

explosion

results

by having
bushing
can

fusible plugs and

be

boiler

from

screwed

filled
done

are

shell

often

with
to

the
used.

this
into
a

become

may

heated
over-

Such

accident.
the

metal,
boiler.

boiler
which
These

plug
melts

plugs

110

HEAT

both of the
out

by

sprinklingtype.

John

Juckes.

FIG.

33.

"

may

The

Murphy

by Thomas
Murphy
the
first to have
bly
Stokers

ENGINES

be

of

The

first chain

first American

stoker

"

view from

Detroit,Mich,

divided

69. Inclined
and

33, is

overfeed

or

34.

Grates.

of furnace.

1878, and it was

into .three

prod-

"

"

Elevation

The

principalclasses:

the

the under-feed.

of Detroit

Murphy

stoker.

stoker,shown

example of the inclined grate known

opposed type.

an

invented

was

slopinggrate.

inclined grate, the chain grate, and

FIG.

in

stoker

rear

brought

grate was

in

Figs. 32

as

the

side

AUXILIARIES

BOILER

"At

either side of the

coal

magazine

111

furnace,extendingfrom
the

into which

front to rear, is
be introduced either

coal may
by hand.

At the bottom
of this
mechanically from conveyors, or
magazine is the coking plate,against which the inclined grates
ends.
The
stoker boxes, operated by segrest at their upper
ment
the
the
and
coal
out
shaft
over
racks,push
coking
gear

plate and
The
The
a

movable
bar

the

surface

rest

upon

grates.

pairs one fixed,the other movable.

by
grates, pinionedat their upper ends, are moved
above
and below
at their lower ends, alternately
of the stationarygrates. The
stationarygrates

grates

rocker

ash

to the

on

the

in

made

are

"

also contains the

grate bearer, which

grinder. This grate bearer is

FIG.

exhaust

35.

steam

"

stoker

Detroit

from

the

from

view

"

ends

receives the

of furnace.

rear

of the grates,to soften the clinker

grinderand

and

assist the cleaningprocess."

Figs.34 and 35 show

and

engine. This steam

escapes
regularintervals on either side of the

clinker
so

hollow

or

stoker

through small openingsat

lower

cast

clinker

the elevation and

rear

view

of

Detroit

In small plants
Murphy.
worm
a
type of feed is used (see Fig. 35). These
conveyor
revolve through the hoppers and feed the coal in
conveyors
through the magazines. This is a convenient arrangement where
the coal is shoveled into the hoppers from the floor by hand.
stoker.

Both

This

the

is very

Murphy

similar to

and

Detroit

the

stokers

are

adaptable to

all

HEAT

112

grades of
or

ENGINES

coal,but

bituminous

not suited to the

are

use

of

lignite

anthracite.
Dutch

The

effective both

the most

as

elimination

extension

or

oven,

settings,are
to

as

garded
generallyre-

and
efficiency

as

to the

of smoke.

Still another

of inclined grate stoker

form

is the

Roney,

Fig.36, in whichTh!Tc7)aT7s~T^
inclined grate from
of the boiler,and is pushed upon
an
in Fig. 37. To
is shown
front. The
feeding mechanism
shown

in

FIG.

36.

"

Roney

stoker

"

the
the

side view.

operatingshaft which runs horizontally justbeneath the

hopper, is keyed an eccentric which givesa pendulum motion to
the agitator. This agitatoris connected with the grates, giving
main

also,through the rock-shaft,

motion
to the pusher, the length of this
imparts a reciprocating
As the pusher recedes,
motion being regulatedby a hand- wheel.

to them

the

fuel

rocking

in the

the fuel

movement.

It

vances
hopper settles down in front of it,and as it adAs the main operating
is pushed into the furnace.

speed, the quantity of fuel fed is proportional

to the travel of the pusher.
motion of the rocker bar is imparted through
The reciprocating

shaft

runs

at constant

BOILER

connectingrod, the

AUXILIARIES

free end

of which

slidingbearing in the lower end

the connecting rod makes
nut on
motion

of

the

inclined

this is

of

of the grate bars.

has

given excellent
In conditions

probably not so smokeless

when
carefullyoperated is

stoker,but

"

possibleto regulate the reciprocating

bar, and consequently the

particularlyin usingdiversified coals.

loads

freelythrough a
agitator an adjusting

it

rocker

grate stoker

works

of the

amplitude of the rocking motion

The

113

as

some

one

satisfaction,
of excessive
other

of the most

forms
factory
satis-

forms.

hopper

Feed

Plate

Wheel-.,

Agitator-Sector
Sheath-Nut
Hock- Shaft

Agitator..
Lock- Nut
Main

Shaft--Operating

ConnectingRod-

Rocker

FIG.

70. Chain

37.

Roney

"

stoker

"

Bar-

feed mechanism.

Fig. 38 shows the elevation of a chain

of which
is
grate. The coal is fed into a hopper, the bottom
to the chain grate, composed of a series of flexible links
open
of the grate.
end
two
at each
rotating upon
cylinders,one
The grate is driven by a small engine the speed of which
can
Grates.

be

adjusted to

on

the boiler.

is

"

particularform of fuel burned and the load

This speed should be regulated so that the fuel

the

completelyburned

justas

it reaches

the back

of the grate.

If

114
the

HEAT

speed is too fast,unburned

of the

coal will be carried

over

the back

grate into the ash pit. If it is too slow, there will be holes

FIG.

FIG.

in the

ENGINES

39.

"

Green

fire toward

38.

Green

"

chain

the

chain grate.

grate stoker appliedto Stirlingboiler.

allowing an
coal drops from

rear,

through the grate. The

slowly moving grate, the

thickness

excess

of air to pass

the

hopper

of the bed

of coal

upon

this

being ad-

AUXILIARIES

BOILER

115

justedby an apron at the front of the boiler. This form of grate

gives excellent satisfaction with non-coking coals and uniform
and will be almost smokeless
under proper
loads on the boiler,
conditions of operation. It is not adapted to the use
of semiis improper
bituminous, or anthracite,coal. The greatest difficulty
which will permit of the passing of an excess
installation,
of air through the grate. This, however, may
be avoided
by
these grates,provision should be
careful setting. In installing
made

for the

FIG.

cross-section

of

of the ashes.

removal

easy

40.

chain

It also shows

the

of the ashes.

.This is

ash

under-feed

Jones

"

sub-basement

desirable

39

shows

the

stoker.

grate installed under

pit and
a

Fig.

Stirlingboiler.
removal

for easy

arrangement with

most

forms

of stokers.
71. Under-feed

under-feed

is the

"

One

of the

Jones, shown

commonest
in

Fig.

40

forms

of

applied to

plant,and in Fig. 41 in cross-section. In this form,

coal is dropped down
from hoppers in front of a pistonat regular
intervals depending upon
forward
This piston moves
the load.
a

boiler

stokers

Stokers.

HEAT

116

ENGINES

and

pushes the coal in under the burning fuel. In this

coal is always introduced
under
the fire,and all the gases

FIG.

passedthrough
form

41.

"

Section

of Jones

the incandescent

under-feed

fuel.

way
are

stoker.

This is the most

smokeless

of stoker.

Fig. 42

shows

the

FIG.

American

42.

"

American

type of stoker, which

under-feed

is similar

stoker.

operation,but in this stoker the piston of the Jones is replaced

which continuously feeds the coal underneath
the fire.
by a worm
in

HEAT

118

pushes

ram

the

ENGINES
and

coal outward

green

tributing
upward, properly dis-

it in the

The action of the lower ram

is
coking zone.
similar,but instead of bringingin fresh coal it pushes the fuel
bed and refuse toward
the dump platesat the rear.
The retort or fuel magazine is formed
by two tuyere boxes.

Air for combustion

enters

and

the

escaping from

distilled from
and

the

upward by

rods and

shaft.

links from
The

FIG. 44.

"The

"

crank

speed shaft

Taylor

dump

stoker

with the coked

from

the wind

"

in

the

fuel

box,
gases

outward

pushed
rams
are
by connecting
shaft which is driven from the speed
turn is driven by the fan engine.

Both

rams.
a

tuyere boxes

tuyere openings mingles with

coal and

the

the

actuated

perspective,showing dumping platesdown.

plates,which
hung on the

combination

dump plates and

fire guards, are
of the wind
rear
box; these plates
receive the burned
out refuse and
are
dumped periodically,
as
the conditions of service may
require. The dump plates are
operated from the front of the stoker,raised,latched in position
and released by a hand
lever."
72. Grate

with

an

Surface

are

in Stokers.

inclined grate is taken

projectionof the grates, and

ratio of projectedgrate area
in
in the boiler varies from

1 to

"

The
as

grate surface in

the

is termed
the stoker

55, to

area

of the

stoker

horizontal

The
projectedarea.
to the heating surface

1 to 65.

AUXILIARIES

BOILER

The

tages
principal advansmokeless
stokers are:
of mechanical
operation of the
furnace, adaptabilityto the burning of cheaper grades of coal,
73.

Advantages

and

119

Disadvantages.
"

uniformity of furnace conditions

and

steam

pressure,

which

adds

plant,and in larger plants, a saving in

the labor charge for plant operation. Their disadvantagesare:
high initial cost, large repair bills,cost of operating stoker
to

of the

the economy

the steam
cent,

small

45.

"

stokers

in most

cent,

of

to 5 per

generated.

of the steam

FIG.

In

is from

J to 3 per
generated,and, if fan blast is used, from 3

mechanism, which

General

arrangement of

modern

boiler

room.

vided,
coal-handlingmachinery is not proreduce the labor charge. In largeplants

plants where

stokers

will not

mechanically to the stoker hoppers,

stokers will materially
reduce this charge. Fig.45 shows a plant
with stokers fed from
overhead
hoppers. In such plants the
under the boiler room
ash is usually removed
from
a basement
where

the coal is delivered

floor.
is forced into a
feed water
The
Pumps.
boiler either by a feed pump
an
injector. There are wot
or
which
belted feed pumps
may
general types of feed pumps:
74. Boiler

Feed

"

HEAT

120
be driven

from

ENGINES

machinery, or by independent motor; and

driven by their own
steam
cylinders.
independent pumps
used as it
The
is most
commonly
independent feed pump
has the advantage of being independent of the operation of the
the

engine,and in addition its speed can be adjusted so as to

give uniform feeding. Its principaldisadvantageis in the large
main

consumption of

steam

from

use

150

Ibs. of steam

to 300

hour; large steam

from

pumps,

feed pumps
The

of this type.

pumps

of the

per

80

FIG.

46.

pumps

horse-power per
150 Ibs.;compound condensing

to

60 to 75 Ibs.

from

is about

pumps

80 per cent.

boiler feed pump.

Worthington

"

feed

indicated

direct-acting
type,

of these
efficiency

mechanical

Small

form of feed pump

having four singleFig. 46 shows a modern
has -two plungers working
acting water cylinders. This pump
in these cylinders. The plungers are in the center of the pump
and have
the packing glands outside the cylinder. This type
of pump

is called

The

belt-driven

wasted

when

pumps

may

the line

packed pump.

outside center

an

used

is often

pump

to

overcome

the

using the independent direct-acting

pump.
be driven

shafting.

In

from
some

steam

These

engine or from
driven by an electric

the shaft of the main

they

cases

has its

are

disadvantages.

The

speed of

motor.

This

the pump

being constant, it is necessary to regulatethe amount

pumped by a by-passallowingpart of the water pumped

of water
to go

back

arrangement

from

the

pressure

to

the

suction

side of the pump.

AUXILIARIES

BOILER
If the feed is
be made

must

to the

suddenly shut
for the

off from

dischargefrom

121

all the

the pump

boilers,
provision
beingturned back

automatically. It is not possibleto use a belted

feed pump
the engine is running, and there must
except when
be an
auxiliaryfeeding device provided that can be operated
when

suction

the main

engine is shut

In very largeplants steam

These
being used.
pumps
not

necessary

load.

The

to

down.
turbine

driven,turbine

pumps

are

being of the centrifugaltype, it is

for changes of
change the speed of the pump

speed

of

turbine

determines

pump

the

pressure

Overflow
Water

FIG.

47.

"

Steam

injector
"

cross

section.

the demand.
of water pumped depends upon
only and the amount
and requiresvery little attention.
This is,therefore,automatic
75. Steam
Injectors. Boilers are often fed by an injector,
invented
a device
by M. Giffard,a French engineer.
the operation
Fig. 47 shows the cross-section of an injector,
of which is as follows:
The handle, 137, is pulled back slightly,
thus raising
valve 130 from its seat and admittingsteam
through
"The discharge of steam
valve 126 to the lifter nozzel 101.
from this nozzle into the lifter combining tube, 102, entrains
the air in the suction pipe finallyproducing sufficient vacuum
The flow of water
to lift the water.
through both the
passes
intermediate
overflow, 121, and the forcer combining tube,
A further movement
104, and out of the final overflow, 117.
of the lever opens
the forcer steam
valve, 126, and admits
"

HEAT

122

ENGINES

to the forcer steam

steam

the final overflow

nozzle,103,

valve

while

is approaching

increase

of pressure
closes the intermediate

at the

time

same

its seat, producing

in the

This
deliverychamber.
overflow valve,121, and opens
pressure
the intermediate or line check valve, 111, and when
the final
overflow valve, 117, is brought to its seat the injectorwill be
in full operation. The
overflow
intermediate
valve, 117,
its only function .beingto give direct
operates automatically,
relief to the lifter steam
nozzle when
liftingor priming, and
consevuent

its seat

to

comes

there

by

There

the pressure
are

conditions.

the forcer steam

when

applied and

is held

by the forcer."

exerted

different forms of

many
The

is

made
injectors

for different

however, is a very inefficient pump

injector,
for generalpump
iary
It is installed,
however, as an auxilpurposes.
method
of feedingthe boiler in case of accident to the regular
feed pump.
As a boiler feeder it has a thermal
of almost
efficiency
used by the in100 per cent, since all the heat of the steam
jector,
except that lost by radiation,goes into the feed water.
In locomotives,
injectors
only are used for feedingthe boiler,
the feed water.
Each
as
they take very little space and warm
locomotive is provided with two injectors.
76. Pump
Connection.
dling
When
a
or
injectoris hanpump
"

cold water, the lift on the suction side of it should not

exceed 25 ft. Most
engineerstry to install pumping apparatus
with

head

When
the

hot

the suction

on

water

exceeding 120".

meant

water

handle

hot water

exceeding100".
from
be

the

on

as

they

Where

15 ft.

than

more

handled, the

is to be

water

level of the

not

suction

side.

are

very

pumps

are

the

line of the

center

is

water

seldom

difficult to start
installed

be below

hot

By

Injectors are

used

to

with

water

handling hot

water

should

in the heater

feed-water heater,the level of water

5 ft. above

should

pump

cylinders if

pump

sible.
pos-

by a pump, as the lowering

of the pressure
in the suction pipe lowers the temperature of
the boilingpoint of the water
in the suction pipe, the water
Hot

in the

water

suction

be raised

cannot

boils and

draws

all the pump

from

the

suction

is steam.
77. Feed-water
be

fed

This

with

saves

addition

warm

Heaters.

"

water, usually

part of the heat

important that

It is very
at

necessary

temperature
to

make

prevents strains in the boiler due

to

over

boiler
180".

steam, and

in

difference

in

AUXILIARIES

BOILER

123

temperature of different parts of the boiler shell.

In

often

cold water

boiler with

all modern

the

exhaust

Devices

for

with

or

exhaust

waste

for

steam

the boiler for

heating the feed water

principal advantages of the

The

from the boilers.

gases

heating the water

for using the gases

feed-waterheaters,and the device

called

provided for

entering the boilers. This is

of two ways;
one
by heating the water
from
the engine,which
is by far the

used,

using the

is

means

some

before

steam

method

commonest

leak.

plants

power

heating the feed water

usually accomplished in
with

causes

Feeding

is termed

from

economizer.

an

feed-water

are

heater

the

are

saving in B.T.U. due to the increase 'in the temperature of the

troducing
and tear on the boiler due to infeed, and the saving in wear
of cold water, thereby reducing the
hot instead
strain

the boiler.

on

of the feed water

of the

fuel,and

itself in
78.

few

the installation of

the

the

the exhaust

Heaters.
and

open

feed

the

with

When

which

feed

filter before
should
that

5 ft.

for the

hot

for other

uniform
which

water

condensed

The

closed

heater

this type of

into direct

come

be

can

tact
con-

pans,

over

passes

heater,it is only

the

at

heater

or

deposited.

necessary

to

Before

also be used

may

shown

from

which

steam

certain

This

pressure.

is drained

automaticallyallows
a

In

usually

level is maintained

level gets below

of water.

the

heater
feed pumps.
The feed-water
sufficient height above the feed pump
so

which

water

hot

The

more.

pass

the

to

at

through

to

enteringthe heater
oil separator.
be passed through an
form of
usually passed through some

will enter

water
or

is

is admitted

cold water

steam

clean them.

should

going

be located
the

and

water

The

feed-

open

wrought-ironshell

or

is allowed

water

clean

to

these pans
the exhaust
steam
hot

for

general

two

The

matter
scale-producing

any

it is desired

cast-

exhaust

The

other.

take out

The

and

water

each

trays, upon

cent,

usuallypay

are

dosed.

the

sheets

or

There

"

is led.

steam

in streams

steam

heater

will

12 per

months.

top of the heater, and

exhaust

temperature

about

save

heater

heater, Fig. 48, consists of

into which

the

increases

70" to 200" will

Types of Feed-water

water

be

which

heater

from

types of heaters:

at

water

as

the steam

does

not

in the heater
to enter

distance

should

receptacle
mains, and

contain oil.

by

the heater

float valve
when

the

point.
in

Fig. 49

consists of

cylindrical

HEAT

124
shell of cast
header

at

tubes

one

other.

on

In

48.

form

one
a

to the header

of the heater

end

in the

admitted

the

iron,or steel,containing tubes extendingfrom

FIG.

or

ENGINES

of coils of

side of the

closed

feed-water

Open

"

heater

Steam

feed

other

end,

heater.

pipe. The

tubes

the

at the

and

the

water

exhaust
feed

and

steam

water

the

on

steam

is
the
used

Outlet

Feed

or

Inlet

Blow

FIG.

do
are

not

come

49.

in contact

usuallyused

where

"

Closed

with

feed -water

each

heater.

other.

it is desired to pass

The
the

closed
water

heaters

through

HEAT

126

ENGINES

cleaned

duct, or by-pass,passing around it,so

without
shutting down the plant. The

placed

in

with

from
as

to make

FIG.

caused

by

51.

that

the

the

should

strong draft
The

or

number

of cold

admission

location

economizer

boiler
the

in

never

with

be

used

mechanical

the

except with

of tests

have

economizer

been

may

plant which

water

the

to

breeching.

and

the

leakage

friction.

mizers
Econo-

chimneys having

draft.

is very
horse-powerfor plantsof 1000
of the

thus

advantage
particulardisdraft owing to the

additional

causes

boiler and

so

Their

water.

reducing the strength of

first cost

$5 to $6 per
A

Economizer, showing

gases

Economizers

deliver

is

installed

are

high temperature, reducingthe strain

is in

fact

"

be

can

economizer

leavinga

going up the stack.

increase the capacityof a
They

it

carries the

Economizers

chimney.

for its services.

small

flue which

in heat

the waste

boiler at

metal

of the heat in the gases

use

be installed also to
is too

sheet

or

boiler to the

the

reduce

brick

that

made

of the

high, varying
horse-power
economizer

or

from
over.

where

A UXILI

BOILER
net

saving of 10
cost

From

ARIES

127

shown, allowing for cost of economizer,

of operation,
and repairs.
interest,depreciation,
cent,

per

4 to 5 sq.

was

ft. of economizer

surface

should

be

allowed

boiler

horse-power.
Superheaters. In the past few years the use of superheated
with both reciprocating
steam
engines and turbines has
become
The
general. The benefits derived are many.
very
remains
in a dry condition until all the superheatis lost.
steam
while passing through the piping
heat lost by the steam
The
from the superheater to the place where it is to be used, does not
per

81.

"

FIG.

52.

"

Superheating

coil in Babcock

and

Wilcox

boiler.

simply superheat which is given up.

The initial condensation
loss in reciprocating
enginesis greatly
the amount
reduced, or entirely eliminated, depending upon
cause

condensation

as

it is

In turbines the absence of moisture

superheat in the steam.
is particularlydesirable,as the water
coming in contact with
the blading at a high velocity has an
creasing
eroding effect,thus inthe blades and the casing and
the clearance between
of

consequently increasingthe
Recent experiments have
from

steam

consumption.

shown

0" to 100" F. there

that
is

when

saving

is heated
superof 1 per cent, in
steam

HEAT

128

ENGINES

10 degrees of superheat, and

consumption for every
when
superheated from 100" to 200" F. there is a saving of
1 per cent, for every
12 degrees of superheat. These
results are
based on a comparison between
superheated and dry saturated
If the steam
steam.
is wet. the saving will,of course, be much
larger.
The
degree of superheat to be used will depend largelyupon
steam

the conditions.
the

In the

majority of

cases

it has been

found

that

highestcommercial

efficiencyis secured by the use of from

125" to 150" of superheat in turbine plants and slightly
less in
of reciprocating
the case
engine plants.
A superheating coil placed in a Babcock
" Wilcox
boiler is
shown
m
Figure 52.
It has been frequentlystated that cast-iron fittings
and valves
should not be used with superheated steam, as the iron deteriorated
at the
high temperatures. Recent developments have
shown
that the trouble has been caused by fluctuatingrather than
high temperatures.
In the transactions of the A.S.M.E., Vol. 31, page
1037,
Professor Hollis states:

"When
700"

the temperature

F.,the change

its use, but where

is constant, even

in cast iron is not serious

the temperature

varies

though as high as 600" or

enough to prohibitus from
considerably,the metal is

where

develop cracks and distortion that render it

pipes and other parts under steam pressure.
of cast-iron fittings
for superheated steam
use
the temperature is likelyto fluctuate,
but it can

where

the temperature is to be constant."

certain to
steam

"The

82.

unsuitable

for

is inadvisable
be

safelyused

The
Chimneys.
chimney is a very important part of a
plant, and the operation of the plant depends
steam-power
the draft and capacityof the chimney.
upon
ference
83. Draft.
The
draft in a chimney is produced by the difin weight between
the column
of hot gases inside the
outside
dimensions
of gases of the same
chimney and a column
the chimney.
forced up the
The
hot gases, being light,are
chimney by the cold gases coming through the grates.
The
the intensityof
height of the chimney then determines
the draft.
The
draft is always measured
in inches of water,
be determined
and for a given height of stack may
as follows:
"

"

Let

T"

129

AUXILIARIES

BOILER
the

height of the chimney.

the

absolute

of the

temperature

gases

outside

the

chimney.
T'

absolute

the

of the

temperature

inside the

gases

chimney.
w"

the

weight of

cubic foot of air at

temperature

/T7O

w''=

weight of

the

air at

foot

cubic

temperature

T'.

assuming the chimney to have

weight of the hot gases equals

Then

Hw'

Hw"
Hence

of 1 sq.

area

ft.,the

(1)

~r

equals

the cold gases

weight of

The

Hw"

an

Hwe

(2)

draft,

the force of the

rpo

F'

Hw"

Hw'

Hw"

Hw"

7^

Therefore

F'

This
water

is in

pounds
be

this must

draft in inches

per

Hw"(lJ")-

(3)

multipliedby

reduce

To

foot.

square

of

inches

the force of the

Hence

.192.

to

of water,
F

.W2Hw"l

(4)

~-

intensityof the draft as shown in equation (4)is determined

by the height of the chimney and the temperature inside and
outside the chimney.
84. Chimney
Capacity. -The capacity of a chimney is the
quantity of gases that it will pass per hour, and upon the capacity

The

"

of pounds of coal that the plant

chimney depends the number
theoretical quantity of coal that a chimney
The
will burn.

of

will burn
Let

the gases

be found

may
=

the

head

follows:
Then

producing velocity.

producing the
hw'

as

Hw"

head

the

weight

of

equals hw', and

Hw'

Hw'

Hw'.

(5)

HEAT

130

ENGINES

Therefore
IT'

u"

Let

(^0 1.)

(6)

the

velocityof the entering gases

velocityof the leavinggases in feet per second.
of the leavinggases
=

u'

and
Then

the

the velocity

(7)
Let W"

the total

weight of the

gases

passingup

the

chimney

second,then

per

W"

w"u"

w'u'

--

or

For

an

outside temperature
the

530.

Assume

Then

T' equals 960".

in

or

area

pounds

chimney

W"

.30A

per

.075 and

V#

in

to

be

T"

500" F.

equation (8),

(9)

.247.

in square
in

feet,then

pounds

per

(10)

second,

hour

per

3600

.3A

Vff.

(11)

of a chimney to be 1, but experience

efficiency
of a chimney to be about 35
the average
efficiency
the

assumes

shows

of the

TF"!
This

values

.602

temperature in the chimney

Substitutingthese

If A

of 70" F., w"

cent.,so that the actual weight of air passed per hour

W"a

3600

.35 X

.3A V#

3784

V#.

is

(12)

Each

pound of coal requires24 Ibs. of air to burn it,and as

each boiler horse-power requiresabout 5 Ibs. of coal,the boiler
horse-power of a chimney is
B.H.P.

VH

3.15A

V#-

(13)

AUXILIARIES

BOILER
Various

varying from
measured

in this

expression

3.5 to 3.0.

Height of

85.

the constant

give values of

authors

131

Chimney.

heightof

chimney is always
grate and, in any given case,

level of the

the

from

The

"

depends upon the kind of fuel that is to be burned under the boiler.
The
height of chimney for
followingtable gives the minimum
various

of fuels :

kinds

XVIII.

TABLE
For

straw

bituminous

35 feet.

lump,

free

ordinary slack
ordinary bituminous
slack

the

capacity. As

the inside diameter

of

"

150

"

chimney should

short for its

too
in

proportionto

example,

an

6.5 ft. in diameter.

100 ft. high should not exceed

exceed

not

*'

125

coal

reduced

show

height may

115

chimney should not be

large diameter of chimney

very

"

100
coal

the

height of

diameter.

burning

100

anthracite

or

anthracite pea

The

HEIGHTS

wood

or

small

CHIMNEY

In

ney
chim-

general

8 per cent, of

its height.
86. Materials
used

in

Used.

Brick

"

buildingchimneys
chimneys

are

hollow

or

than

other

any

desired.

tile is

material

life of

The

extensively

more

brick

where

manent
per-

chimney

is

materials
These
used in
are
probably forty or fiftyyears.
plantswhere few changes are expected.
In most
plants the station is not expected to remain without
extensive changes more
than twenty or twenty-fiveyears, and
the expense
of a brick chimney is not warranted.
Many of
steel chimneys.
the recent power
houses are usingself-sustaining
For

temporary
used.

commonly
steel guy
not

wires.
than

more

sulphur

not

are

There
shells

than
"

be

parts, an

and

outer

sheet

where

in

very

coal

as
an

contains

much

Fig. 53,

inner shell,usually

burned

expand.

gases.

and

the inner

Brick

chimneys

the outer

permanent

in

shown

flue for the

air space between

that the inner shell is free to

be taken

steel

the

shell and

forms

an

expensive to erect,but

should

unlined

five years.
Brick chimneys,

fire-brick which

should
so

years,

Chimneys.

built in two

lined with

are

ten

more

87. Brick

chimney is very
to brace these chimneys with
It is necessary
The life of these chimneys is short,at the best
the

use

in character.

the ground which

investigating

Care

is to support

132

HEAT

ENGINES

chimney, as unequal or excessive settlement

endanger the chimney.
may
The
radial brick chimney is constructed
of hollow tile and has no lining. These chimneys
a

much

are

chimney.

lighter than

They

the brick and

much

are

the

less

solid

expensive than

but little more

cost

brick

than

self-

sustainingsteel chimney.
88. Steel

Chimneys."

Steel

chimneys of the
built of boiler plates

self-sustaining
type are
riveted together. They
foundations

the

wind

which

anchor

heavy

very

to

supported

are

they

ple
am-

bolted

are

The

bolts.

on

by
of

pressure

against the chimney is carried to

the foundation by these bolts,and the foundation
be of sufficient size and weight
must
to prevent overturning. Chimneys
of this
type
full

lined with fire-brick usually for their

are

length.

89. Mechanical

Draft.

will not

In

"

some

cases

ditions
con-

permit of the construction

of

the draft
chimney, and in other cases
than the ordinary chimney
required is more
a

tall

will
some

give. It
form

is then

of forced

Mechanical

Where

inside

are

90. Systems

(2) A fan

FIG.

53."

Brick

chimney.

^
ash

pit and

the fire.

are

termed

may

low and the

as

to

require

be used

Draft.

be used to

be

used

to

"

There

produce
force air

to force air into the

.,

P1^

Both
ash

jet may
pit.

steam

into the ash

so

perature
tem-

"

of Mechanical

three systems that may

mechanical draft.

(1) A

of the chimney.

used, the

such

are

CC

be

chimney may

draft.

draft.

outside

or

of the economizer

mechanical

to

entirely
independent of

economizers

in the
resistance

mechanical

or

draft is

the temperature

to resort

necessary

of the above

forceddraft,as

systems require a closed

the air is forced

through

HEAT

134

ENGINES

coal should

be utilized,
how many
pounds of water would be evaporated per
Steam
200 Ibs.;feed temperature, 250".
dry coal?
pressure,
11. Efficiencyof a boiler,
Coal burned
furnace and grate is 65 per cent.
contains 12,000 B.T.U. per pound.
Steam
feed
200
Ibs.;
ture,
temperapressure,
180".
How
pounds of water will be evaporated per pound of
many
of

pound
*""

coal?
12. A boiler burns

containing13,000 B.T.U. per pound. Steam pressure,

furnace
and
o
f
the
200"; efficiency
boiler,
What
would be evaporated from and at 212"?
grate, 75 per cent.
13. One hundred
pounds of coal containing 13,000 B.T.U.
per pound
will evaporate how many
at 100 Ibs.
pounds of water at 200" into steam
will it evaporate from
and at 212"?
pressure? What
Efficiencyof the
boiler,furnace and grate, 70 per cent.
14. How
be evaporated from
and at 212"
can
pounds of water
many
ing
by the heat evolved by the complete combustion of 1 Ib. of dry coal containcent.?
65.2
8.64
4.92
C,
per cent.; H,
per
per cent.; O,
16. A coal contains C, 75 per cent.; H, 5 per cent.; O, 4 per cent.
ciency
Effiof the boiler,
furnace and grate, 70 per cent.;feed temperature, 180";
steam
Steam
contains 2 per cent, moisture,
(a)
pressure, 150 Ibs absolute.
What is the actual evaporation per pound of coal?
is
the
What
(6)
lent
equivaevaporation from and at 212" per pound of coal?
*"
16. A coal contains C, 80 per cent. ; O, 7 per cent. ; H, 3 per cent. ; and ash,
10 per cent.
It is used in a boiler carrying100 Ibs. pressure with a feed temperature
of 180".
and
is
70
The efficiency
furnace
of the boiler,
grate
per
cent.
will be the evaporation per pound of coal?
What
17. If 40 per cent, of the heat of combustion
of coal containing 12,750
B.T.U. per pound is lost,how
of
coal will be required.to
pounds
many
initial temperature of 130" and
from
evaporate 5650 pounds of water
an
"*

coal

Ibs.;feed temperature,

200

-*

"

under

pressure

18. A

500".

12,500 B.T.U. and requires24 Ibs. of air per pound

Temperature of boiler room, 70"; temperature of stack gases,

coal contains

burn

to

of 80 Ibs.?

it.

What

per

of the heat

cent,

of the coal goes

the stack?

up

19. If the temperature of the boiler room

is 70" and the temperature of the
stack gases is 500" and 30 Ibs. of air are used per pound of coal,what per cent,
'**

of heat
-

is lost up

20. A

4000

the

stack,if the

coal contains

14,500 B.T.U.

per

pound?

initial temboiler evaporates 3500 Ibs. of water

perature
an
per hour from
of 120" and under a pressure
of 80 Ibs. A second boiler evaporates

Ibs. of water

of 60 Ibs.

Which

from

an

of 110" and

initial temperature

of the two

under

boilers utilizes the greater amount

pressure

of heat per

hour?
21. A

Coal
contains
hour.
boiler evaporates 6000 Ibs. of water
per
Steam pressure,
100 Ibs.;feed temperature, 180";efficiency
13,000 B.T.U.
of boiler and
burn
""

per

grate, 70

engine
perature, 120"; steam
water
per

per

uses

pound

pounds

many

of coal will the boiler

/\k

hour?

22. An

How

per, cent.

30

Ibs. of steam

pressure,

of coal.

How

120
many

Ibs.

I.H.P.

per

The

pounds

hour.

per

Feed

tem-

boiler evaporates 9 Ibs. of

of coal

are

requiredper

I.H.P.

hour?

23. A

boiler evaporates 7.5 Ibs. of water

per

pound

of

coal.

Steam

AUXILIARIES

BOILER

""

150 Ibs. ; feed temperature, 200".

pressure,
is the cost to evaporate 1000 Ibs. of water
24. A
72-in. return
tubular
boiler 18
Find

the

heating surface

25. A

66-in. boiler

heating surface

and

and

16

rated

ft.

rated

long

135

Coal

ft.

$2.50 per ton.

costs

from

and

long

has

surface

and

rated

(Boiler Horse-power).
ninety-eight3-in. tubes.

has

and

28. A

rated

and

""

and

rated

rated

Ibs. of water

heating

Find

and

the heating

the

heating

temperature,

superheat. What
pounds of coal used
have an efficiency
of 70
pound dry.

Ibs. of water

120".

How

feed temperature

100" of

number

grates combined
14,000 B.T.U. per

from

hour

per

and

boiler evaporates 9000

Ibs.;feed

the

Find

twenty-six3-in. tubes.

150 Ibs. pressure

at

the coal contains

31. A
150

Find

twenty-six4-in. tubes.

evaporationT^oiler
H.P., and

hour, if the boiler,furnace

and

heating

B.H.P.

of 60" into steam

cent,

the

B.H.P.

30. A boiler evaporates 4000

the factor of

Find

B.H.P.

29. A 36-in. boiler 12 ft. long has

surface

the

B.H.P.

48-in. boiler 12 ft. long has

surface

Find

B.H.P.

27. A 60-in. boiler 16 ft. long has fifty-six

3^-in.tubes.
surface

4-in. tubes

seventy

B.H.P.

26. A 60-in. boiler 16 ft. long has forty-four4-in. tubes.

"

What'

at 212"?

of

hour.

per

Steam

boiler

many

is
per""

per

pressure,

horse-power

is it

developing?
"

32.
hour

"

from

pressure

should

evaporates 3080 Ibs. of water per

initial temperature of 135",ari" under a pressure
of 100 Ibs.?

an

of

boiler which

1000-H.P.

33. A

engine uses
feed
180 Ibs.;
at boiler,
have
to
steam
we
supply

15 Ibs. ef steam

feed temperature

for the

H.P.

Steam

hour.

per

What

boiler H.P.

engine?

Ibs. of water

of 120".

per

temperature, 120".

water

boiler evaporates 4000

34. A
from

is the H.P.

What

per

hour

at

of steam, 98 per

Quality

100 Ibs. pressure

is
What
cent.

the boiler H.P.?

35. A

fire-tube boiler is 60 in. X

16 ft. and

it evaporates 3000 Ibs. of water

per
rated H.P. and how
Steam
much?

hour,

is

pressure,

If
4-in. tubes.
fifty-four
its
under
it working over
or
100 Ibs.; feed temperature

has

200"
"

36. A

return

fire-tube boiler is 60

in. in diameter, 16 ft.

It evaporates 4000 Ibs. of water

fifty-two4-in. tubes.
Is it working
100 Ibs.;feed temperature, 150".
pressure,
rated H.P., and how much?
37. A boiler is reported to evaporate 12.5 Ibs. of water
Coal

contains

13,000 B.T.U.

and

uses

24. Ibs. of air per

long, and

per

Steam

hour.

above

or

has

below

its

pound of coal.
pound to burn it.

per

Temperature of the boiler room, 70",and of the stack, 550". Steam pressure,
this result be possible? If not,
Would
100 Ibs.;feed temperature, 70".
how
pounds of water could the boiler evaporate per pound of coal?
many
The
38. A plant burns
1500 Ib. of coal per hour.
height of the stack
is 130 ft. Temperature- of boiler room
is 70" and of the stack gases, 500",
and
per

24 Ibs. of air

pound.

is lost up
water?

are

What

the stack?

used

to burn

should
What

be the

1 Ib. of coal.
area

Coal

of the stack?

is the pressure

contains
What

12,000 B.T.U.

per

of the draft in tenths

cent,

of heat

of inches of

136

HEAT

r.

/5. H*"
K/*rt

ENGINES

39. A boileris to evaporate 12,000Ibs. of water per hour.

Steam pressure,
100 Ibs.; feed temperature,200".
(a) What should be the horse-powerof the

boiler?
tain?
What

(6) How

should

40. In

"

many

(c) How
a

many

be the

feet of

square
square

breeching?
boiler plantwhat should
stack,if the stack is 125

100 H.P.

130 Ibs. gage pressure, would a water

41. A 400 H.P. Corliss engine uses

"

should

con-

it have?

(d)

of the

area

the diameter of the

should the boiler

heatingsurface

feet of grate surface

The

auxiliaries use

feed

temperature,200".

or

be the

of the grates,and
plant carries

area

ft. high?

If the

fire-tube boiler be

26 Ibs. of steam

per

used,and why?
H.P.

per

hour.

25 per cent, as much as the engine. The boilers to supply

the plantshould contain how many
square feet of heatingsurface and grate
and about what should be the area
of the fluet Pressure,
150 Ibs.;
surface,
hour

if the coal contains

pounds of coal will the plantburn

of
13,500B.T.U. per pound and the efficiency
How

many

per

the

furnace
boiler,

and grate is 70 per cent. ?

42. A boiler evaporates 7 Ibs. of water per pound of coal. Steam pressure,
100 Ibs.; feed temperature, 50".
the
A feed-water heater is added increasing

feed-water temperature to 200".

Heater costs $400. Allowing5 per cenfo
interest and 5 per cent, for depreciation
would it pay to install
and repairs,
the heater if the plantburns 750 tons of coal per year, coal costing$2.50 per
ton?
43. A boiler evaporates 1Q Ibs. of water per pound of dry coal from and at
Dry coal contains 13,000 B.T.U. pet pound. What is the combined

"

212".

of the boiler,
furnace
efficiency

and

grate?

44. A

boiler evaporates 7.5 Ibs. of water per pound of coal. Coal contains:
150".
Steam pressure, 100 Ibs.;feed temperature,
13,000 B.T.U.

-"

What

is the combined

45. What

"

furnace and grate?

of the boiler,
efficiency
furnace and grate that
of
a
boiler,
efficiency

is the combined

evaporates 8 Ihs.of water per Ib. of coal from a feed temperature of 150" into
steam
at 150 Ibs. pressure? Coal contains 13,000 B.T.U.
per pound.
46. A boiler evaporates 9 Ibs. of water per pound of dry coal containing
13,500B.T.U. per pound. Steam pressure, 100 Ibs.; feed temperature, 200".
What is the combined
furnace and the grate?
of the boiler,
efficiency

""

47. A coal contains C, 80 per cent.;H, 4 per cent.;O, 2 per cent.

What
is the heat value of the coal?
If this coal is used in a boiler carrying100 Ibs.
pressure

with

feed temperature of 190" and evaporates 8 Ibs. of water per

furnace and
of the boiler,
is the combined efficiency

pound of coal,what
grate?
*

48. A boiler evaporates 15,000Ibs. of water

"*

H.P.

developedby

furnace
boiler,

and

the boiler?

(6) What

of the boiler,
furnace
efficiency

"-J "50.

A boiler

uses

6 Ibs. of water.

is the combined

are

evaporated

(a) What

is the

of
efficiency

the

grate?

49. A boiler evaporates 11 Ibs. of water

dry coal containing14,000 B.T.U. per
"

it evaporate with

at 100 Ibs.

per hour into steam

Nine pounds of water

pressure; temperature of feed,200".
of
per pound
dry coal containing 13,000B.T.U. per pound,

and

grate?

from

and

pound.
At the

at 212" F. per

What
same

is the

pound

of

combined

what
efficiency,

will

steam
pressure of 200 Ibs. and feed temperature at 200"?
1 Ib. of dry coal containing13,000 B.T.U. to evaporate

Steam

pressure,

100

Ibs.;feed temperature,

100".

(a)

AUXILIARIES

BOILER
is the

What

of
efficiency

the boiler

plant if a heater is added which

be the evaporation per pound

will

(") What

plant?

of the

137

heats

will be the

the feed to 200"

of coal

after

efficiency
(c) What

F.?

feed-water

the

heater

is

installed?
51. A

boiler

9 Ibs. of water

evaporates

Coal
pressure, 150 Ibs.
B.T.U.
contains
14,000
per

temperature, 70";steam
moisture.
ash

coal

Dry

Twelve

by analysis.

in form

of ash

furnace?

and

(6) What

cent,

per

is the

efficiencyof

is the

and

pound

is taken

Feed

3 per

cent,

has 6 per

cent,

from

efficiencyof

the

fired.

fired contains

as

of coal fired

(a) What

refuse,

of coal

pound

per

the

ash

boiler

the

boiler,furnace

and

pit
and

grates

combined?
A

52.

boiler

cent.;and

O,

balance

CO.

to

8 per

coal

burns

plant

cent.

evaporation is 8

The

of the carbon
Ibs. of water

100 Ibs.;feed temperature,170".

pressure,

boiler and

(6) What

furnace?

C,

contains

which

Two-thirds

is the

75

cent.; H, 6 per
to CO2 and the

per

is burned

of
efficiency

Steam

of coal.

pound

per

(a) What

is the

of the
efficiency
boiler,furnace and

the

grates combined?
A

53.

boiler

evaporates 20,000 Ibs. of

180"

of

Dry

coal contains

Ten

per

pound

Combined?

if

of

the boiler?

54.

/hours;
of dry

Given

dry

4 per

ash and

cent,

per

by

into

refuse

ash

dry

(c) What

by

steam

at

from

feed

absolute.
Ibs. pressure
B.T.U.
13,000
per pound.

(a) What

pit.

The

H.P.

is

actual

of the boiler and

efficiency

following data

from

boiler

test

furnace

Duration

and

grates

alone?
of

Ibs.;total

fed

total

tion
evapora-

being developed

of the boiler,furnace
is the efficiency

is the

perature
tem-

115

the ash

from

taken

are

hour

per

analysisand

coal is 9 Ibs.

(6) What
the

saturated

cent,

water

test, 24
weight

of water
amount
to boilers,240,000
perature
-30,000 Ibs.;total weight of ash and refuse,3000 Ibs.;temfired,
of feed water, 180" F.; steam
150 Ibs. absolute;quality
pressure,
of steam, 98.5 per cent.; dry coal contains
13,000 B.T.U.
per pound and
3 per cent, ash by analysis, (a) What
H.P. is the boiler developing?
(6)
What
is the evaporation from and at 212" per pound of dry coal?
(c) What
is
and grates? (d) What
is the combined
of the boiler,furnace
efficiency
should
be the
alone?
the efficiencyof the boiler and
furnace
(e) What
heating and grate surfaces in this boiler?
55. A boiler received
10,000 Ibs. of water per hour at 100" F. Steam
150 Ibs. absolute;qualityof steam, 98| per cent.
Dry coal burned
pressure,
B.T.U.
Per cent, of ash
each
1250
Ibs.,
pound containing 13,000
per hour,
by analysis, 3 per cent.; ash and refuse taken from ash pit per hour, 125 Ibs.
Coal
10
Plant
hours
costs
$3 per ton.
a
runs
day, 300 days in the
is the efficiencyof
H.P. is the boiler developing?
(6) What
(a) What
year,
What
is
the
the boiler,furnace
and grates combined?
efficiencyof the
(c)
boiler and furnace
alone?
(d) If the interest and depreciation is 10 per
coal

cent., how

much

could

you

of the feed water

56. A

boiler

and
cent.

costs

If

at

$2.50 per ton.

we

add

for

heater

that

would

increase

the

perature
tem-

to 212"?

evaporated

of 80" into steam

pay

9000

145.8

Ibs. of water
Ibs. absolute.

per hour from

Coal contains

Efficiencyof the boiler,furnace

feed-water

heater

that

will increase

13,500 B.T.U.

and
the

feed temperature

grate, 70

temperature

per
to

138

HEAT

212",

what

hours

day,

67.

will

be

plant

70";
pound

per

will

interest

68.

steam

per

15

59.

hour.

The

and

boiler

Coal

of

hours

from

water

the

It

the

coal

30

stack

changed
N,

75

per

per
After

that

later

10

runs

this

runs

water

is installed

how

much

heater

hours

if the

day,

per

cent.

stack

Boiler

6 per

be

pressure,

raising

of

and

economizer?

per

(a)

tori,

make

raises

(c)

10

operates

owner

7 per

per

temperature

$3

the
which

interest

on

feed

the

tion,
deprecia-

cent,

What

would

be

condition?

day

15

for

$3

CO2,

is

in

14

N,

4 per
per

dollars

75

cent.;
per

The

cent.

The

O,

plant

is

cent.;

per
Stack

year?

Boiler

year.

analysis

per

cent.

70".

the

The

ton.

per

O,

; and

cent.

in

days

300

cent.;

per

temperature,

room

is

coal
will

per

Feed

Ibs.

150
the

H.P.

per

plant

is added

saving

the

The

the

allowing

coal

added

costing
O,

Ibs.

of

Ibs.

without

steam

Steam

$500.

per

analysis

gas

will

uses

cost

last

cent.;

H,

and

100"

from

10,000,000

of

feed

the

heater

repairs?

interest

the

day

per

pay

is

cent,

for

hours

F.

600

5 per

for

and

economizer

an

of

pounds

Ib.

what

pay

coal

to

The

year.

24

What

radiation

gas

loss,

cent.

this

per

final
per

is

change

pound

the

for the

paid

perature,
tem-

of

heater

180",

to

evaporates

1000

costs

under

per

plant

per

plant

the

of

dollars

is CC"2, 5 per
80

The

heater

owner

of

tons

temperature

be

the

the

of

water

If

temperature

Heater

days

plant

cent.

temperature,
4

of

B.T.U.

depreciation,

can

C,

so

Ibs.

water

water

be

Feed

is 8

feed-

Plant

B.H.P.

500

300", allowing

to

gases

contains

If

can

depreciation

200".

to

(6)

boiler

burns

10

operates

hour.

per

feed

the

afford

feed-water

300

much

water

the

percent.?

we

cent,

cent,

efficiency
60.

of

for

200"

how

of

evaporate

develops

120"

7 per

to

13,000

investment?

the

plant

evaporation

much

Ibs.

can

per

120".

day

Allowing

contains

from

water

of

ton.

how

10

100

cost

plant

temperature,

$2.50

increases

What

cents.

interest

cent,

The

and
are

pressure,

year.

is

Ibs.

temperture

year

heater

Steam

heater

if the

year,

year.

feed-water

200".

to

the

Ibs.

costs

depreciation

in

per

30,000
150

the

per

cost

year?

coal

increase

saved

and

days

300

be

the

coal

pressure,
and

coal,

will

in

in

evaporates

steam

of

that
money

days

300

boiler

saving

the

ENGINES

the

made,

stack
of

year

after

gases

Feed-water

coal.
of

temperature
this

600"

from

the

second

feed

to

400".

The

temperature
water?

change

which

is installed

economizer

an

is made?

What

reduces

evaporation
is 120"

the

is 9 Ibs.
What

will

will

be

the

saving

in

CHAPTER

VIII

STEAM

91.

The

steam

engine and

small

direct

and

bolted
on

cast-iron

the

outside

by

FIG.

is

steam

shown

in the

the

piston head

serving
piston

to

rod

loose

piston
the

to

carried

and
a

piston

is

serve

other.

by

through
make

the

material

means

the

section

the

to

The
of

cast-iron

the

valves

and

cylinder.

The

The

ports.

gland

The

other

with

the
139

cross-head.

and

The

of

into

nut, and

and

cylinder head, the

joint.

side

one

usually fastened
rod

The

spring rings

leakage from
is

ging.
lag-

engine.

taper-ended

and

cylinder.
rod

valve

is surrounded

these

piston

slide

and

through

prevent

steam-tight

connected

of Skinner

exhausted

fit in

to

It is

Fig. 54.

containing the

chest

steam

stationary

by cylinder heads

ends

jacket

chest

steam

in

balanced

its

steam

no

Vertical

"

admitted

the

then

the

from

54.

piston is made

with

at

of

simple form

is shown

use

non-conducting

shows

55

"

engine

engine has

leading

ports

general

cylinder closed

The

Fig.

in

one

Engine.

double-acting

on.

the

Steam

Simple

ENGINES

is

packing

end

of

power

the
is

HEAT

140
from

communicated
attached

the

to

is fastened

by

the

main

connecting rod

shaft.
of

means

ENGINES

To

the

to

this main

set-nuts.

The

crank, which

shaft

valve

the

of the

driven by the eccentric through the eccentric rod and

The

stem,

valve

stem

through

passes

the

is

eccentric

engine is
the valve

chest, being
of the piston

steam

the

glands and packing, as in the case

The
function
rod, and is fastened by lock nuts to the valve.
of this valve is to admit
the steam
surrounding the valve to
each end of the cylinder alternately. On the opposite stroke,

tightby

made

.Balance

Valve

Steam

Port

Plate
Steam

Chf-st

Cover

Packing
Packing

Gland

Packing

Picking

Lagging

Gland

Counter
Piston

FIG.

the valve

55.

Section

"

opens

up

through

the ends

steam

of the

Bore

'Ring

engine cylinderand

valve.

cylinderto the exhaust

space

haust
valve, this space being connected to the expipe of the engine,and the space outside of the valve being
connected
to the steam
pipe admitting the steam to the engine.
to
Fig. 55 shows the slide valve in a position admitting steam
the head end of the cylinder. On the crank end, the cylinder is
As the steam
enters
behind the piston, the
to exhaust.
open
in the space on the opposite side of the piston is forced out
steam
through the space under the valve and out of the exhaust port.
When
the piston reaches the opposite end of the stroke,the valve

in the center

of the

142

HEAT

point C.

At

this

ENGINES
is

again admitted to the cylinder.

A similar action occurs
the opposite end of the cylinder,so
on
while the steam
is being admitted
at one
side,at the opposite
point steam

side of the

pistonwe

termed

indicator

by

an

an

93. Theoretical

Steam

"

engine it

steam

In determining

Engine.

clearance,that the full pressure

no

of

is

sumed
as-

of steam
occur

engine acts without compression. Then

be as shown
of the engine would
in Fig.57.

FIG. 57.

Theoretical indicator card.

"

to be

expansionis assumed
is pv

equation of which

which

of

horse-power of

the

diagram is
graphicallyproduced
a

that the

the indicator card

curve

be

may

Such

during admission,that the cut-off and release

and
instantly,

The

and

Horse-power

that there is

pressure.

the indicator.

as

theoretical

is maintained

exhaust

diagram

known

instrument

the

have

coincides most

rectangularhyperbola,

constant,

as

this is the

curve

nearly with the actual expansion curve

in

simple non-condensingengine.

Let the pressure at the point of cut-off b be pi, and the volume
at the point d be pz, and the volume, vz.
Vi] and let the pressure
The

of work

area

is

representedby

abode

Area

oabg

Area,

the

area

oabg + gbcf

oedf.

"

/v2

pdv.

gbcf

Area

oedf

Vi

Substitutingthese
of

values

in the

previousequation,the

area

work,

/l"2
pdv

"i

"

p2v2.

(1)

STEAM

ENGINES

the volumes

before and

143
t

As
of

vi

and

are

after

expansion, fhe ratio

expansion,

be is

expansion curve

Since the

pv

substitutingfor

Hence

equationfor

work

rectangular hyperbola,

piVi.

in terms

its value

of pi

dv\
("v2

/v2
-

-P"z

piVi I 1

Vi V

and substituting
r for
Integrating,
abode

card v2,

and the actual

fulfilled,

theoretical
the actual

Pl-:
"^-

the

practice,however,

actual

the

the

mean

lengthof the

actual

The

theoretical M.E.P.

(Trans.A.S.M.E.,

Vol.

effective pressure

mean

are

is less than

effective pressure

mean

to the

M.E.P.

(4)

-p*

assumptions made

effective pressure.

mean

e.
factor,

The

(3)

or

M.E.P.

In

P"2.

is termed

card, which

by dividingthis by

is found

effective
pressure,

the

)
V

Vi

p2v2.

"

on

I
J

have

--, we

piVi(l+ loger)

pressure

average

vi} the

becomes
dv

The

and

not

the

proportionborne by
is termed

gram
the dia-

24, p. 751.)

is

(5)
This

diagram factor

70 to 90 per
To

by experiment and

is found

varies from

cent.

determine

it is necessary

the
to

indicated

find the

horse-power of

work

done

engine,
in the engine cylinder; /
a

steam

engine to have a cylinder a square inches in crosssection and

1 ft. long, that it is double-actingand makes
n
effective
revolutions per minute
(r.p.m.),and that the mean
from
equation (5) acting on the piston is
pressure determined
the total pressure against the
inch.
Then
p pounds per square
piston will be pa pounds and the space traveled per minute by
done per
hence the foot-pounds of work
the pistonwill be 2 In',
Assume

the

HEAT

144
is 2

minute
per

Since

plan.

minute, the indicated

ENGINES

horse-power equals 33,000 ft.-lbs.

horse-power of the engine is
1

2plan
:

33,000'
Cut'
Example. A 12" X 15" double-actingengine runs 200 r.p.m.
| stroke;steam pressure, 100 Jbs.; back pressure, 2 Ibs. absoluteoft7,
Card factor,
Find the rated horse-power of the engine.
80 per cent.
From
Solution.
equation (2),the ratio of expansion,
"

"

v2
=

^
and

4'

equation (5) the

from

M.E.P.

^(1 +

e"

%-r)

[i^p(llogA)

.80

2}
.80J68.5

+ 1.39)
.80(28.7(1

j"
=

2)

66.5

2 Ibs.

53

.80 X

of the

cross-sectional area

The

^2

cylinder,
62

3.U16

113.3 sq. in.

equation (6),the

From

I.H.P.

?"

33,000
53.2 X

2 X

1.25 X

113.3'X

200

33,000

#**-

91.4.

Ans. 91.4
in

94. Losses
the steam
as

the

Steam

The

as

basis of

engines.

The

Engine.

"

engine is different

ideal action.

however,
actual

rated horse-power.

from

action

that

of the steam

action
which

of the

has been

ideal

enginethe

steam

assumed

engine is useful,

comparison for the action of the

In the actual

in

steam

in

expanded
higherpressure

is never

has at the end of the

expansion a
than the back pressure in the exhaust pipe. It is not advisable
to give the steam
complete expansion, as there will be no added
work
due to the complete expansion of this steam, the pressure
completely,and

being insufficientto

overcome

the friction of the

engine. Qwing

STEAM
to the fact that

do not have

we

bring the

Comparing

pressure.

complete expansion,it is necessary

as

to

the back

to

diagram,Fig.57, with the actual

noticed that the steam
sion
during admisnot

at full boiler pressure,

remain

of the pressure due to wire drawing

through the ports of the valve. In the ideal engine

but that there is

there is no

down

so

the ideal

diagram,Fig. 56, it will be

in the actual diagram does
of the steam

of the stroke

of the stroke

end

at the

pressure

145

before the end

valve

the exhaust

to open

ENGINES

reduction

transmission of heat to the steam

enginethere is a transfer
cylinderwalls during a portion of

except in the boiler,

of heat from

but in the actual

the steam

the

stroke,and during
other portionsof the stroke from the cylinderwalls to the steam.
In an actual enginethe back pressure in the cylinderis always

to the

greaterthan the
of exhaust

in the condenser

vacuum

valve

and

In

owing to

the

the resistance

ideal

engine the whole

of the cylinderis swept through by the piston,and in

volume

passage.

enginethere must be a space at the end of the cylinder

the head.
prevent the piston striking
losses of heat from an engineare given as follows,
The principal
in the order of their importance.
nearly as possible

the actual
to

as

1. Heat

This

of the entire heat admitted

more

or

lost in the exhaust.

loss is
to the

usually 70

per

cent,

engine.

2. Initial condensation.
3. Wire

drawing at

6.

and

This

conduction

in exhaust

duringcompression.

space

from

the

valve.

cylinder.

Leakage past the piston and valves.

95. Heat
the

and

in the clearance

4. Condensation

5. Radiation

admission

Lost

engineby

in the Exhaust.

Most

of the heat

is rejectedby the

the steam

loss varies from

"

70 per

cent,

enginein

of the heat

brought

to

the exhaust.

of the steam

in

engines to over 90 per cent, in the poorer types. In

steam
plants this heat is partly recovered by using the
many
The
for heating or manufacturing purposes.
steam
exhaust
leaving the exhaust of an engine usually contains from 10_to
the best

20 per cent, of water.

96. Initial Condensation
in

and

Re

steam-engineeconomy
and

-evaporation. Early
"

found

perimenters
ex-

that the surfaces of

important part
in the economy
of the steam
engine. The inner surfaces exposed
in the engine naturallyhave a temperato the action of the steam
ture
the

cylinderwall

very
10

close to

steam

that

ports played

of the

steam

very

itself. When

the steam

HEAT

146
enters

the

moves

out

ENGINES

in contact
with the walls of the
cylinder,it comes
cylinderwhich have justbeen exposed to exhaust steam and are
A part of this steam
at a lower temperature.
necessarily
will,
be condensed
in warming the walls,and as the piston
therefore,
more,

increases
After
and

the

of the walls will be exposed, so

more

to

point even

point of cut-off the

steam

of the
at this

the

same

as

the temperature

ceases
cylinder. Condensation
cylinderwalls are by this time covered with

in the

steam

point and the

film of moisture.

densation
con-

beyond the point of cut-off.

expands, the pressure falls,
point is reached where the

temperature drops until a

temperature of the cylinderwalls is about
the

that

expansion of the steam is stillfurther

increased,the temperature in the cylinder correspondingto the
steam
will be less than the temperature of the cylinder
pressure
walls,and this film of moisture on the surface will begin to rea

evaporate.
smaller

Usually the

than

still wet

If the

the initial condensation

when

the

also continues

exhaust

during the

that all the moisture

valves

walls will be wet

when

and the initialcondensation

of heat from

by

and

much

cylinder walls are

This re-evaporation

the

open.

It is very
desirable
the surface of the cylinderbe evaporated

on

exhaust

before the end of the exhaust.

increased

of re-evaporationis very

amount

the steam

the presence

steam

stroke.

If it is not

der
evaporated,the cylinis again admitted to the cylinder

will be

greatlyincreased.

to the walls of the

The

fer
trans-

cylinderis always

of moisture.

In the average
is
non-condensingengine,initial condensation
from
steam
15 to 20 per cent., in small reciprocating
pumps
initial condensation
an
as
high as 75 per cent, sometimes
occurs,
and

in the most

97. Factors

perfectengines it is from

10 to 12 per cent.
Initial condensation
AffectingInitial Condensation.
"

is

in the

always increased by increasingthe

cylinders.

It also increases

the

range

of temperature

proportionof the area of the cylinder

walls to the volume of the cylinderincreases.
The greater this ratio,
the less the economy,
wall that is exposed the more
as the more
This accounts
heat the wall will take up.
for the largeconsumption
of steam
shown
by most rotary engines.
Time
is also important, and other conditions being the same,
the slower the speed of the engine, the greater the initial condensation,
action
the
the
whole
time
depends upon
as
during
which the heat has an opportunityto be taken up or given off by
as

STEAM
the

As

cylinderwalls.

the

time,

the

the walls of

increases.

initial condensation

only affect

the element

with

is in contact

steam

ENGINES

inner

surfaces

the greater the

The

147

of time

during which the

the cylinder increases,
the
changes of temperature

of the cylinder,and

depth

of

the

cylinderwalls that

greater
will be

affected.
increases

Initial condensation

increased, that is,as

easily explained; as
of

of heat

to

taken

the same,
increases.
becomes

cut-off

the

admitted

steam

amount

the

so

as

cut-off

the

ratio

becomes
is

of

is

expansion

This

shorter.

shortened, the

is

weight

the

less and
the
cylinder becomes
remains
stantially
subup by the cylinder walls
that the proportion of steam
condensed

With

short cut-offs this initial condensation

very
the cut-off is reduced below a certain
large. When

very

offsets the increase in

point, the increased initial condensation
due to longerexpansion. If the cut-off is shortened to
economy
less than

this

increased.

point,the

The

steam

consumption

point of greatest economy

of the

in most

engine will be
single-cylinder
In an
engine

engines is from one-quarter to one-fifth stroke.

having a short cut-off and using a high steam pressure,
often be increased by reducing the steam
may
thereby increasingthe cut-off.
98. Steam

increased

"

by

steam

action

of

omy
econ-

pressure,

initial condensation

is

the loss of heat

This
with

The

Jacket.

the

be

may

through the cylinderwall by conduction.

reduced
by surrounding the cylinder

at boiler pressure.

jacket. The

Such

effect of the steam

an

arrangement

is called

jacketis to reduce initial

condensation
and
to increase the re-evaporation.The
steam
used by the steam jacketis always charged to the engineas though
it had been used in the cylinder. Engines with jacketsshow
increased economy,
when
operated at slow speed.
particularly
The higherthe speed of the engine,the less is the element of time
during which the jacketcan affect the steam in the cylinderand
the less effective the jacket becomes.
In cases
of slow-speed
engines with large ratios of expansion,the use of the jacketwill
show a savingof from 10 to 20 per cent.
99. Superheating. Superheating the steam
previous to its
admission
of reducing initial
to the engine is used as a means
condensation.
of superheatshould be given
A sufficient amount
that on admission
of steam
to the cylinder,
to the steam
the
so
cylinderwalls take up this superheat instead of condensing the
steam

"

HEAT

148

effect of this is to leave

The

steam.

ENGINES
the

cylinderwalls entirely

of heat which would be conducted

dry, reducingthe amount
of heat.
walls,as dry gas is one of the best non-conductors

to the

The

that with sufficient

show
experiments of Professor Gutermuth
of a simplenon-condensing enginemay
be
superheatthe economy
made
to equal that of a compound
condensingengine.

Compound Expansion. By increasingthe steam pressure

and using a longer range of expansion,the range of temperatures
100.

"

cylinderof

in the

engine is

steam

increasingthe initial condensation.

of

much

increased,thereby

In order to reduce

it has been found

temperatures in the cylinder,

to expand
partially

into

in

cylinderin

cylinderand

one

which

then exhaust

the

the

expansion is completed.
the range
of temperature in each cylinder is
By this means
reduced.
reduced
and initial condensation
Compound cylinders
is sufficiently
the steam
are
high so
only used when
pressure
steam

that

second

the steam

more

the range
economical

initial condensation

the

would

be excessive

expanded in one cylinder. With steam

100 Ibs.,compound enginesare seldom used.
to use
compound
engines for less than 125
the ratio of expansion is very large.
were

101.

Wire

#orts, and

Drawing.

passages

do

not

lowers the pressure

release.

dry the
would

This

steam

be

shown

It is not

necessary

Ibs. pressure

offered

of the steam

by

is reduced
the rounded

resistance is often

and, if it

small

pressure

effect of this

The

drawing."

less than

pressures

by

the

in the

raises the pressure

during exhaust.
the valve nears
the
close instantlywhen

the
closing,or cut-off,
port opening. This is
and

resistance

steam

unless

valves,

cylinder

and

during admission
valves

The

"

if the

amount

were

of

owing

to

corners

As the

point of

the

small

at cut-off

called

or "wire
"throttling"
throttlingof the steam is to slightly
absolutelydry to start with, there

superheating. It will be noticed in

lutely
diagram, Fig.56, that the initial line DE is not absohorizontal,but that there is a gradual reduction of pressure
initial pressure
line is always lower
The
from
D to E.
than the boiler pressure, owing to the resistance of the passages

the indicator

between
The
loses

the boiler and

cylinder.
passing through the pipingleading to the engine
certain quantity of heat, with a correspondingcondensation.
It is customary to place a separatorin the main justbefore
steam

it reaches
removed

the

the
from

in

engine

so

the steam.

that

this water
"

of condensation

can

be

HEAT

150
clearance

The

per

of the

engine alters the

stroke of the engine. In order
closed

engine are

balance of the stroke the

of the

steam

than

higherpressure
of steam
masses

to reduce

sumed
con-

the amount

of

at each

to fillthe clearance

serves

of steam

amount

stroke,the exhaust valves

before the end of the stroke,and for the
is compressed. This compression
steam

to fillthe clearance

live steam
of the

ENGINES

the exhaust

pressure.

in the clearance space serves

in the engine and bring them

with

space

In

steam

at

addition,
compression

to retard the

ing
reciprocatof the

to rest at the end

engine is operated with^too littlecompression,it

will be found to pound at the end of the stroke.
The effect of
compression, or the cushioning of the piston, is materially
increased by the lead of the engine. The lead is the amount
In
the valve is open when the pistonreaches the end of its stroke.
stroke.

If

an

order to have lead it is necessary

of the stroke,and this steam

We
of two

before the end of the stroke

parts.
cushioningthe piston and reciprocating
the
consider
the
steam
cylinderas composed
occupying
may
which
parts: the part that has been left in the clearance,

is called cushion

steam; and the part that has been admitted

boiler,which

determine

weight of

to add to

The

expanding in

compression

involves

loss.

the

of the steam

Just

from

desired
an

to

engine,

the boiler

The

leftin the clearance space.

the steam

be the total steam

cylinderfeed. If it is
of steam
that is expanding in
the weight of the steam fed from

is called

the amount

it is necessary
the

admitted

the valves before the end

to assist in

serves

the

to open

sum

will

engine.

in the

clearance

space

always

previousto compression,the cylinderwalls

been

During compression
exposed to the exhaust steam.
the steam
compressed has its temperature increased,and when
tlie temperature of the compressed steam
exceeds the temperature
have

of the

walls,condensation

beginsto

occur.

The

action is similar

to initialcondensation.

PROBLEMS

factory having five 10 H.P. motors, two

of the motors, 80 per cent. ;
20 H.P. motors, four 30 H.P. motors.
Efficiency
and
of
the
cent.
80
dynamo combined, 80 per cent.
engine
transmission, per
;
What
should be the H.P. of the engine plant and kilowatts of the generator?
each requiringan average
2. A street car plant uses
ten cars
horse-power
of 75 at the wheels.
Efficiencyof car is 60 per cent.; of transmission,75
75 per cent.; and of main
engines and dynamo,
per cent.; of sub-stations,
Plant has two engines
M.E.P.
of engine,40 Ibs.;
75 per cent.
r.p.m., 150.
1. An

electrical

plant

runs

of

size.

equal

the

are

of their

dimensions

cylinders?

Assume

600

piston speed.

minute

ft. per

What

151

ENGINES

STEAM

of revothe number
lutions
effective pressure to be 40 Ibs.,
to be 75 per minute, and the length of the stroke to be 42 in.,and

3. Assume

determine

develop

the

mean

the diameter
200

4. An

cylinderof

of the

engine which
Double-acting

will

H.P.

engine

is 18"

and

36"

runs

100

Initial pressure,

r.p.m.

What

100

will be

H.P.

atmospheric; cut-off,i stroke.

Ibs.;back pressure,
card
factor of 85 per cent.
Assume
developed?
6. An
engine is 8" X 12"; initial steam
pressure, 100 Ibs. gage; back
is an
isothermal of a
the
3 Ibs. gage; cut-off,
expansion curve
";
pressure,
What
is the horse-power of the engine? Card
perfect gas; r.p.m., 250.
factor,85 per cent.
6. Determine
the horse-power of a 13" X 18" double-actingengine when
and cutting off at 1
at 80 Ibs. gage
making 220 r.p.m. while taking steam
is
back
that the mean
pressure
Neglect the clearance and assume
20.5 Ibs. absolute,and that the card factor is 80 per cent.
Initial
It runs
100 r.p.m.
7. An engine is 18" X 30"; cut-off,
| stroke.
steam
80 Ibs.
Exhaust, atmospheric. What would be the increase
pressure,
increased
to \ stroke and initial pressure
of horse-power if the cut-off was
Card factor,80 per cent.
to 150 Ibs.?
haust,
and
makes
^8. An engine is 8" X !"."
300 r.p.m.; cut-off,
i stroke;exwould
be the horse-power of the engine at the
atmosphere. What
following gage pressures: 60, 80, 100, and 120 Ibs.? Card factor,75 per

stroke.

cent.

be the

would

9. What
stated

horse-power developed

8, if a condenser

in Problem

were

under

added

tions
the different condi-

and

the back

pressure

to 2 Ibs. absolute?

reduced

100 r.p.m.,
and. initial pressure is 100
engine is 18" X 30"; runs
is added
A condenser
bringing the exhaust
Atmospheric exhaust.

10. An
Ibs.
down

In both

to 2 Ibs. absolute.

cases

cut-off

occurs

\ stroke.

at

Card

creased?
horse-power of the engine inis sold for $60 per horse-power per year, how
(6) If the power
could
be
for
mifch
a
condenser, allowing 5 per cent, for interest and
paid
6 per cent for depreciation?
11. An
engine is to develop 600 H.P. at a piston speed of 600 ft. per

factor,80

Initial steam

minute.

Cut-off
What

at

should

\ stroke.

much

if the back

An

and

steam

exceed

720 ft. per

minute.

factor,70 per

diameter

pressure

engine is to develop
125 Ibs; back
pressure,

Card

is the

Exhaust
1 Ib. gage.
100 Ibs.
pressure,
pressure,
cent,
(a)
Card factor,85 per
Speed, 100 r.p.m.

be the stroke

be the diameter

J2.

(a) How

cent,

per

1000

What

of the cylinder?

(6) What

should

is 2 Ibs. absolute?
H.P.

pressure,

should

at

\ cut-off and

120

r.p.m.

Initial

atmospheric; piston speed not to

of the cylinder?
be the dimensions

cent.

cylindersof a locomotive are 19 in. in diameter and have a 24-in

back presstroke.
The driving wheels are 7 ft. in diameter, and the mean
sure
power
horseDetermine
the
absolute.
which
is
Ibs.
the
works
19
against
piston
when
taking steam at 150 Ibs. gage
developed by the locomotive
13. The

HEAT

152

cutting

and
Card

off

factor,
1,4.

An

will

by

be
A

has

number

of

and

r.p.m.

inch
X

of

air

12"

is

will

the
17.

of

60"

F.

12'.

their

These

through
original

(a)

cut-off
the

If

engine

ft.

70

of

air

of

off

volume

swept

I stroke,

at

that

what

Ibs.

60

per

is

when

the

of

one-quarter

pressure

F.

This
200

that

Ibs.

1000

tank

is

retically
theo-

r.p.m.

square

per

used

to

run

initial

The

inch

steam

etc.

of

square

running
of

weight

radiation,

at

60"

H.P.

97

What

Ibs.

\ cut-off;

will

ft.

cu.

it

Cut-off

of

air

operate
|

4"

Ibs.

200

at

stroke.

absolute.

an

pressure

How

absolute

and

long

takes

air

temperature

air

double-acting

6"

Engine

the

the

runs

supply

in

pressure

air
is

acts

150

at

the

engine
Ibs.

60

at

(6)
r.p.m.,

valve

tanks

assuming

100

at

being

1000

will

long

the

Ibs.

card

per

Ibs.

ning
run-

absolute.

factor

square

60"

F.

will
of

square

run

90

be

per

tanks

cylinders

per

tanks

horse-power

many

air

two
The

of

temperature

how
How

has

cylinders.

12"

constant

isothermal,

cylinder?

8"

two

reducing

pressure

locomotive

air

compressed

tanks

engine

the
in

hour

per

constant.

the

in

the

miles

engine?

double-acting

air

is

200

r.p.m.?

18.
3'

the

long

Temperature

of

cut

develops

assuming

engine;

engine

contains

How

100

40

0.08

be

condensation,

cu.

air

is

steam

engine

temperature

run

tank

of

expanded?

through
1000

the

tank

is

hour,

per

acting

entering

speed

which
the

Pressure,

lost

and
double

it

cut-off.

contains

tank

absolute

8"

times

I. H.P.

per

required
16.

If

double-acting
f

at

used

actually

at

volume

stroke.

per

14"

traveling

clearance

piston

12"

while

cent.

per

the

the

16.
260

75

engine

through

f stroke,

at

ENGINES

and
the

take

inch

lute,
abso-

inch

lute,
abso-

the

engine

developed
.cent.?

each

sion
expanat

when

CHAPTER
TYPES

AND

IX

DETAILS

103.

Classification.

whether

they exhaust

Engines

"

STEAM

OF

into

be

may

the

ENGINES

classified

atmosphere

according

into

or

to

condenser,

into:
1.

Non-condensing

2.

Condensing

In

the

the

to

non-condensing

into

cold

steam

is

the

exhaust

that

by

Another

at

condensed
of

steam

cooling medium,

lower

than

is removed

and

vacuum

so

of the

that
the

vacuum

air pump.

an

be

may

speed is governed,

made

according

the

to

in

way

as:

Throttling engines.

In

the

of

of the

engines.
valve

pressure

of the

controls

the

Engines

entering

cylinders in which
1.

be

also

may

the

steam

2.
3.

Triple expansion

4.

Quadruple
is then

of the
there

expansion

allowed

expansion
the

further
pressure.

steam

and

the

to

the

governor

cylinder.

expand

successively

the

expands

steam

In

in

but

compound

cylinder,

one

engine

portion

in the

high-pressure cylinder, and

passes

to

the

low-pressure cylinder, where

the

successively in three

as:

engines.

exhaust.

to

to

of

number

the

to

occurs

expanded
In

to

according

is allowed

engine the

automatic

the

pressure

engines.

simple engine

regulatesthe

constant

admitted

classified

Simple engines.
Compound
engines.

In

remains

steam

of steam

amount

In

engine.

engine is controlled

the

pipe which

in the steam

entering the

steam

speed of

the

throttling engines

means

and

steam

exhaust

produces

pressure

directly

passes

the

of

means

This

water.

occurs

2. Automatic

by

where, by

classification

their

exhaust

condensing engines
to

means

the

engine

chamber

The

is sustained

1.

In

changed

atmosphere.

which

engines.

atmosphere.

passes

the

engines.

pressure

approximating

triple-expansion engine the

cylinders, and
153

in the

the

steam

quadruple

from
it is

exhaust

expands
in four.

154

HEAT

ENGINES

AND

TYPES
A

DETAILS

OF

STEAM

fourth classificationdepends upon

ENGINES

the

155

position of the cylinder,

as:

1. Vertical
2.

engines.
Horizontal engines.

104.
is the

Plain

valve is shown

cross-section of

is shown

in

"

in its normal

The

simplestform of engine
shown in Fig. 59.
positionin the steam

valve of this type

showing the

steam

chest.

ports

Fig. 90.

FIG.

This

Engine.

plainD-slide valve engine,as

The
A

Slide Valve

60.

"

Portable

engine and

type of engine is used where

It

boiler.

high

economy

is not

sary.
neces-

requires little attention, and is easily repaired and

adjusted. Fig. 60 shows a boiler and engine of this type arranged
so as to be portable. These
engines are governed by a throttling
of the fly-ball
type, as shown in Fig. 60, which controls
governor
of the steam
in
the speed of the engine by changing the pressure
the steam

chest.

156

HEAT

105.

Automatic

ENGINES

High-speed Engine.

"

This

class of

of
developed rapidly since the introduction
machinery, and is designed primarily for the

FIG.

61.

"

Governor, eccentric rod, rocker shaft,valve

engineshas
electrical lighting
direct drivingof

and

valve

stem.

electric

generators. These engines have balanced slide valves

such as are
shown
in Fig. 55.
The
in this class of
governors
that the
engines control the valve directly,and it is necessary

FIG.

62.

valve be balanced

Fig. 61 shows

Bed

"

so

the

stem, and valve.

of

high-speed,center-crank

that it may
governor,

be moved

engine.

easilyby the governor.

eccentric rod, rocker shaft, valve

158

HEAT

ENGINES

DETAILS

AND

TYPES

this class

STEAM

OF

ENGINES

159

well

adapted to a high rotative speed.

stroke of these enginesis usually short,so that the average

Engines of
The

are

ft. per minute

when
of revolutions per minute.
at a largenumber
runs
Most
enginesof this class are of the center crank

piston speed

may

the

Fig. 62 shows
bed

is

bed

of

designedthat

so

It may

removed.

600

engine are supported on

all parts of the

This

exceed

be

one

center-crank

all parts

machined

at

the

type

so

that

casting.
high-speed engine.

accessible and

are

engine

may

be

setting. This insures

the engine. This bed

one

perfectalignment of the various parts of

castingis bolted to a suitable brick or cement foundation.
These
106. Corliss Engine.
engines are described and the
action of their valves explainedin paragraph 136.
Figs.63 and 64
show a plan and side elevation of a Corliss engine.
107. The Stumpf Uniflow
Engine." In 1910 Professor Stumpf
of Charlottenburg,Germany, brought out an
engine which he
called a uniflow engine and which promises to give materially
than
the ordinaryreciprocating
better economy
engine. This
in principle
the patent had been taken
not new
as
engine was
"

in 1886

out

but had

been

not

used.

It obtains

its economy
losses. It is

largelythrough reducing the initial condensation

of the four-valve type.
Fig. 65* shows a section

through the cylinder. This cylinder

has no exhaust valves but in the middle of the cylinderthere is a
ringof ports which are uncovered by the pistonat the end of each
stroke so that the pistonisthe exhaust valve.
There are two steam
valves A in the

cylinderheads,and the steam spaces over

the clearance pockets B which completely steam

have
heads.

In the uniflow

exposed to

are

the

that
return

in

the

exhaust

the steam

clearance

jacketthe
and cylinderheads

engine,the pistonfaces
temperature only during the short

pistonuncovers

stroke

the valves

spaces

time

ports. On the
remaining in the cylinderis compressed
and

up

the exhaust

covers

to

the

admission

pressure.

temperature also increases in the compressionspace,

not

The

only due

compression but also to the absorption of heat from the

jacketedhead.
The cylinderFig.65 is a simple cylindrical
castingwith a belt
to

cast

in the middle

for the exhaust

passage.

The

steam

chest is

cylinderand providedwith two drums C to take

expansion without distortingthe cylinder. Each cylinder_has

with
integral
up
*

Taken

from

the

Power, June

11, 1912, vol 35,

No.

24, p. 830.

ENGINES

HEAT

160

largevalve

valve

open

into

automaticallyto

opens

entrained water.

It also serves

if the

pressure

serve
as

as

extra

should

vacuum

the

valves

relief valve

to

let out

clearance to prevent

be lost when

operating non-condensing. In the

engine described

This

pocket D in the cylinderhead.

the

particularform

Corliss valves

sive
exces-

engine
of

is

inflow

and

operated by
These
the usual Corliss valve mechanism.
engines have shown
steam
low
consumption particularlywith superheated
very
In a recent test a simple single-cylinder
steam.
engine,noncondensing, developed a horse-power with 11J Ibs. of steam.
In addition they have
flat economy
and
are
a
curve
capable
of taking very
heavy overloads.

FIG.

65-.
"

are

Section

of

Stumpf engine.

Engine Details.
Fig. 66 shows the piston and piston rod.
The
piston is turned a little smaller than the cylinder,and is
made
of spring rings. These
tight in the cylinder by means
in the figureleaning against the piston rod.
rings are shown
that they
of cast iron and are so constructed
They are made
108.

have

"

to

be

compressed

in order

to

get them

into the

cylinder,

piston is in place,the rings bear firmly against

in
The piston with rings in place is shown
the cylinder walls.
Fig. 67. In Fig. 68 is shown a piston,piston rod, and cross-head.
to the piston rod by a taper pin and lockThe piston is attached
nut, and the other end of the piston rod is screwed into the crossThe
cross-head
and fastened
head
by a lock-nut.
pin is also
and

shown

when

the

in the cross-head.

TYPES

DETAILS

AND

OF

STEAM

ENGINES

161

Fig. 69 shows a solid-ended connectingrod. These rods are

usuallymade of forged steel. The bearings that enclose the pin
are

made

of brass and

FIG.

66.

FIG.

67.

FIG.

68.

"

"

fitted into the ends

"

Piston

Piston

and

with

of the rods.

These

pistonrings.

ringsin place.

Piston,pistonrod

and

crosshead.

of
by means
bearings,or brasses,are taken up when they wear
wedges held by lock-nuts as shown in the cut.
Fig. 70 shows a strap-ended connecting rod. In this form of
rod the brasses are held in place by steel straps that encircle
These straps are fastened to the body of the connecting
them.
11

162

HEAT

rod

by

rod

are

of

means

shown

taper key and

lined with

babbitt

metal

brasses

The

cotter.

which

in this

is much

softer

the steel pins themselves.

than

FIG.

Fig. 71
which
of

ENGINES

are

69.

connecting rod.

Solid end

"

the crank-shaft and

shows

bolted to the crank.

open-hearthsteel.

The

The

its counterbalance

crank-shaft is

counterweightsare

made

weights
solid forging
of cast iron.

'"*!"'
FIG.

The

crank-shaft shown

engine.
Fig. 72 shows one
The
figure shows

FIG.

bearingproper
or

70.

71.

up

Strap end connectingrod.

in the

figureis designedfor a

center-crank

bearingsfor the crank-shaft.

called a four-partbearing. The

of the main
what

is

Counter-balanced

"

is made

brasses,take

"

up

most

of four
of the

crank.

pieces.
wear

The

in the

two

side

pieces,

bearingand

are

TYPES

adjustedby

AND

DETAILS
of set

means

OF

STEAM

fastened

screws

ENGINES
with

163

lock-nuts.

The

in the top of the

part of the brasses is adjustedby a screw
frame
are
supported by the main
of
bearing. The brasses
upper

FIG.

72.

"

bearing,four part.

Main

engine and held down by a main bearing cap bolted to the

main frame of the engine.
Fig. 73 shows the eccentric strap and eccentric rod. The
eccentric strap is driven by an eccentric sheave the positionof

the

FIG.

which

73.

is determined

Eccentric

"

by

strap and

the governor.

eccentric

rod.

Fig. 74 shows

the

tric
eccen-

sheave.
in detail.
The
Fig. 75 is shown the eccentric strap more
strap is splitin two parts and bolted together so that it can be
In

placed over
In

the sheave.

Fig. 76 is shown

the

main

frame

for

side-crank

engine.

HEAT

164
This

cut shows

brasses
on

the top of the

FIG.

Figs. 77 and

having

an

oil which

bearing with a three-partbox.

adjusted by wedges moved
by

main

in this box

ENGINES

are

The

side

set-nuts

bearing.

74.

Eccentric

"

78

show

oil cellar.
is carried

two

The
up

FIG.

sheave

views

lower

onto

75.'
"

for shaft

the

of

governor.

main

engine-bearing

part of the cellar is filled with

bearing by

Eccentric

means

of

chain

strap.

hangs over the shaft and dips into the cellar. The chain
is moved
by the rotation of the shaft,bringingthe oil up on to
which

the shaft,

166

HEAT

ENGINES

the enginecylinder. This

lubricating
by the entering steam.

FIG. 78.

"

Main

bearing with

FIG.

"

Steam

79.

being admitted

thus

forming a

"

oil is carried into the

oil cellar

"

der
cylin-

transverse-section.

Sight-feedlubricator.
into

column

pipe 'B' and

of water

which

condenser
exerts

'F'
a

denses,
con-

pressure

AND

TYPES

equal
oil

and

By

this

the

tube

H.'

of

excess

'S'

through

and

the

to

the
feed

feed

chamber

passage

top
"I"

tube
oil

sight

the

OF

STEAM

difference

the

pressure

sight

floats

the

plus
through

water,

The

oil

head

its

to

DETAILS

is

nozzle

and
and

in
'P'

from

'N'

support

into
filled

being
passes

specific

on

forced

to

the

arm

167

ENGINES

oil

the

in

'

with

point
'K.'"

sight

feed

water,
to

'A.'

reservoir

reservoir
the

between

gravity

be

A'

through
chamber
the

drop

lubricated

CHAPTER

TESTING

110.

The

Indicator.

of the

pressure

graphically
and

has

OF

It

recorded.

are

three

First, the

average

piston, which
Second,
the

point

By

the

not

the

use

high

80.

the

distribution

at which

of the

engine has

the

valves

indicator
a

of

proper

the

are

of the

by

determined

the

engine is

James

Watt

by

an

indicator:

indicator.

(M.E.P.).

pressure

in

engine
able

acting against the

steam

steam

distribution
168

by which

perfection.

the

of the
we

stroke

effective

mean

device

invented

of

state

of

is

in the

first

Crosby

"

pressure

is called

the

was

point

principal things

FIG.

ENGINES

indicator

for each

steam

since reached

There

STEAM

The

"

to

are

the

engine; that

opened

determine

of steam.

and

is,

closed.

whether

or

TESTING

Third, from
of steam

the indicator

which

indicator

OF

makes

STEAM

we

ENGINES
determine

may

169
the actual

weight

in the engine cylinder. The

being worked
possiblea complete analysisof the action of the
is

engine.
Fig. 80 shows

steam

This
the space

cross-section

instrument

under

FIG.

the

81.

"

is attached

cator.
Crosby steam-engineindiand
to the engine cylinder,

piston 8 is in direct communication

Crosby

engine cylinder. The

piston 8, compressing
raises

of

indicator

pressure
a

with

outside

of the

spring above

16, and the attached

the

spring.

steam

it.

with

The

acts

agianst the

pressure

of the

pencilat 23. The drum

24 is covered with a sheet of paper;
a pulley
a cord passing over
34 is attached to the engine cross-head through a reducing motion,
each stroke of the engine the drum
makes
almost a
so that with
The
of the drum
movement
complete revolution.
corresponds
steam

an

arm

170

HEAT

to the movement

of the

ENGINES

piston,and

pencil corresponds to the

pressure

of the pressure
diagram, therefore,
in the stroke of the engine. The

of the
upward movement
have a
in the cylinder. We
in the cylinderfor each point
springsused above the piston
the

of various

are

be

one

under

is termed
a 40-lb. spring would
strengths. What
of such strength that a pressure
inch
of 40 Ibs. per square
the pistonwould move
These springs
the pencilone inch.

calibrated so that
carefully
give a correspondingmovement
A brass stylusis sometimes

of the

certain movements

are

piston

of the

used in

pencil on the paper.

place of a pencil. This has

the

advantage of always keeping a sharp point. In this case the

indicator cards are taken on a specially
prepared paper with a
be made
would
metallic surface,
mark
as
no
on
ordinary paper.

Cross-section.

Elevation.
FIG.

One
paper

disadvantageof
is that

82.

the

use

of the

traced

outline

the

indicator.

Thompson

"

but will fade out in

stylusand
by the

metallic surfaced

brass

point

is not

comparativelyshort time.
Fig. 81 shows a similar indicator with the spring external to
the indicator piston. The
temperature of the spring in this
The
indicator is independent of the steam
spring
pressure.
in this indicator may
easilybe changed without removing the
indicator piston. This form is particularly
adapted for indicator

permanent,

work

where

indicator.

This

111. Use
the

hard

and

elevation

the

adapted to

is desired.

accuracy

shows

Fig. 82

upon

great

form

of

cross-section of the

indicator

is

Thompson
particularlywell

service.

of Indicator.
accuracy

with

"

The
which

accuracy

the

of

an

pressure

indicator
in the

depends

cylinderis

recorded
with

the

on

ENGINES

drum, and

indicator

of the

the motion

which

STEAM

OF

TESTING

171

also upon

pistonis conveyed

the

accuracy

to the indicator

properly, the
following conditions should be observed: the piping leading to
than 18 in. long, and should
the indicator should not be more
drum.

order

In

the

have

to

recorded

pressure

be connected
diameter; the indicator should never
is passing;the holes
of steam
to a pipe through which
a current
connecting the indicator with the cylindershould be drilled into
the opening ;
the clearance space so that the pistonwill not cover
be placed in a vertical position.
the indicator should, if possible,
in. in

be

Where

great

FIG.

83.

"

has the

engine which
The

of the

movement

head, must

Reducing motion, showing

of the drum

motion

The

to the

of mechanism

exact

ratio to the movement

by

of

means

commonest
are

also

on

the

makes

of the

reducing

used

various

reduction

so

are

by

that

the

motion

an

segment

forms

of

of the
is

one

reduction.

reducing wheels

piston
of the
There

which

gearing and pulleys. These

satisfactorywhen they are provided
be disengaged without
drum
may

means

more

cross-

diagram by

reduced

motion

accomplish this

to

the

from

engine piston. The indicator

cord.

any

the indicator

lever and

the market

clutch

lengthof

with this reduced

reducing motions
with

as

connected

means

the

make

part of the
the engine piston.

from

is usuallytaken

which

form

is then

spring_should

of attachment.

method

relative motion

drum, which

be reduced

indicator

be taken

may

same

some

drum

the

after the test.

and

before

be calibrated

is desired

accuracy

of

172

HEAT

ENGINES-

removing the cord connection from the reducing motion to

engine.
Fig. 83 shows a simple form of reducing motion made
hard

wood

splinesand

of

segment
for every

circle at the

pointof

Fig. 84 shows
not

Cord

on

that

It is better

segment.

that db is the

point 6,so

to

of

use

distance

same

the stroke.

reducing wheel

to disconnect

necessary

the paper

brass

the

the drum

is

has been

having

the motion

from

clutch,so that it is
the cross-head

when

replaced.

stretched should
and

be used

the indicator

on

reducing motion,

give of the cord will

lengthof

the card.

long cords
is better

to

not

the

reduce

the

Wherever

found

are

that

so

very

it

necessary,

replace the cord with

piano wire.
FIG.

84.-Reducing

112-

wheel.

Taking

an

Indicator

Card.-

oil
attaching the indicator,
the parts of the mechanism
with watch oil and the pistonwith
cylinderoil. Be sure the piston is working freelyin the cylinder.
The pistonshould drop by gravityin the cylinderwhen
the springis removed.
The pencilshould have a smooth, fine
point. Be sure there is no lost motion in the instrument.
The
reducing motion should be adjusted so that the length
of the card is from 2^ to 3 in. The higher the speed,the shorter
should be the card.
tension of the indicator drum
The
spring
Before
should be justsufficientto prevent slackness in the cord.
taking a card, try the indicator and see that it does not strike
Before

the

stops at either end

of the

the indicator

over

be turned

the indicator

so

as

to

on

warm

113. To

should
the

of the

the

be obtained

stroke,as

should

run

to

guide pulleys. Steam should

before taking the card
few moments
of the

of the

the Power

of

piston area

cord

the instrument.

up

Find

cross-section

the center

The

stroke.

a.
on

"

cylinder. The

with
The

caliperand

pistonarea

the crank

end

pistonarea is the
diameter
of the cylinder
is
the correspondingarea

Engine.

is not
the

area

The

the

same

of the

at

bojhends

pistonrod

must

be subtracted.
The
stroke

travel of the
is found

by

feet per minute for each end

multiplying the length of the stroke

pistonin

revolutions of the crank-shaft

per

minute.

of the

by

the

174

HEAT

Let ph be the

ENGINES

effective pressure

for the head

end, and pc,

for the crank end; ah, the cross-sectional area
of the piston in
square inches for the head end, and ac, for the crank end; I,the
of revolutions per
lengthof the stroke in feet; and n, the number
Then

minute.

mean

the indicated

horse-powerwill

be

IHP

(2)
The
head

total I.H.P.

of the

end and the crank

114. Indicator
the

to determine

engine is the

of the I.H.P. for the

sum

end'.

Diagrams.
settingof the
"

indicator is very
often used
valve and the distribution of steam
The

FIG.

86.

Indicator

"

card

from

non-condensing Corliss engine.

cylinder. Fig. 86 shows a typicalindicator card from a

is the atmospheric
Corliss engine running non-condensing. AB

in the

the line of absolute

line,and 00'
OY

is the line of

the crank end

the lines OY

end of the

of the

and

CD

no

vacuum,

volume

or

zero

for the head

cylinder. The

pressure

end, and O'Y' for

horizontal distance

representsthe clearance volume

cylinder. The

clearance

on

lute.
abso-

the crank

between

for the head

end is

similarly

shown.
115.

Graphical

Initial condensation

Determination
may

be

of

determined

Initial

Condensation."

graphicallyfrom

the

OF

TESTING
In

indicator card.

/ENGINES

STEAM

determiningthe

175

of steam

working in
the amount
the engine cylinder,
suppliedto the engine per stroke
is determined
by either weighing the water entering the boiler,
which passes over
into the engine,or by weighing the
steam
as
in

condensed

steam

attached

condenser

amount

to the exhaust

of the

engine.
This total
to the

quantityof steam
of steam

amount

cylinderfeed.
determine
card is

used

at

the

be added

of cushion

amount

selected,and

by

engineis then

stroke,and

per

this must

To

the

used

this is called the

the cushion

steam,

To

steam.

an

average
point after compressionhas

reduced

indicator

begun

and

it is certain that the valve is closed,the pressure is measured

and
determined.
This volume
include the volume
the volume
must
of the clearance.

FIG.

87.

From

Indicator

"

this pressure

and

card

and

saturation
curve,
condensation.

volume, by reference

showing

effect of initial

tables,the weight of the cushion

to the steam

steam

may

then

calculated,
assuming the steam to be saturated. The total
in the cylinderduring expansionis then found by adding
steam
of saturation
A curve
this cushion steam
to the cylinderfeed.
be

for this total

quantity of

diagram,and
stroke the volume

Fig. 87
card.

YR

shows

this

steam

will

curve

of steam

the total steam

enteringremained

in the

constructed
of the steam

as

on

has occurred.
an

indicator

suppliedto the

words, it representsthe volume

cylinderat

steam.

cator
the indi-

representat each pointof the

curve

represents the volume

in other

upon

initialcondensation

if no

saturation

engine per stroke,or

then be drawn

can

The

boiler pressure

curve

RS

of

if all the steam

representsthe volume

HEAT

176

of this

weight of

same

The

ENGINES
for the

steam

difference in the

volume

expansion line

and

the actual

in volume

to

condensation.

due

varying pressures

of sion.
expanthis theoretical

between

expansion line represents the loss

The

percentage of initial conC1!

densation

at the

point of cut-off would

be

77

and

at

any

other

kl

point, such
Example.

k, would

as

8"

An

"

hour.

be

12"

Steam

.,-"

engine

230

runs

and

r.p.m.

700

uses

Ibs.

ance,
Ibs.;exhaust,atmospheric;clear10 per cent.; scale of indicator spring, 60 Ibs. Find the total
weight of steam in the cylinderdurmg expansion.
Solution.
First find the cylinderfeed,or amount
of steam
supplied
by the boiler to the engine per stroke.

steam

per

100

pressure,

"

Strokes per hour

Cylinder feed

230

700

find the amount

To

uO

distance
and

cent,

-uv

equal

-f-

2 X

60

27,600

27,600.

Ibs.

.02536

of cushion steam, firstlay off from

to

10 per

of uv, since the

cent,

represents the volume

of the

Fig.87, the

u,

clearance

is 10 per

If the

length uv

cylinder.

of the card is 2.9 in.,the total length Ov is 3.2 in.

volume

The
602.4

The

in.

cu.

volume

swept through by the piston is3.1416X4X4X12

662.6

clearance
in.

cu.

Ov represents 662.6
take

Now
has

and

OX

.07187

cu.

ft.

The
.07187
The

.0836

tables

we

find that

ft. of

cu.

dry

weighs .0836 Ibs.

the

in the

steam, will then equal

cushion

.006

such

as

80

.0314 Ibs.

of saturation

volume

.0314

cylinderduringexpansion is therefore

for .0314

at that

of .0314 Ibs. would

5.47

.1718

Ibs. of steam.

Ibs. absolute

of 1 Ib. of steam

tables find the volume

The

valve

.006 Ibs.

total weight of steam

ft.

after the exhaust

curve

ft.,or

cu.

Finally plot the curve

this,take any pressure
cu.

of

in.,and the total

length of the line

ordinates of this point measured from the

34.8 Ibs. absolute,
and v
124.2 cu. in.

.0254 +

5.47

cu.

are, p
From
the steam

of .07187

cu.

in.

at 34.8 Ibs. absolute

steam

weight

The

60.2

words, each inch

207

is then

the compression

N.

as

OY

saturated

In other
3.2

point on

such
closed,

axes

-f-

volume

cu.

ft.

and

from

pressure.

then

be

297

cu.

in.

the
This

To

do

steam

equals

TESTING
the ordinates of this

Hence

STEAM

OF

ENGINES

177

pointwill be
en

in.

L33

60
297

and

This

point is

then

same

way.

curve

1.43 in.

2^7

plotted,and others are found and plottedin the

drawn through these pointswill be the saturation

curve.

116. Determination

of Steam

Consumption. When the engine

is used with a surface condenser,the steam consumptionmay
be
condensed.
It is seldom,
determined by weighing the steam
however, that this can be done, and usually it is necessary to
the amount

measure

suppliessteam
great

of feed water

to the

should

care

engineto

be

from this feed water

taken

engine,the

be measured

and

the

going to

be tested.

the boiler which

When

engine.

If all the steam

Tests of this character should be at least

hours, so

24
as

engine should be credited with the moisture

The

engineshould

load.

engine should be

run

as

may

to allow for

in the boiler.
in the steam.

gins
time before the test be-

operatedfor some

that the heat conditions

as

level of water

The

test the

does

going to other purposes should

from the total feed, the difference

length,and stillbetter
effectof varyingconditions such

so

done,

produced

that all the steam

see

in

be

this is

amount

deducted

being the enginefeed.

to

to the

goes

not go to the

10 hours

"

be uniform.

During the

nearlyas possibleat

uniform

usuallytaken every 10 or 15 minutes,

and the average horse-powershown by the cards is taken as the
horse-powerdeveloped during the test. As has already
average
been stated,to determine the number
used
of pounds of steam
by a steam engineper horse-powerper hour, the water entering
the boiler is weighed and all the water that actuallygoes to the
engine is chargedto the engine. This weight of water reduced
oped
to pounds per hour is divided by the average
horse-powerdevelby the engine;the result is the number of pounds of steam
used by the engine per horse-power per hour.
The American
Societyof Mechanical Engineershas adopted a standard method
XXIV
of
of testing
steam engines,
which will be found in Volume
their

Indicator cards

are

Proceedings.

The

number
12

of

pounds of

steam

used

by the various forms of

HEAT

178
summarized

engines are

generalfor

very

are

in the

the various
CONSUMPTION

STEAM

XIX.

TABLE

ENGINES

followingtable. These
classes of engines.
VARIOUS

OF

CLASSES

OF

results

ENGINES
Pounds

44 to 45

engine,non-condensing
Simple throttling
Simple automatic engine,non-condensing
Simple Corliss engine,non-condensing
Simple automatic engine,condensing
Simple Corliss engine,condensing
Compound automatic engine,non-condensing
Compound automatic engine,condensing
Compound Corliss engine,condensing
TripleCorliss engine,condensing
Uniflow engine,simple condensing,superheat
117. Brake

Table XIX
But

Horse-power.
"

are

based

this does not

on

All

30 to 35
26 to 28
22 to 26
22 to 24

25 to 30
18 to 20
14 to 16
12.25

11.25 to 12

of the

representthe actual useful work

88."

Prony

given in

economies

horse-power of the engines.

the indicated

FIG.

to 13

that

can

be

brake.

engine,as part of this power must be used in

overcoming the friction of the engineitself. The actual power of
the engine delivered upon
the fly-wheelis usuallymeasured
by
obtained from the

horse-power obtained
the brake is termed
the "brake," or "effective" horse-power.
the brake horse-powerusually
The brake used to determine

Prony brake

at

consists of
brake
The

an

wheel
brake

holding

or

some

adjustablestrap

which

is fastened
be

which

The

encircles the

to the crank-shaft

provided
used for keeping the rim cooled.

wheel

water

similar device.

should

with

rim

of the

interior
To

of the

engine.

flangesfor
the strap

which rests
the brake wheel is rigidly
fastened an arm
encircling
on
a
platform scales. The friction of the strap DE, Fig. 88,

TESTING
tends to carry the arm
The force tending to
The

net

force

OF
FK

STEAM

179

in the direction of rotation of the wheel.

depress the arm^-K

the scales times

on

ENGINES

is measured

the distance

AC

on

the scales.

is the moment

multipliedby the angular velocityequals the

The weight of the lever on the scales
rate of doing useful work.
either be counterbalanced, or else found by suspending the
must
A and noting the scale
lever on
a
knife-edgeverticallyover
reading. This weight plus the weight of the standard C is called
from the weight shown
the tare,and is then subtracted
the
on
the net weight due to the force of friction.
scales to determine
C must
be of such a length that when
The standard
the engine
FK
is held in a horizontal position.
is running the arm
Let w
the scales,n the revolutions
the net weight on
of
the shaft per minute, I the horizontal distance AC
in feet,or the

of

and
friction,

this

brake

arm,

and

B.H.P.

the brake

horse-power.

Then

2irlwnRHP

33000

Efficiency. The brake horse-power divided

of the engine,
by the indicated horse-power is the mechanical efficiency
and the indicated horse-power minus the brake horse-power
mechanical
is called the frictionhorse-power. The
efficiency
of an
engine is usually about 85 per cent., and in well-built
engines may be as high as 90 per cent, and over.
power,
In large engines it is not possibleto obtain the brake horsesuch an engine would
require a very elaborate brake.
as
it is customary to obtain the horse-power lost in
In such cases
friction card.
is termed
a
friction,approximately,by what
A friction card is obtained
by removing all the load from the
engine so I/hat the only load acting upon the engine is the friction
of the engine itself. An indicator card is taken from the engine
under these conditions,and the horse-power shown
by this card
118.

Mechanical

"

is called the friction

horse-power. A card

the actual friction of the

engine,as

so

taken

does not

give

the friction increases with

an

finding the friction horse-power, the

be determined
actual output of the engine may
by subtracting
the indicated
this friction horse-power from
horse-power. If
than 10 per cent, of
taken by the friction card is more
the power
the full-load capacity of the engine, the friction of the engine is
Where
considered to be excessive.
an
engine is used to drive a
be deterof the engine may
efficiency
dynamo, the mechanical

increase

of load.

After

180

HEAT

mined

from

ENGINES

the electricaloutput of the

generator,if the electrical

of the generator is known.

efficiency
119. Actual

Heat

Efficiency.The actual thermal efficiency

of
an
engineis the heat equivalent
of one horse-powerper hour divided
by the number of heat units consumed by the engineper H.P.-hour,
"

eitherindicated or brake.
Since

horse-poweris 33,000 foot-poundsper minute,then

equivalentof one horse-powerper hour is

heat

the

Let S

power
equal the steam consumption of an engine per horseper hour,q the qualityof the steam, L the latent heat,h
the heat of the liquidabove 32",and t the temperature of the
feed-water.
this temperature
(The British practiceassumes
to the exhaust,or back,
to be the temperature corresponding
would be
pressure.)Then the actual thermal efficiency

2s45
M

____

S[h+qL120.

Duty.
expressednot
"

The
as

of

economy

the number

hour, but in terms

(J-32)}'
pumping

engines is usually

of pounds of steam

per

I.H.P. per

of

"duty."
In the earlierhistory
the definitionof duty
of pumping engines,
the number of foot-poundsof work done in the pump
was
der
cylinto
per 100 Ibs. of coal burned in the boiler. The objection
this method
of determiningduty is that it includes both boiler
and engine economy.
In purchasinga pumping engine it was
necessary

to furnish the boilers also.

obviate this

To

it is better
difficulty
of foot-poundsof work obtained

number
per

to allow the contractor

1000

pounds of

steam

state at what

Duty

may

work

also be

furnished

pressure

duty

as

the

in the pump
cylinders
to the engine. The specifications

this steam

must

be furnished.

expressed as the number of foot-p'ounds

of
cylindersper 1,000,000B.T.U. consumed

done in the pump

by the engine. This is the best way
eliminates all considerations of the

working

to express

of

expressingduty, as it
steam
Engines
pressure.

under

be compared
widely different conditions may
when their duty is based on foot-pounds developedin the pump
cylinderper 1,000,000 B.T.U. furnished to the engine.
The amount
of "work
done"
is equal to the weight of water
pumped times the "head" pumped against. The total head is
made

of the pressure
shown
by the gage on the discharge
line plus that on the suction fine,
both reduced to feet,
plus the
up

HEAT

182
various

loads.

shows

curve

upper

the

enginewas runningnon-condensing,and
it was
running condensing.

when

In these

representthe

the ordinates

curves

consumption

steam

the lower

the

when

per

The

ENGINES

curve

consumption

steam

cated
the abscissae represent the indi-

horse-power per hour, and

horse-power.

Example. The area of the indicator card from the head end of an
8" X 12" double-actingsteam
engine running 227 r.p.m. is 1.34 sq. in.,
and from the crank end 1.16 sq. in. The length of both cards is 2.19
in.,and the scale of the spring used was 60 Ibs. The diameter of the
pistonrod is 1| in. A Prony brake was attached to the engine and the
is 54
103.5 Ibs. The length of the brake arm
gross weight on it was
and
the
tare 28.5 Ibs.
in.,
Find
the (a) I.H.P., (6) B.H.P., (c) F.H.P., and
(d) mechanical
efficiency.
Solution.
ordinate,of the card
(a) The average
height,or mean
is equal to the area
divided by the length,and this multiplied
by the
scale of the spring used will give the mean
effective pressure.
Hence,
"

"

Head

end

Crank

end

Head

end

Crank

end

34

0'

60

27.7 Ibs.

23.95 Ibs.

J;JJ

M.E.P.I

Area

60

"

3.1416

4 X

4)

4 X

(3.1416 X

50.26 sq. in.

(3.1416 X

Y)

indicated

horse-powerfor

end

each

/ fl

7?

equals oonnn*

Hence,
,

"

Head
H

end

27. 7 X

50. 26X227

1 X

23.95X1X48.5X227

/c-1
Crank
Total

I.H.P.

end

^3000

9.58 +

(6) Net weight

8.02

brake

on

17.6.

103.5

28.5

75 Ibs.

54

Length

of brake

arm

4.5 ft.

=
~

2V*3
/\

1"l1fi

(d) Mech.

V
/\

997

A^i

/\

7^
iu
^

33000"

I.H.P.

Eff.

/\

33000

(c) F.H.P.

4.

iTtiu

V^V

B.H.P.

l.Xl.-T.

i^'A
l/.D

17.6

14.6

-829

.75)

48.50 sq. in.

The

.75 X

3.

82.9 per

cent.

"

TESTING

STEAM

OF

ENGINES

183

Example. If the engine in the preceding problem used 35 Ibs. of

dry steam per I.H.P. per hour at 100 Ibs. pressure and exhausted it
thermal
at atmospheric pressure, find (a) the theoretical maximum
and (6) the actual thermal
of the engine (based
efficiency
efficiency,
on
I.H.P.),if the temperature of the feed water is 212" F.
thermal
is the
Solution.
(a) The theoretical maximum
efficiency
of the Carnot
cycle working in the limits given. Hence,
efficiency
theoretical efficiency
"

"

Tl

(337.9 + 460)
(212 '+ 460)
(337.9+460)

T2

Tl
797.9

-672

125^9
"
_

79779

797.9
.1575

15.75 per cent.

thermal efficiency

(6) Actual

2545
"

S{H

-(t-32)}
2545

2545
~

"35X1008.6

35(1188. 6 -(212 -32)}

2545
=

.0721

7.21 per

35300

cent.

Example.*" A 500 H.P. engine pumps

18,000,000gallonsof water
The steam
in 24 hours againsta total head of 70 Ibs. per square inch.
consumption is 15 Ibs. per I.H.P. per hour. Steam pressure, 100 Ibs.;
feed temperature, 120".
(a)What is the duty per 1000 pounds of steam?
(6)What is the duty per 1,000,000B'.T.U.?
in 24 hours

pumped

Head

(a)Weight of water
81 X 18,000,000
pumped against

Work

done in 24 hours

150,000,000X 161.7
24,255,000,000ft.-lbs.
24,255,000,000"*" 24
ft.-lbs.
1,010,625,000

Solution.

"

70 X

Work

done

per hour

Steam

Duty

used

per

hour

per 1000 Ibs. of steam

150,000,000Ibs.

2.31

500

15

161.7 ft.

7500

Ibs.

1,010,625,000-5- 7.5
134,750,000ft.-lbs.

(b)Net heat suppliedto engine per pound of steam

1100.6 B.T.U.
1188.6
32)
(120
Total heat furnished to engine by boiler
1100.6 X 7500
8,255,000B.T.U.
Duty per 1,000,000B.T.U.
1,010,625,000-s- 8.255
122,400,000ft.-lbs.
=

*A
A
One

gallon of
water

inch

weighs 8|

water

pressure

of 1 Ib. per

of mercury

equals a

Ibs.
square

inch

pressure

equals a

of .491 Ibs.

head

of 2.31 feet.

HEAT

184

ENGINES

PROBLEMS
1. An
the head

engine
end has

is 8"

an

area

12"

and

runs

of 2 sq. in. and

250

of the crank

of both

cards,3 in. ; spring,80 Ibs. Diameter

horse-power does the engine develop?
2. An
head
area

of

end

8"

12"

has

an

area

of 1.7 sq. in. and

engine

runs

250

r.p.m.

r.p.m.

of the

The

The

indicator

card

of

end, 2.5 sq. in. Length

pistonrod, 1 \ in. What
indicator

card

from

the

of 1.5 sq. in. and length of 3 in.;from the crank end an

lengthof 3 in. The scale of springis 80 Ibs. Diameter

pistonrod, 2 in. What horse-power is the engine developing?

3. A double-actingengine is 12" X 12" and runs
The area
250 r.p.m.
of the average
Scale of
indicator card is 1.5 sq. in. and the length is 3 in.
Ibs.
What
is the I.H.P. of the engine?
spring,60
4. The area
of the indicator card on the head end of an engineis 2.3 sq. in. ;
of crank end card,2 sq. in.;length of each 3 in.
Scale of spring,80 Ibs.
area
of piston rod, 3 in.
100 r.p.m.
Diameter
Engine is 18" X 24" and runs
What
is the I.H.P. of the engine?
6. The indicator card from the head end of an engine is 2.1 sq. in. in area
and 3 in. long;from the crank end the area
is 2.2 sq. in. and the length 3 in.
The cards were
taken with a 100-lb. spring. The engine is 18" X 24" and
Piston
150 r.p.m.
rod is 3 in. in diameter.
What
runs
horse-power is
Jhe engine developing?
6. An
of piston rod, 3 in.
engine is 18" X 36"; r.p.m., 100; diameter
Area of head end
of crank end
card,
card, 3 sq. in.;length,2.5 in.;area
2.8 sq. in.;length,2.5 in.;scale of spring,60 Ibs.
Find the I.H.P.
7. An
of the
The diameter
100 r.p.m.
engine is 24" X 36" and runs
pistonrod is4 in. The area of the head end card is 1.5 sq. in. and the length
3.2 in. Area of crank end card is 1.7 sq. in. and length 3.5 in.
Scale of
Ibs.
100
Find
I.H.P.
the
spring,
8. The indicator card from the head end of an engine is 2.1 sq. in. in area
and 3 in. long. From
and 3 in. long.
the crank end it is 1.8 sq. in. in area
The
card is taken
with an
80-lb. spring. The
engine, 24" X 36", runs
100 r.p.m.; piston rod, 4 in. in diameter.
What
horse-power is the engine
developing?
9. A 12" X 15" engine runs
card
of the head-end
The area
250 r.p.m.
is 1.314 sq. in.;of the crank-end
card, 1.168 sq. in.;the length of each being
2.92 in.
The cards are taken with a 50-lb. spring. Diameter
of pistonrod,
2 in.
The engine is fitted up with a Prony brake
with an arm
4 ft. 9 in.
long. The tare of the brake is 25 Ibs. and the gross weight on it, 178 Ib.
Find the I.H.P.;B.H.P.; F.H.P.; and the mechanical
efficiency.
10. A 12" X 15" engine runs
The area
of the head-end card
240 r.p.m.
is 1.341 sq. in.;of the crank-end card, 1.49 sq. in.;the length of each being
2.98 in.
The cards are taken with a 50-lb. spring. Diameter
of piston rod,
2 in.
The engine is fitted with a Prony brake
ft. 9 in. long.
4
arm
having an
Find
The tare of the brake is 23 Ibs. and the gross weight on it,213 Ibs.
the I.H.P.;B.H.P.; F.H.P.; and the mechanical
efficiency.
11. An
card is
8" X 12" engine runs
Area
220
of head-end
r.p.m.
p
2.1 sq. in.;of the crank-end
in.
each
of
2.91
2.04
the
card,
being
length
sq. in.;
The cards are
taken with a 40-lb. spring. Diameter
of piston rod, 1.5 in.

TESTING

engine is fitted

The

with

OF

STEAM

ENGINES

185

brake

54 in. long. The tare

having an arm
Ibs. and the gross weight on it,100.25 Ibs.
of the brake
Find the
of
the
I.H.P.;B.H.P.; F.H.P.; and the mechanical
efficiency
engine.
12. An 8" X 12" engine runs
Area of head-end
221 r.p.m.
card, 2.32
of
crank-end
the
of
2.34
the
each
card,
length
being 2.84 in.
sq. in.;
sq. in.;
The cards are
taken with a 40-lb. spring. Diameter
of piston rod, 1.5 in.
The engine is fitted with a Prony brake having an arm
54 in. long. The tare
of the brake is 20.25 Ibs. and the gross weight on it,120,25 Ibs.
Find the
and
mechanical
I.H.P.;B.H.P.; F.H.P.;
efficiency.
13. An engine uses
14 Ibs. of steam
Initial steam
per I.H.P. per hour.
feed
125"
125
F.
What
is
the actual and
Ibs.;
temperature,
pressure,
theoretical thermal
of the engine?
efficiency
An
Ibs.
14.
of steam
Steam pressure,
engine uses 25
per I.H.P. per hour.
Find
100 Ibs.;feed temperature, 200" F.
the actual and the theoretical
of the engine.
thermal
efficiency
16. An engine uses
30 Ibs. of steam
Steam pressure,
per I.H.P. per hour.
feed temperature, 125" F.
Find the actual and theoretical thermal
120 Ibs.;
of
the
engine.
efficiency
16. An engine uses
35 Ibs. of steam
Initial steam
per I.H.P. per hour.
feed
100
200"
F.
Find
actual
and theoretthe
ical
Ibs.;
temperature,
pressure,
thermal
of the engine.
efficiency
17. An engine uses
Steam
24 Ibs. of steam
per I.H.P. per hour.
pressure,
100 Ibs.;feed temperature, 125" F.
What
is the actual and theoretical
thermal
efficiency?
18. Given a 500 k.w. generatingset;efficiency
of the engine and generator,
Steam
85 per cent.
feed temperature, 180".
150 Ibs.;
The engine
pressure,
I.H.P.
20 Ibs. of steam
hour.
from
and
at 212"
uses
Evaporation
per
per
is 10 Ibs. of water
Dry coal contains 13,000 B.T.U.
per pound of dry coal.
What
is
heat
the
of
efficiency the plant?
per pound.
19. A 500 I.H.P. engine is direct connected
to a generator. Efficiency
of engine and generator is 85 per cent.
Engine uses 10,000 Ibs. of steam per
Steam
hour.
150 Ibs. ; feed temperature, 180".
Evaporation from
pressure,
and at 212" per pound of dry coal is 10 Ibs.
contains
coal
13,000 B.T.U.
Dry
What
is the heat efficiency
of this plant?
per pound.
20. A pumping engine pumps
15,000,000 gal.of water per day (24 hours)
againsta head of 70 Ibs. per square inch. It uses 6000 Ibs. of steam per hour.
Steam
What
is the duty per
125 Ibs.;feed temperature, 150" F.
pressure,
a

Prony

is 29.25

million

B.T.U.?

21. A

steam

in twenty-four
15,000,000 gal.of water
pumping engine pumps
head
H.P. with a
of
Ibs.
inch.
It
450
65
a
against
develops
per square
(a) What' is the duty per
consumption of 13 Ibs. per I.H.P. per hour,
Ibs. of steam?
is the mechanical
(6) What
efficiency? (c) If the
is 125 Ibs. and
is the
the feed temperature
130", what
pressure

duty

per

hours
steam
1000

22. An

1,000,000 B.T.U.?

engine develops 450

I.H.P.

and

uses

6300

Ibs. of steam

It pumps
600-,000gallons of water an hour against a head
What
is the mechanical
of the engine and pump?
efficiency

duty
and

per

1000

Ibs. of steam?

the feed temperature

is

(c) If the initial steam

130",what is its duty per

per

hour.

of 70 Ibs.

(6) What

pressure

million

is 125
heat

(a)
is its
Ibs.

units?

186

HEAT

23.

20,000,000

Ibs.

has

Ibs.

and

feed

gallon

duty

of

ENGINES

pumping

engine

120,000,000

pumping

foot-pounds.
180",

temperature

how

If

against
the

pounds

many

of

head

steam

of

pressure

will

steam

70

is

180

used

be

hour?

per

24.

Ibs.

40,000,000

has

Ibs.
for

feed

the

of

what

If

boiler

The

against
the

head

steam

is

pressure

will

horse-power

70

of

180

required

be

duty

of

120"
of

boiler

mechanical

the

coal

hundred

F.;

120,000,000

toot-

absolute;

Ibs.

pumped

pressure

will

horse-power

of

per

and

the

per

year,

pressure

of

be

haust
ex-

against,
required

to

is

pump

B.T.U.
if

the

days

(c)
per

plant
per

to

90

per

If

the

pound
operates
year?

Ibs.

per

what

efficiency
costs

twenty-four

will

$3

per

(6)
be
is

the
70

ton,
hours

(a)

feet,

10

boiler

of

center

plant?

cent.,

and

"inch;

square

gage,

the

feed

absolute;

between

suction

operate

pounds.
foot-

160,000,000

Ibs.

distance
of

required

is
2

60

gage,

mercury;

hour?

13,000

sixty-five

be

engine
exhaust,

attachment

will

I.H.P.

cost

in.

of

pumping

absolute;

of

20

point

horse-power

contains

Ibs.

reading

gage,

and

per

coal

of
150

pressure,

boiler

gallon

180

F.;

efficiency

consumption

duty

120"

What

gage.

12,000,000

suction

gage

What

has

Steam

temperature,

pressure,

temperature,

pressure

engine

units.

pump?

Steam

reading

pumping

feed

inch

square

the

26.

three

pumping

foot-pounds.

heat

absolute;

per

operate

gallon

1,000,000

Ibs.

Ibs.

the

engine

180",

temperature

per

be

160,000,000

40,000,000

pounds

and

pumping

plant?

26.

70

duty

and

gallon

If
steam

cent,

per

what

the

day

will
for

CHAPTER

XI

GEARS

VALVE

122.
The

AN

essential

function

of the

the

proper

the

cylinder

the

atmosphere

engine
In

time

the

to

and

the

condenser.

largely

In the
is

to

common

the

in

also

use

are

shown,
the
steam

so

that

controls

space

has

D-slide

called

the

space

the

to

open

either

escape

of

distribution

proper

to

of the

action

proper

is admitted

from
D

is open

just ceased

then

it admits
the

side of the

one

it is admitted
Most

other.

steam

90."

steam

to

valve

one

either

D-slide

used,

of the

end

valve.

Fig. 90

shows

longitudinal cross-section.
the

is

exhaust.

is filled with
to

the

to

engines, only

Valves."
its

to

double-acting.

of steam

FIG.

Plain

steam

double-acting engine

side and

arranged

so

stroke

return

The

upon

one

simpler forms

cylinder and

valve,

let the

single-acting
engine, steam

engines in

the

cylinder at

the

to

steam

valve.

cylinder.

alternately,first

123.

on

exhaust

very

piston only, while

which

stroke, and

to

or

admit

is the

engine

steam

every

is to

valve

in the

depends
in the

steam

part of

live steam

exhaust.

flowing from
187

In

the space

under
the

plain

D-slide

In the

figure

pressure,

and

position shown,

D, through the

steam

188

HEAT

ENGINES

port A, into the cylinder. On

the other side of the

is exhaustingthrough the steam

The

valve

is

moving

port B into the exhaust

to the left and

the

The
point of cut-off has justbeen reached.
expand in the cylinderuntil the valve has moved

exhaust

will

steam

far

port C, when

exhaust

now

enough

port A, placingit in communication

uncover

C.

space

piston to the right,and

the

the left to

piston,steam

with

to

the

will

begin. Compression in the

begin when the valve has moved

rightend of the cylinder will

far enough to the left to cover
port

B.

When

it has moved

still

further to the left,

and steam
will
port B will again be uncovered
be admitted to the rightend of the cylinder,
drivingthe piston
toward
proper

the left.

if given a
plainD-slide valve will,therefore,
reciprocating
motion, control the admission and the exhaust
of the steam
that
the
will
be given a reciprocating
so
piston

motion.
124.

sider
Lap, Lead, Angular Advance, and Eccentricity. Convalve such as is shown
This valve is conin Fig. 91.
"

FIG. 91.

structed
valve

so

"

Simple valve

without

that it

is moved

to

just covers
the right,
or

the steam

the

the

end

stroke

and

to

of the

ports A

"

Indicator
gram
diaZeuner
valve shown

and

B.

If the

to the

left,steam will be admitted

the other, and exhaust
from the

cylinder at one end or

A valve constructed
opposite end.

to

FIG. 92.
and
card
from
in Fig.91.

lap.

as

shown

will admit

steam

and

permit the exhaust to continue

to th" end
of the stroke at the opposite side of the piston.
There would
then be no expansion of the steam
the working
on
no

stroke

compression of

steam

on

the

exhaust

stroke.

190

HEAT

cylinderat
valve
return

ENGINES

the

beginning of each stroke,it is necessary for the

to open justbefore the piston reaches the end of the previous
stroke,thus causing pre-admission. This opening before

the end of the stroke is called the lead.

Lead

is the amount

the end

the steam

port is

when

open

the

piston is

at

of its stroke.

If the valve

eccentric would
of the crank.
is necessary
greater than

to be

were

be

to

the eccentric

set

90"

by

shown

as

Fig. 91,

of the

crank

sufficient to "move

amount

an

ahead

equal to the lap and the lead.

distance

in

the

of the position
exactly90" in advance
the valve having both lap and lead,it

set

with

But

constructed

This

an

the

angle
valve

angle is called the

angle of advance.
The angle of advance is the anglewhich the perpendicularto the
line of motion of the pistonmakes with the center line of the eccentric
when the engine is on the dead center;or it is the anglebetween the
center lines

of the

eccentric and

the crank

minus

Eccentricityis the distance between the

the center of the eccentric.
The

of the eccentric
eccentricity.

throw

twice the

125. Relative

study the

of the

FIG.

94.

"

equalto

of Valve

Position

action

is

valve,it is

Relative

positionof

90".

center

the travel

and

and

the

shaft and

or
of the valve,

Piston.

necessary

valve

of

In

"

to know

order

to

to

its exact

piston.

positionfor each positionof the piston. The valve is driven by

eccentric (seeparagraph 108),which is reallya crank in which
an

crank-pinis enlargeduntil it includes the shaft. As the size

of the crank-pinhas nothing to do with the motion
produced in
the

the rod attached

to

distance

between

the shaft center

produce

the

the

same

it,any

motion.

two

In

cranks
and
the

having the
the

same

arm,

or

crank-pincenter, will

eccentric

the

arm

eccentricity. As the eccentric is equivalentto

is called

crank, our

VALVE

GEARS

191

problem consists in findingthe simultaneous positionsof two

shaft.
pieces,driven by two cranks upon the same
reciprocating
In Fig. 94 let OC represent any positionof the crank, OD
the
center line of the eccentric,
the angle between the two, and BC
a

connectingrod. Drawing the arc CI with B as a center, we

find that the pistonhas moved
El from its extreme
a distance
positionat the left,or its distance from its mid-position is 01.
Similarly,by dropping a perpendicular from D upon EH, the
valve is found to be at the distance UG from its extreme
right
OU
from
its mid-position.
distance
or
position,
To be absolutelycorrect an arc should be struck through D
with a radius equal to the length of the eccentric rod and with
the

the center

the line

on

point U found
than

rather

However,

OB

or

the foot of the

as

extended

the intersection of this

as

the

as

OB,

ratio

to the

left,and

the

with

the line

EH,

arc

perpendicular dropped from

D.

of the

the

length of

the eccentric

error

caused

by using the

length of the eccentric rod to

is so great, the
arm, or eccentricity,
perpendicularinstead of the arc is

negligible.
126.

Valve

Diagrams.

"

above

The

method,

although

the

of

attackingthe problem, is inconvenient in

valve diagrams
as
practice,and simpler constructions known
used.
Of the many
forms of valve diagrams
are
commonly
which have been designed,the one
due to Zeuner is perhaps the
best known, and will,
be used in the present discussion.
therefore,
127. Zeuner
Diagram." Let XY, Fig. 95, represent the stroke
of the pistonand DE the travel of the valve.
Let OA represent
to be to
positionof the crank, the cylinderbeing assumed
any
the left of the figure;
OB, the correspondingpositionof the eccentric;
and a the anglebetween the crank and the eccentric.
Then
the angle BOJ, or d, is the angle of advance
(a
-90").
Then
OC repreDrop a perpendicularfrom B to the line DE.
sents
the displacement of the valve from the mid-positionwhen
most

apparent

way

"

the
FOG

crank

is in the

equalsthe

position OA.

angle of
FOA

But

Draw

advance, 5
90"
90"
180"
180"

DO A
B
0
6

Therefore FOA

OF
a

so

90").

FOG

(a

90")

a.

that

BOE.
BOE.

the

Then

angle

HEAT

192
As

is

Draw

from

equal and OH

are

of the valve
to

from

FHO

OA,

the locus of the

may

its

will be

will

the

Then

equal OC,

circledescribed

the

or

mid-position. Since
a right angle for any

will be

pointH

of 6.

triangles
ment
displace-

is dicular
perpenvalue of 0, and
FH

OF

on

as

eter.
diam-

positionof the crank,

correspondingdisplacementof the valve from its mid-position
be found by measuring the lengthintercepted
by the circle
Therefore, as

the

OA.

perpendicularto

BOG

and

FOR

constant, this relation will hold for all values

FH

ENGINES

Thus

FHO.

OA

represents any

valve is at its mid-position

; at
the valve

KO, the interceptis zero and the

PO the interceptis a maximum
and

the crank at

with

is at its extreme

intercept is again

the valve

and

zero

FIG. 95.

positiontoward

"

Elementary

position. Beyond this point the

and it is necessary
to draw
circle,
which

we

obtain

has

the

returned

Zeuner

diagram.

crank

does

second

the location of the valve

to

the

its mid-

intersect

not

circle

when

LO

right;at

on

the
from

OMN,

the left side

of its

and OMN
known
as
are
mid-position. The circles FHO
valve circles. It is important to note that in the arrangement
which we
have selected (clockwise
rotation with the cylinderat
the left of the shaft)the interceptson the crank line made
by the
upper

valve

toward

the

right,while those
displacementstoward

indicate
128.

circle represent the

Effect of

valve

will have

equal

to

the

Lap.

"

to

be

In

moved

made

displacements of the

by

the

valve

valve

circle

is evident

the

lower

the left.

valve
from

lap before admission

having lap,it

mid-position a distance
begins,and on returning to
its

GEARS

VALVE

its mid-positionwill close the steam

that

port when

before the end of the stroke and, with

port, the time

small

lap and

reduced

to

its distance from

effect of the

positionis equal to the lap. The

off the steam

193

of admission

lap is to close
a

of steam

very

large

might be

zero.

by which the port is open at any instant is called

placement
the port opening,and for the valve in Fig. 91 is equal to the disThe

amount

Since the addition

its mid-posifoon.

of the valve from

the valve a distance equal to

lap makes it necessary to move
the lap before any port opening is obtained,the port opening is
found by subtracting
the lap from the displacementof the valve.
This is most conveniently
done by drawing the circular arc DBW,
for any
Fig. 96, with a radius equal to the steam lap. Then
A further
crank position,
as OE, the opening of the port is BC.
of

FIG.

crank

"

Zeuner

of this

examination
the

96.

at

diagram, showing

diagram shows

OF, and

ends

since admission
practicable

at
must

effect of steam

that

OG.
occur

admission

lap.

begins with

arrangement is not
before the pistonbegins

This

be obtained
This result may
stroke,by the amount
in a counter-clockwise
by revolving the circle DCWO
directionabout 0 as a center until D, the point of intersection
zontal
falls below the horiof the valve circle with the steam
lap circle,
in Fig. 97.
axis OL as shown
tricity
In rotating the valve circle to its new
position,the eccenremains the same, but the angular positionof the eccentric
what
To see
relative to the crank has been altered.
change
of the lead.

its

engine correspondsto a rotation of the valve circle

that FOG, Fig.97, equals
E, we have only to remember

in the actual
center

to
13

HEAT

194

ENGINES

the

90". Consequently, any increase

angular advance, or a
in the angle FOG
corresponds to an equal increase in the angle
"

between

the

figureshows
advance
that

In

that with

increases

for

reduces

and

crank

any

the

eccentric.

the

lead

and

the lead and

Fig. 97

the

causes

valve

in the

positionOJ.

at the

time

cut-off to

is in its

This

of admission

occur

if there

therefore
were

no

FIG.

the crank
the

crank

These

are

97.

diagram showing

positionat cut-off would

be 01.

positionsat admission and

found by drawing lines from

points of intersection of the valve

AB

sooner.

the crank

is

be the crank

position
lap. Similarly

steam

Zeuner

"

earlier.

mid-positionwhen

would

of the

angular
Also,
increase in the steam
lap
cut-off

makes
an

examination

increase in the

given lap, an

given angle of advance

An

effect of

As there is steam

cut-off
0

lap.

are

OH

through D

circle and

steam

and

lap,
OC.

W, the
lap circle.

and

is the lead.
If the valve

had

lap,the port would begin to open

to exhaust
when
the crank is in the position01, reaching its
maximum
opening at OK and finallyclosingagain at OJ, when
the valve resumes
its mid-position. Beyond OJ, the continued
of the crank compresses
the steam
movement
remaining in the
no

exhaust

VALVE
left-hand

of the

end

cylinderuntil

of live steam
129. Exhaust

GEARS
OH

195
is

reached, when

the admission

begins.
The

valve

shown

in

Fig. 93 is extended
side so as to give it exhaust
the exhaust
lap. The effect of
on
the exhaust valve to
this is similar to the steam
lap and causes
close before the end of the exhaust
stroke,giving the engine
compressionat the end of the exhaust stroke of the engine. On
the valve diagram the exhaust
lap is treated in the same
way
radius
In
with
OR
the
the
steam
to
a
lap.
Fig. 97,
as
equal
is drawn, and through the points
exhaust lap, the lap circle RT
T and R, are
this circle cuts the valve circle,
where
drawn
as
the lines 01' and OJ', giving the position of the crank at the
time the port is opened to exhaust, called the point of release,
and at the time the port is closed,called the point of compression.
indicator
card
The
distribution
resulting from the steam
below
brought about by the valve analyzed in Fig. 97 is shown
the valve diagram and is obtained as follows:
crank
Take
position, as for example, OC, the cut-off
any
the arc
CV
with the length of the connecting
position. Draw
rod

as

Lap.

"

and

radius

with

represents the distance

the center
which

actual

indicator

card

the line OL.

events

are

found

in

similar way.

for the

engine we
are
considering
rounded
off,due to wire drawing.
cards, the point of cut-off is the

probably have its corners

In examining actual indicator

point of contraflecture of the curve.

far we
have
130. Crank
End
Thus
Diagram.
but
investigationsto the head end of the cylinder,

confined

"

to
must

see

be admitted
has been

place in both

ends

it is

as

of the

our

sary
neces-

cylinder,we

diagrams for the crank end also.

that by moving the valve to the left,steam
will

be able to draw

Fig. 93 shows

end

takes

LV

from
the
piston has moved
be projected
cut-off,and V may
The
other points of the diagram

would

what

Then

the

beginning of its stroke up to

downward, thus locating N.
corresponding to the different
The

on

the valve

to the crank

moved

end

distance

of the

cylinderas

equal to

the steam

soon

lap

as
on

the valve
the

right

of the valve.

Fig. 98 shows the valve diagram for both the head and crank
ends of the engine. In this figure,LZ and Z'L' represent both
the stroke of the piston and, to a different scale,the travel of the
placement
As the lower circle of the crank diagram shows the disvalve.
the diagram for the admission stroke on
to the left,

HEAT

196
the

crank

be

must

ENGINES

drawn

below

diagram for the exhaust

valve

line O'L'.

the
end

must

be

In

Fig.

Similarlythe

drawn

above

the

lead

has

line O'L'.
131.
been

Effect

taken

of

the

Connecting Rod."

same

for both

the head

and

98

the

the crank

end.

It is

in the

figurethat the cut-off at the two ends of the

of a circle,
In drawing the arcs
CQ
cylinderis not the same.
and C'Q'',to projectthe positionsof the piston at the time of
easilyseen

Y"

FIG.

98.

"

Zeuwer diagrams showing effect of connectingrod.

cut-off upon

the

in which

piston is moving, due

L'Z', it will be noticed that the

points Q and Q' fall on the oppositesides of the feet of the perpendiculars
in the direction
from the points C and C', measured
the
rod.
two

of the

on

and

angularity of the
This difference in the angularity of the rod on

sides of the

less than

line LZ

the

cylindermakes
head

end.

it is necessary
cut-offs,

In

to the

the

cut-off

order

to have

to
a

on

correct

smaller

necting
con-

the

the

crank

this

inequality

lap

on

end

the crank

HEAT

198
rod has been

ENGINES

neglected.) Draw

OA, OC and OP representing

respectivelythe crank positions at admission, cut-off
and
with the line EOT.
compression. Bisect the angle AOC
Then
the angle EOS
Draw
the
equals the angle of advance.
valve circles EJO
secting
and TLO
OE
and OT
as
diameters, interon
the lines OA

the lines

U, OC at J, and OP at L. Then
OH
equals OU equals the steam lap, and OL equals the exhaust
lap. With 0 as a center and the radius OH draw the steam lap
circle HVJ
Then
UV
will equal
the line OM
at V.
intersecting
the lead.

With

at

H, OM

at

center

and

as

the radius OL

the exhaust

draw

the
Draw
the valve circle TLO
at K.
lap circle intersecting
line OKR
from
0 through K.
This line represents the crank
to
R drop the perpendicularRG
position at release. From
on
the line MN
the angularityof the connectingrod).
(neglecting
Then

MG

equals the distance the pistonhas travelled

at the time

of release.
133.
D-slide

Piston

Valves

tions, has

number

An

of the valve

100.

Balanced

Valves.

of inherent

is

exposed
pressed against its seat
large frictional resistance

faults which

plain

The

certain

concli-

it offers when

of
to

Fig. 90

used

shows

live steam, with

with
must

preclude its

these is the amount

among

which

examination

"

Riding cut-off,
piston valve.

"

Prominent

cases.

to movement
steam.

Other

valve, while entirelysatisfactoryunder

FIG.

in many

and

with

that

be

overcome

of resistance

high-pressure

the

entire back

the result that

great force and

in

use

in consequence

moving it.

it is
a

VALVE

GEARS

199

By using a piston valve,examples of which are shown in Figs.

is overcome,
monly
100, 101, and 102, this difficulty
and, as it is comexpressed, the valve is perfectly balanced," since the
its entire circumthe valve acts radiallyaround
ference.
pressure
upon
In the plain D-slide valve, leakage of steam
past the
"

FIG.

valve
seat

is

101.

"

Compound

engine with pistonValve.

prevented by the fact that it is held tightlyagainstits

by the

steam

is present, and

in

pressure.

In the

piston valve

no

such

force

stationaryengines it is customary to rely upon

fit of the valve for tightness. This makes
accurate
it necesan
sary
to replace the valve when
has made
the leakage
the wear
excessive.
In marine practice,
tightnessis obtained by the use

HEAT

200

ENGINES

springrings similar to those used on a piston. So far as the

valve diagram is concerned,the pistonvalve is the exact equivalent
consider it formed
of the plain D-valve, since we may
by
the flat working surface of the plain D-valve
into a cylinrolling
drical
form.
The
valve
is
used
marine
in
piston
extensively
of

FIG.

102.

"

Simple engine with piston valve.

engines,compound locomotives,and
high-speedstationaryengines.

also in

number

of

types of

The

engine shown in Fig. 101 is a vertical compound engine

having piston valves on both low and high pressure cylinders.
The

sectional view

detail in the upper

of the

piston is
high-pressure

right-hand corner

of the

shown

figure. The

more

in

piston

VALVE
valve
The

the

on

valves

are

engine is a shaft
high-pressurevalve.

103.

"

which

governor

ported valve

Double

controls

with

the action

of the

plate.

cover

simple engine with similar valve.

shown
The valve often used in high-speed engines is the one
the
the left in Fig. 103.
To the rightin Fig. 103 is shown
Fig. 102 shows

on

201

high-pressurecylinder is a double-ported valve.

driven by a simple eccentric.
The governor
in

this

FIG.

GEARS

cover

plate. This

FIG.

placed

over

the

cover

104.

"

valve.

plate is made

Steam

top of the valve, making it

Fig. 104 shows

and

its

cover

the valve

plate are

chest showing

This
a

prevents
balanced

seat

it is

scrapingfit when

valve

any

seat.

steam

pressure

on

valve.

in the steam

fitted to this seat.

chest.
The

whole

The

valve

arrange-

ENGINES

HEAT

202

in cross-section in

is shown

ment
at the

of the

ends

Fig. 55.

chest, and

steam

the

The

steam

ports

are

exhaust

port between

noticed

that

them.
It will be
Double-ported Valves.
diagrams so far discussed in this text have

134.

"

in the valve

introduced
earlier

an

so

short

changing from

in

gear

off
cut-

late cut-off to

that the
so
diagram is constructed
f stroke,the results obtained will show

cut-off in the D-slide valve

for

valve

cylinderis at

cut-off in the
that

If

one.

drawn

It is important to notice the difference

half stroke.

later than

been

all valve

is

impossibility.
practical

eccentricityand steam lap for J cut-off are entirely

narily
large for practicaluse, although a J cut-off is not extraordiearly,but is the working cut-off used in the majority of
The

too

FIG.

D-valve
must

In

is

to

is shown

early cut-off.

in the

past the
a

be made

begun and

valve

evident

that

simple

high-speed engine valve.

Modern

"

quite

is not at all suitable for

Fig. 105
for

105.

is thus

It

high-speed engines.

tion
modificaearlycut-offs and some
form.
obtain a satisfactory
able
a modern
high-speedengine valve suit-

right end of the valve, admission

is entering the port past the end of the

At

the steam

the

ordinarymanner.

upper

corner

same

is taking place. This

port in the valve and

directlypast

At the

enters

the

time
steam

flow of steam

passes

cylinderwith the steam

coming

advantage of this arrangement

lies in the fact that for any given movement
of the valve,
the port opening is twice as large as for the simple D-valve,
since we
have two ports instead of one.
In other words, for a
double-portedvalve with a given cut-off,port opening,and lead,
the lower

corner.

The

through

VALVE

eccentricityand

the

plainD-slide
Another

valve

extends
the

of the

and

friction.

side of the valve

in its

place by

and

present in the steam

steam

rests

is the pressure

and

ducing
consequently replate extends around

pressure

the valve

upon

In

chest.

plate
of the valve, thus relieving

pressure,

The

large as for

as

distribution.

of this valve

spring at the back

flat

one-half

steam

same

the entire back

over

203

lap are

giving the

action

wear

the

the steam

important feature

A, which
it from

GEARS

of

case

It is held

seat.

when

there

is

steam

no

large quantity of

water

being present in the cylinder during compression, the spring

allows the pressure
plate and the valve to lift from its seat, thus
permitting the water to escape instead of burstingthe cylinder
as

it would

to

otherwise

tight condition

when

plate which

pressure

the clearance
The

This

do.

between

against the valve

the valve

be restored

may

by planing off the faces of the

worn

bear

of valve

form

and

seat, thus

reducing

plate.

pressure

usually fitted in engines having this type of

valve controls the speed by alternatingthe point of cut-off as the
load
the

governor

changes.

This

variation

positionof the eccentric

First.

of three

one

eccentric

revolving
eccentricityconstant

the

keeping

in

center

the

By

"

in cut-off is effected

around

while

by changing

ways.

the

varying

shaft, thus
the

angle of

advance.
Second.

By

"

moving

the

eccentric in

straight line

at

to the

and
crank, thus alteringboth the eccentricity
angle of advance, but keeping the lead constant.

angles

Third.

By moving the eccentric

"

of which

center

center, and
this

case

Of

these

because

very

the

varied,but

is

not

in

the

and

in the

same

forms, the

it is the most

as

way

third

the

eccentricityare

in the second
is the

the

circular arc, the

oppositeside of the arc from the

frequently directly opposite the crank.

on

angle of advance

three

center

right

shaft
In
both

type.

commonest,

largely

By drawing a series of valve

the various positionsof the eccentric

convenient.

diagrams corresponding

to

changes produced in the four events of the steam

from
the eccentric swung
With
distribution are easily seen.
a
point opposite the crank, the diagrams show that as the cut-off
is shortened,the lead is reduced, while the points of release and
compression are made earlier. For cut-off as early as one-fourth
stroke,the points of release and compression are very much too
center, the

204

HEAT

ENGINES

earlyfor low-speedengines,but not objectionably

so for the highspeed
engines in which this valve gear is used.
135. Meyer
In an
Riding Cut-off.
engine having but one
valve,any change in the positionof the valve affects all the operations
of the valve.
A change in the angular advance
not only
changes the steam lead,but also the exhaust lead as well as the
"

FIG.

cut-off.

In the

106.

Meyer

"

ridingcut-off

valve.

the release and

compression depend
each other, and one
be changed without
cannot
changing
upon
the other.
In order to regulate the speed of the engineby the
same

it is desirable
cut-off,

without

changing

This
cut-off.

FIG.

be

may

107.

The

"

any

done

way

to have

some

of

means

changing the

other

operationof the valve.

by having a separate valve controllingthe

Meyer valve is an example of how this

Cross-section

cut-off

of

Buckeye

valve

gear

for

be done.

may

tandem

compound

engine.
Such
to

the

valve is shown

D-slide

body

these

ports.

fastened
hand

valve,except that the

of the valve
The

thread,and

and

steam

the steam

cut-off valve

"togetherby

The

in Fig. 106.

rod

main

valve is very

ports,A A', pass through

enters

the

consists of two

threaded

similar

cylinderthrough
blocks
with

that

are

left-

a
through one
through the other with a right-hand thread.
a

206

HEAT

extend
where
arms.

motion

ENGINES

to the outside of the cylinder,

through stuffing-boxes
called valve
to short cranks
they are rigidlyconnected
As shown
in Fig. 109, these valve arms
all derive their
from the wrist plate,which
is in turn oscillated by the

eccentric rod.

Valve

of the
permanently connect the arms
exhaust valves to the wrist plate,but for the steam valves a trip
at the point of
disengages the valve arm
gear is provided,which
cut-off and
sudden

allows

rods

the valve

closure of the valve

piston.

As

the valve

to close with

is due to its connection

to the

dash-pot
the dash-pot piston is raised,producing

opens,

partialvacuum

This

rapid motion.

in its

cylinder,so
To

that

soon

as

as

the

with

the

Governor-

Inlet
Valve

FIG.

trip gear

109.

Corliss engine,showing arrangement

"

releases the

valve

wrist

plate,atmospheric

down

and

In
The

of the
The

arm

111

is raised
cam

to oscillate about

the wrist

forces

pressure

end

the

tripgear for the

is keyed to the valve

arm

knock-off

one

its connection
the

dash-pot piston

steam

valve is shown.

closes the valve.

Figs.110 and
steam

from

arm

of valves.

or

lever and
the valve

the bell-crank

stem

plate oscillates back

about

the outer

as

lowered, the valve is turned

of the bell-crank

rocking motion

stem, and,

as

an

axis.

lever with
and

the valve

lever
The

its seat.

on

both

are

end

valve

rod

free
nects
con-

the wrist

plate,and as
forth,the bell-crank is given

stem.

The

other

arm

of the

GEARS

VALVE

207

hook, the inner leg of which is

lever by a spring.
kept in close contact with the knock-off cam
hook has engaged with
shown in Fig. 110 the steam
In the position
the outer end of the steam
on
a block
arm, and, as the valve rod
hook is raised pulling up with it
the steam
is moved
to the left,
and turning the valve on its seat,
the outer end of the steam
arm
bell-crank

lever carries

steam

about
the bell-crank lever has been turned
opening it. When
its axis until the point is reached where the inner leg of the steam
hook strikes the knock-off cam, the outer leg will be forced to the

Governor

Knock-

off Rod

Knock-

off Cam

Lever

Double

Arm

Bell-crank

FIG.

110.

"

Line

diagram

of Corliss

which
arm
right releasingthe steam
downward
by the dash-pot rod which
sudden

of the steam

movement

sharp cut-off.

The

governor

arm

or

Lever

tripmechanism.

will

suddenly be pulled

is attached

closes the valve

controls

the

to

it.

and

This

givesa

positionof the knock-

hook
the steam
thus determining the point at which
off cam,
and cut-off takes place. A safety cam
releases the valve arm

breaks, the dropping

in a counterclockwise
of the governor
safety cam
so
early that the
direction,causing cut-off to occur
engine will stop.

is provided so that in

the governor
balls will rotate the
case

belt

HEAT

208

analysisof

An

ENGINES

the motion

of

properlydesigned Corliss

valve

important points:

reveals two

nearly its greatest velocity

the edge of the port.
the edge of the valve crosses
when
That
Second.
during the period when the valve is closed its
motion
is very slight.
the valve is moving at

That

First.
"

"

first of these

The
and

makes

the

is the

than

FIG.

the friction and

seat

by

with

111.

"

the
card

simple slide valves.

Corliss

the wear,

the full steam

reduces

of the indicator

corners

case

features

tripmechanism

more

The

for steam

since the valve

pressure

wire-drawing effect

is

sharply defined
second

reduces

valve.

pressedagainst its

during the largepart

of the

period

off
port is closed. The use of the tripgear makes the cutindependent of all the other events, and consequentlythe lead
for all
the same
and points of compression and release remain

when

loads.
steam

the

With

the Corliss valve

gear

the combination

of excellent

mum
distribution,
slightleakage and wire drawing,with a miniof clearance,is obtained,resultingin a high degree
amount

of economy.

VALVE
A

complete Corliss engine

GEARS

209

direct-connected

to

an

electric

This cut shows the rods pass

generator is shown in Fig. 112.
These
to the valve motion.
engines are
ing from the governor
always side-crank engines,having only one bearing on the engine
from the crank is supported
The end of the shaft away
frame.
by a bearing separate from the engine frame, often called the
this bearing is on the right side,
outboard"
bearing. When
the engine is said
lookingfrom the cylindertoward the fly-wheel,
the left side,to be "left-hand."
to be "right-hand;" when
on
"

FIG.

137.

112.

"

Corliss

engine and

alternatingcurrent

In
Changing the Direction of Rotation.
valve diagrams, the cylinderhas been taken

the shaft and

"

rotation

in

clockwise

generator.

all the

ceding
pre-

at the left of

direction has been

assumed.

engines rotatingin this direction,or in other words

taking steam in the head end of the cylinder while the crank
half of its path, are said to "run over."
passes through the upper
the
To produce rotation in the opposite direction,or to make
engine "run under," it is only necessary to lay off the angle a in
That is,to set the eccenthe oppositedirection from the crank.
tric
in
clockwise
at an angle of 90" + 5 from the crank, measured
a counterdirection.
By constructing the corresponding valve
percentage
diagram, all the events will take place at the same
Horizontal

14

HEAT

210
of stroke

ENGINES

before,and nothing is changed except

as

the direction

of rotation.

engines are requiredwhich can be reversed,

in either direction,at the will of the operator.
to run
made
or
By arrangingthe eccentric so that it could be revolved through
reversible.
an
angle of 180"
25, the engine would be made
This arrangement has actuallybeen used,though it is now
tically
pracof this construction, mechanisms
obsolete. Instead
known
as reversing
gears are used, which beside making the engine
reversible,
permit a variation in the point of cut-off.
In 1842 Robert
138. Stephenson Link Motion.
Stephenson
and Company
appliedto their locomotives a form of reversing
For many

purposes

"

gear

which

has received

This

has been

the

of the

name

widely used

more

than

Stephenson link
other

any

motion.

type of reversing

This gear, as shown

in Fig. 113, has as its essential feature
curved piece,or link,connected
at its ends to the rods of the

gear.
a

FIG.

two

eccentrics.

113.

the end

On

slide in the link and

By

stem.

it to the
the valve

the

of

free to turn
a

to take

bell crank

One

its motion
end

link motion.

of the valve
on

and

link,it is possibleto raise

of the link.
"

means

Stephenson

"

from

pin

any

carried

the

desired

of the link is connected

go-ahead" position,and

eccentric set for the

the

block,fitted

to

the valve

by

suspension rods connecting

lower

or

is a

stem

other

link,and

cause

point along the

to

end

so

arc

eccentric for

an

of the

link to

an

is
"back-up"
thrown
to the end controlled by the go-ahead eccentric,
the valve
is moved
thrown
to drive the engineforward,and when
to
so
as
the opposite end, the engine reverses.
As the block is moved
nearer

of the

the middle

of the

position. When

link,both

eccentrics

valve, and the cut-off is shortened.

the link is reached, admission
and cut-off

block

affect the motion

When
are

the

the middle

found

to

occur

of
at

VALVE

GEARS

211

equal crank angles on either side of the dead center positionand

the engine has no motion.
Beyond the mid-position,the motion
of the engine is in the opposite direction.
is always placed between
rocker arm
locomotives
In American
a
and

link block

the

the

valve

arrangement

oppositedirections.
each of the eccentrics is placed at an angle of 180"
For this reason
In marine
in Fig. 113.
the position shown
from
practice the
the end of the valve stem
link block is usually carried on
as
in the figure.
shown
the valve and

causes

139. Radial

Motion,
or

less

Gears.

common

In

"

of other

number

either

have
the

the link block to

This

stem.

One

use.

addition

connecting rod, or

are

to

in

the

Stephenson

types of reversing gear

class of

eccentric and

one

move

are

in

Link
more

radial gears,
from
part of their motion

these,known

derive

entirelywithout

as

derive

eccentric and

an

iftingArm
Center

FIG.

114.

their entire motion

of these
to

from

is the

large number

of Walschaert

Diagram

"

Walschaert

with

point of support.
lever which

derives

The

way

to

as

valve

its motion

most

tant
impor-

being fitted
A diagrammatic

now

On the outer end of

Fig. 114.
is connected
is carried,which

in
of this gear is shown
crank
pin, a second crank
a

is

locomotives.

of American

the link in such

which

gear,

STiaft

gear.

The

connecting rod.

the

sketch
the

valve

of Lift

cause

is connected

stem

both

from

link,and from

of the

to the

its

vertical

the block, carried

on

engine. By settingthe
be varied
block at different points along the link,the cut-off may
the Walschaert
With
the engine reversed.
or
gear, the lead
instead of increasing
for all cut-offs,
when
remains
the same
cut-off is made
as in the Stephenson gear.
earlier,
the

the cross-head

it to oscillate about

HEAT

212

ENGINES

Another

met with is the Joy

type of radial gear occasionally
shown
in Fig. 115.
In this gear the valve motion is derived
the connecting rod through a linkage. The
point S is

gear,

from

fixed.

permanently
almost

exactly the

lead is constant

Another

having a

Valve

the

gear

for both

same

method

which

ends

distribution is

steam

of the

is to

used

for

cylinder,and

the

reversingengines

change, by

ports into exhaust

steam

steam

be

may

slide valve

balanced

ports into

this

for all cut-offs.

cock, the

way

With

of

means

ports and

the

three-

exhaust

ports.

Stem

Center

line of

Cylindej
Wrist

Pin

FIG.

115.

radial

Joy

"

gear.

140.

In setting a valve,
Setting the Valve by Measurement.
the first step is to place the engine on dead center,that is,the
end of its stroke.
To do this,proceed in
piston at the extreme
and turn
the followingway:
Place the engine near
the center
it away
a fixed
While
and

"

from

the center

point

the cross-head

coincide.

From
the

with

again
marks, and

on

turn

the

length of
engine will now
in the

the cross-head

and

same

tram.

the

be

turn

on
wav.

line

Bisect

the

from
center.

across

tram

from

the wheel.

mark
the

cross-head

the

engine past the center

the cross-head guide again

point on the frame, mark

distance

the

between

fly-wheel
the

tram

point of bisection is just

The
the fixed point on the frame.
mined
The opposite center can be deter-

fly-wheeluntil

the tram

same

fly-wheeland

guide. Now

the

with

Measure

position,mark

same

until the lines

15".

to the

the frame

on

in the

about

this

Fig.

118

shows

before,this card
Fig. 119 shows

an

may
an

card

indicator

be corrected

Indicator
card showing
118.
effect of too much
lead.
"

with

too

by changing

card

indicator

Ad

FIG.

ENGINES

HEAT

214

with

too

much

lead.

the eccentric.

much

compression.

Indicator
FIG.
119.
effect of too much
"

As

card showing
compression.

this often
single-valveengines with automatic
governors
be corrected by
In Corliss engines it may
at lightload.
occurs
changing the length of the rod connecting the valve and wrist
In

plate.

FIG.

Indicator
card showing
120.
effect of "wire-drawing
"

card showing
Indicator
121.
FIG.
effect of insufficient exhaust lead.
"

Fig. 120 shows an indicator card in which the admission line

ab is a falling
line. This is due to friction in the admission valve,
which
is usually caused
by the valves opening slowly. With

FIG.

122.

"

Indicator

card

showing

effect of too

short cut-off.

rapidlyopening valves, such as a Corliss valve, the admission

line will have the dotted position.

VALVE

card

indicator

The

lead;

that

valve

engine

the

is,

be
will

correct

the

exhaust
When

be

may

and

occurs

The
until

below

in
shows

an

122,

the

the

way

cut-off

atmospheric

is

pressure.

will

the

single-

be

usually

companied
ac-

line

admission

four-valve

the

will
lead

steam

engine,

of

is

the

lead

it

enough

is

by

of

so

work

the

off
cut-

below

from

As

it

work
the

steam

expansion

is

has

d,

to

this

When

operation.

for

the

exhaust.

to

negative

reducing
that

load,

expanded

opens

of

large

too

be

will

valve

loop

light

very

steam

the

condition

engine

long

the

gives

correct

to

and

With

Correcting

with

operated

uneconomical

regularly
best

this

lead

exhaust

increased.

before

pressure

Fig.

be

insufficient
late.

too

exhaust

In

that

short

so

atmospheric
shown

is

engine

is

lead,

lead.

has

121

position.

dotted

should

valve

an

of
steam

exhaust

215

Fig.

release

condition

the

the

in
of

insufficient
in

shown

as

shown

point

this

by

GEARS

to

do.

pressure
not

carried

CHAPTER

XII

GOVERNORS
it is essential that the engine
142. In stationaryenginepractice
at

operate

uniform

speed irrespectiveof the

which

power

it

develops. In most cases the load on the engine is continually

of power
varying,requiringa constant
change in the. amount
g^ven by the engine. There are two generalforms of governors
used for this purpose:
which regulates
the throttling
the
governor
of steam enteringthe engine;and the automatic or cut-off
pressure
which regulates
the volume
of steam
admitted, but does
governor
not change the pressure
of the steam
entering.
In addition to the changes of speed brought about by the
change of external load on the engine,there is also a change of
speed during each revolution of the engine due to the variable
the crank pin of the engine,and to the
effort of the steam
on
effect of the reciprocating
parts of the engine. This variation
of speed is taken care
of the engine.
of by the fly-wheel
143. ThrottlingGovernors.
In a throttlinggovernor
a valve,
"

usually of the poppet type

located

in the steam

or

pipe near

of balance

other

form

the

engine.

This

valve, is

valve

is

trolled
con-

in such a manner
that, when the speed
by the governor
of the engine increases,
the area
of opening through the valve
is reduced,thereby increasing
the velocityof the steam
through
the valve and reducingthe pressure
of steam
enteringthe engine.
This governor
regulatesthe speed of the engine by varying the
of the enteringsteam, the cut-off remaining constant.
pressure

144. Automatic
attached

are

the

load

which
the

to the valve

earlier.

come

is admitted

remains
145.
are

to the

Governors.

These

"

nors
gover-

of the engine and,

mechanism

as

during
to the engine is reduced by making
less,less
Thus, as the load becomes

engine is reduced,

is admitted

steam

cut-off

steam

123

the

on

Variable Cut-off

or

engine,but

the

length of

the pressure

time

of the steam

unchanged.
Relative
taken

Economy.
from

an

"

The

indicator

cards

shown

engineusing a throttling
governor.
216

in

Fig.
This

GOVERNORS

figureshows

of cards taken

number

217
at different loads.

Under

the steam
light load, owing to the action of the governor,
is very low, while under
the card shows
a heavy load
pressure
is expanded almost
At the light load the steam
high pressure.
but at the heavy load, the cut-off being
to atmospheric pressure,
kept the same, there is a very small expansion. This condition
is not favorable
to economical
operation.
Fig. 124 shows a card similar to Fig. 123, but taken from an
automatic
engine. In this form of governing the initial pressure
a

remains

the

enables

all loads

for

same

and

cut-off

the

varies.

This

engineer to select a load giving a ciit-off at which an

engine using a given steam pressure will show maximum
economy.
found
be
one-fourth
In most
this
is
about
to
engines
stroke;
therefore an
automatic
engine should be operated with a load
the

FIG. 123.
Indicator
card
effect of throttlinggovernor
load on engine is varied.
"

requiringthe
this

at

Under

governor

FIG. 124.
Indicator
card
effect of automatic
governor
load on engine is varied.

showing

"

when

to maintain

the cut-off

as

showing
when

nearly as possible

point.
conditions this form

most

of governor

is

more

ical
econom-

in its

Actual
periment
exoperation than the throttlinggovernor.
with an
and throttling
engine having both an automatic
shows
the automatic
to give a steam
governor
governor
consumption of about 75 per cent, of the steam
consumption
of the same
engine operated with a throttling
governor.
146.
which

Governor

Mechanism.

is to maintain

"

The

mechanism

of the governor

speed of the engine uniform must be

such that the change of speed will cause
a change in the position
of the parts of the governor.
There
two
are
general types of
mechanism

the

used

first type and

rotated by the

for this purpose.

The fly-ball
is the
governor
consists of two balls fastened to pivoted arms
and

engine,and

as

the

speed of the engine increases,

HEAT

218
the balls
valve

and

out

move

ENGINES

change either the throttle valve

or

the

mechanism.

In the second

type, the shaftgovernor,

the governor

is fastened

to the

fly-wheelof the engine. It usually consists of two weights

attached
These
to the fly-wheel of the engine by arms.
arms
weights
being pivoted, as the engine speed increases,the governor
out againstthe resistance of a spring. The governor
move
arms
out the
attached to the eccentric,and as the weights move
are
positionof the valve changes.
147. Fly-ball Governors.
Fig. 125 shows a line diagram of
BB
These
the balls of the governor.
a fly-ball
are
governor.
"

balls

suspended by

are

FIG.

weight W

by the

around

rotate

point A.

along

The

the

125.

"

BC.

axis AC.

The

As

the

to

the

fly-ball
governor.
balls of the governor

and

arms

is free to

balls of the governor

move
Let the force acting on each
be

also attached

are

spindle AC, and

vertical

weight

and

diagram of

Line

arms

the

AB,

arms

in

move

pivoted

are
a

at

the

vertical direction

speed of the engine increases,the

out into the dotted
positionsB'B' '.
of the balls in

one

vertical direction

weight of each ball, and the height through

which
the balls are lifted,
The heavy weight W will move
dh.
through a greater distance,kdh. As the work put in must equal
the work done, we have the followingequation
Pj

the

2Pdh

2wdh

Wkdh.
k W

Therefore

"-.

(1)

GOVERNORS

(Ifthe
The

horizontal

force

actingon

then

taking

lower

and

upper

arms

zero.

for F the

in

A,

about

moments

Pr

and

2.)
length,then k
Let F be the centrifugal
it in the dotted positions;
same

ball to maintain

each

Substitutingfor P,

the

are

will be

work

219

Fh.

equation

(2)

(2), its value

in

equation (1),

expressionfor the centrifugalforce,

the

"

tion
equa-

becomes
kW

(3)

where

second.

is velocityin feet per

0

wV2
If W

0, thenw

-h,

or

gr
r2

V2

7
This

equationshows
is independent of

the action of the govertheoretically

nor
there
the weight of the balls.
Practically,
that

is considerable

friction in the

the balls must

have

mechanism

considerable weight

the friction of the governor.

of the governor

"*"

"

balls be

of the governor,
in order easilyto

If the number

and
come
over-

of revolutions'

minute, then

per

""
Substitutingin equation (4),the value of F2
and solvingfor n
n

Substitutingequation (5)for

svs

F2 in

as

found

from

(5),

"

k
equation (3),and letting

2, then

2936

(l+." )
'

n*h.

(8)

This
governor

expressiongives the relation of the principalitems of the

design.

HEAT

220
148.

Shaft

Governor.

to control

In

the

the

ENGINES

There

"

speed of

earlier form

an

are

two

engine by

of governors,

forces that may

be utilized
of a shaft govermeans
nor.
the

principalforce

was

centrifugal
force.

FIG.

FIG.

127.

126.

"

"

Elementary centrifugal
governor.

Actual

construction

of

centrifugal
governor.

weight is so suspended that it moves

approximatelyin a radial direction due to the action of centrifugal
the centrifugal
In the actual construction
of the governor,
force.
In

Fig. 126, the

governor

HEAT

222

ENGINES

changed at the same

are
angular advance and eccentricity
for all positionsof the
time, leaving the lead almost constant

The

governor.

centrifugalforce
has no effect upon the movement
of the weight,but only produces
SM.
a stress in the arm
But, if the wheel were suddenly stopped,
and exert a
due to the inertia,
the weight would continue to move,
force upon a spring(notshown) againstthe resistance of which the
of this weight is arranged to
ball acts.
The
motion
governor
Inertia alone is not used as the
change the positionof the valve.
of centrifugal
force and inertia
actuatingforce,but a combination
In

Fig. 128 the weight M

is used.

Fig. 129 shows

forces.

The

two

is fastened

that

so

of governor
combining these two
weights are fastened to a singlearm

form

governor

pin (shown shaded). One weight has a

longer arm than the other,arid is the dominating weight. As the
engine revolves,this weight tends to take a radial position. This
which

around

rotates

its initial positionand determines

the
givesthe governor
weights are suspended so
positionof the valve. The governor
the
the
that if
engine changes, the inertia of the weights
speed of
the governor
moves
againstone or the other of the stops shown.
The governor
weightsact againstthe resistance of a spring. The
speed at which the engine is to run may be changed by changing
the tension of this spring. The valve is driven by a pin fastened
action

to the governor

arm.

149. Isochronism.
and
quantities,
then
An

must

one

variation
travel in
makes
This

it

ifthe governor

is

governor

speed and

from
one

given governor,

this

direction

or

impossible for

result is

the governor

one

only

speed

in which

at one,

governor

and

are

fixed

that h is constant,

becomes
the balls

isochronous.
in

equilibrium
and any
except for friction,

will send

the other.
a

is so constructed

be constant, and

isochronous
at

For

"

them

to

are

the

limit of their

friction of the governor

to be perfectlyisochronous.

approximately obtained

The

by using

crossed

balls have a parabolicpath, and

that the governor
In some
will remain approximately constant.
forms

the

arms

so

height h

of governors
that their motion is an

guided in a parabolicguide so
value.
exact parabola and give h a uniform
150. Hunting.
Over-sensitive
often
exhibit the
governors
known
how
as
phenomena
"hunting." No matter
quickly a
its
in
demand
for
to a
change
position
may
response
governor
less steam, the engine does not respond instantly. This
or
more
the balls

are

"

GOVERNORS

engine,and in the element

the

when

moment

stored in the

of the energy

is in consequence

223

of time

that must

is admitted

steam

moving parts of
elapsebetween

by the

and

governor

the
the
the

piston. Therefore when a sudden demand

is too sensitive,
is made
for power
on
an
engine in which the governor
or too nearly isochronous,the drop in speed will be sufficient
that too
into a positionof over-control,
so
to force the governor
time that it acts

much

the

on

This

is admitted.

steam

point and

the desired

beyond
the oppositedirection.

the revolutions

causes

the

over-control

same

tojncrease

is exercised in

words, the governor balls flyfirst

direction and then the other, hunting" for the positionof
in one
equilibrium: The effect is to make the speed of engine change
rapidly,firsthaving an excess of speed,and then a speed below the
be overcome
This trouble may
normal.
by adding a small weight
of the governor
to one
balls,and changing the tension of the
In other

"

spring.

governor

151. Practical

Considerations.

When

"

properly designed

properly,the trouble is often due to undue

be caused by a tightfriction in the vajve mechanism, which may
ening
of the glands or the journals,
or by friction in the dash
pot
also be due to excessive leakage in the valve,
and springs. It may
unbalancing it,or by the valve being too tight. The governor
should also be examined
to see that the weights have not been
changed. The tension of the springs should be uniform, if more
engine does

not

govern

springis used.
If the engine operates at a lower speed than that desired,the
If this tension
tension of the governor
springshould be increased.
then additional
has been increased to the limit of the spring,
balls.
weight should be placed in the governor
than

one

of governors
mechanism
be made

In all forms
valve

it is necessary
as

small

as

that the friction of the

and
possible,

it

should, if

possible,be a constant
quantity. It is better to have balanced
and
valves, where they are directlyoperated by the governor,
In the D-slide type of
the valves should have a small travel.
valve, small travel is obtained by using a double-ported valve.
In direct connected
engines, 2 per cent, variation in speed is
the maximum
to be

allowable,and
less than

is sometimes

of 5 per
152.

Fly-wheel.

within

certain limits

cent,

1 per

"

The

requirethe
specifications

most

In

cent.

mill

riation
va-

engines a variation

allowed.
governor

of

an

engine controls the speed

by controllingthe action of the valve.

It

HEAT

224

takes

few

ENGINES

revolutions,however, to bring

the

into

governor

action.
The
in the

engine,however, has fluctuations

steam

fraction

controlled
to three

of

revolution,and

by the fly-wheel. These

these

of

speed that

occur

fluctuations must

fluctuations of speed

are

be
due

principalcauses:

First.

The

"

is not the

of steam

pressure

at all pointsof the

same

stroke.
Second.

The

"

motion

of the

of the

piston is carried

connectingrod and
reciprocatinginto rotary motion
means

varies from
Third.

zero

to

crank.
causes

means

the
of

shaft

by
changing

turning effort which

maximum.

reciprocating motion

The

This

to

of the

engine piston and

other parts necessitates these parts being brought to rest and
The
started again twice each revolution.
overcoming of the
inertia effect,caused by the action described, causes
a variable
"

to the

force to be transmitted
A

fly-wheelis fastened

crank.

to the main

shaft of the

engineto

reduce

speed of the enginein the fraction of a revolution.

to carry the engine at those
The inertia of the fly-wheelserves
portionsof the stroke where the piston is not giving sufficient
the variation of

power

The

to the shaft to carry

effectiveness

stored in it.

As most

the load.

of the
of the

fly-wheeldepends

upon

the

energy

weight of the wheel is in the rim,we

consider,for an approximation,the action of the rim as giving

the fly-wheeleffect. If W is the weight of the fly-wheelrim in
pounds, and R is the average radius in feet,and the wheel makes
of the rim
revolutions per minute, then the energy
n
may

2g V 60

4rr2
2

ft.lb,
The

the

(9)

pends
expressionshows that the effectiveness of a fly-wheeldeof the radius of
the weight of the rim, the square
upon
of revolutions that it
wheel, and the square of the number

makes.

CHAPTER

XIII

ENGINES

COMPOUND

Engines. Any engine in which the expansion

is begun in one
of steam
cylinder and continued in another is
called a compound engine] although this term as commonly
used
refers to an
engine in which the expansion takes place in two
engine is one in which
cylinderssuccessively.A triple-expansion
is expanded successively
in three cylinders.
the steam
is expanded in two or more
When
steam
cylinderssuccessively,
number
of
is
the
expansions per cylinder less than when only one
is used, and therefore the range of temperature in each cylinder is
153.

Compound

Reducing

less.

"

of temperature

the range

the condensation

losses.

in the

cylinderreduces

-The

principalobjectof compounding is
to reduce the amount
of steam used per horse-powerper hour, and,
under proper
conditions,compounding accomplishes this,owing
to

the

from

of initial condensation.

reduction

engine, and very often the mechanical

compounding.
The tendency, then, in a compound*
radiation

loss and

to increase

losses

the

are

losses

simple
increased
by
a

engine,is to increase the

the mechanical

decreases

hand, compounding

radiation

usually largerthan from

engine are

compound*

The

losses.

thermodynamic

On

the other
losses

by

cylinder. With low

small number
and
of expansions,a single-cylinder
a
pressure
economical
than a compound*
engine is more
engine,but with
of expansions,the
and
a
larger number
high-pressure steam
is the case.
The
reverse
higher the pressure and the largerthe
of the compound*
number
of expansionsthe greater the economy
decreasingthe

range

of temperature

in each

engine.
Ibs.,the single-cylinder
condensing
economical
than the compound
engine. But for
engine is more
above
100 Ibs. the compound
engine is usually more
pressures
In the case
of the non-condensing engine, the comeconomical.
For

under

pressures

*The

term

"compound"

100

as

here

used

etc.
15

225

includes

triple-expansion,
ruple-expan
quad-

ENGINES

HEAT

226

becomes

advantage until the

reaches
150 Ibs. The
compound
condensing engine
less economical
than the triple-expansionengine for

pressures

greater than

pound engine does

pressure

The
the

show

any

economical

150 Ibs.
is

single-cylinder
engine,Fig. 112,
engine when

compound

is less than

steam

six to

use

FIG.

154.

Tandem

When

there

of

economical

more

from

are

than

expansions of the

of

number

in the

little difference

the number

When

the

expansions the

fifteen

economical.
is usual to

four.

is very

there
from

not

compound

four

to

six

With

economy.

engine

expansions exceeds

pansions
ex-

is

more

fifteen it

triple-expansionengine.

130.

"

Tandem

Compound

arrangement

of

Engines.

cylinders.
.

tandem

compound
engine,Fig. 130, is one in which the two cylinerdsare placed one
The
in front of the other.
pistons of the two cylinders are
attached to the same
piston rod, and there is but one connecting
flows directlyfrom the high-pressure
The steam
rod and crank.
cylinder into the low-pressure cylinder, and the connecting
pipes are relativelysmall, there being no receiver except the
tandem
the cylinders. The
compound engine
piping between
than
the
The
less
cross
compound.
principal
occupies
space
objectionto this form of engine is the difficultyof getting at
"

COMPOUND

ENGINES

cylinderwhich is nearest the crank-shaft.

form of compound engine used.
the

155.

Cross-compound

Fig. 131,

the

two

Engine.

cylindersare

"

227
This is the earliest

cross-compoundengine,
placed side by side, and each
In the

ENGINES

HEAT

228

cylinder has its separate piston rod, connecting rod, and crank.
The
steam, after leaving the high-pressurecylinder, usually
reservoir called a receiver,
and from this receiver
enters a steam
The
cranks
in a
low-pressure cylinder takes its steam.
cross-compound engine are usually set 90" apart, so that when
the high-pressurecylinder is at the beginning of its stroke the
the

A
cross-compound
low-pressure cylinder is at mid-stroke.
engine with cranks at 90" must always be providedwith a receiver,
when
the
be taking steam
the low-pressure cylindermay
as
high-pressurecylinder is not exhausting. The cross-compound

the tandem

engine,
but the parts are lighter. Each
piston,cross-head, connecting
rod, and crank does only approximately one-half the work that
engine. The turning effort on the
they would do in a tandem
uniform
crank-shaft is made
by placingthe crank at 90".
more
engine occupies

the

reduces

This

fluctuation

the

much

size of

of the

than

larger space

the

speed

fly-wheel necessary

engine,and

of the

to

also

overcome

assists the

governing.
cross-compound engine is often termed a "fore and
aft" compound.
of Cylinders in the Compound
156. Ratio
Engine. In the
compound engine the strokes of the two cylindersare usuallythe
A

vertical

"

If

same.

represent the ratio of the

we

of

value

the

termed

cylinder. The

value

varies

from

as

exhaust

admission

of L

high-speedengines,and

be such

of L should

"drop," between
cylinderand the

of the

diameter

the

*
The

two

high-pressurecylinder
the low-pressure cylinderby D, then

cylinders by L, and

by d, and that

of the

volumes

3 to

to avoid
pressure

pressure

fall in pressure,
in the high-pressure

in the

low-pressure

2J to 4 for
4| for engines of

from

automatic
the Corliss

of times the steam

equal to the quotientof the number
is expanded in the engine divided by the number
of expansions in
the high-pressure
cylinder.
The ratio of expansion, r, in a compound*
engine is equal to
the ratio of the total volume of the low-pressurecylinder,
or cylinders,
is,it is,as in
to that of the high up to the point of cut-off. That
type.

is

See note

at bottom

of page

225.

HEAT

230
ratio of

expansion, and

ENGINES

that

all the

of the

compound*
mitted
engine could be developed in its low-pressure cylinder if we adinto that cylinder the same
mitted
adas
was
weight of steam
to the high-pressure
cylinder,expanded the steam in this
number
of times as it was
cylinder the same
expanded in the
whole
back pressure.
engine, and exhausted
against the same
If the horse-power obtained
by assuming all the work done in
the low-pressure cylinder be multiplied by a card factor, the
result will be equal to the horse-power of the engine. This
be expressed mathematically as follows:
may
Let

power

the diameter

of the

the diameter

of the

the

the

low-pressurecylinder.
high-pressurecylinder.
in square
of the low-pressurecylinder
area
length of stroke of the engine in feet.

the

mean

number

d
A
/

effective pressure
for the whole
of revolutions per minute.

the per

the

cent,

of the stroke

inches.

engine.

point of cut-off in

to the

high-pressurecylinder.
expansion for the whole

ratio of

the card factor.

Pi

initial pressure

pz

engine.

enteringthe engine.

steam

of the exhaust.

pressure

D2
Then

(2)

~2

(1 + logs)

Pi

and

(3)

"
-

p2

2plAn

Horse-power
The
and

value

of the factor

varies from

from

Cut-off

in the

f stroke; in
*

See

note

15"

at

24"

36"

30"

cylinder,f stroke; in
L.P. cylinder,
\ stroke.

bottom

the type of the

engine,
high-speedengines,and

t"

^
X

H.P.

the

upon

Corliss engine.

^
A

depends

.70 to .80 for automatic

.75 to .85 for

Example."

"

of page

225.

engine
the

runs

100

intermediate

Steam

pressure,

r.p.m.

cylinder,
225

Ibs.

ENGINES

COMPOUND

Engine exhausts into a condenser

reading,28.65 in. Assume
cards

Indicator

taken

having

of

vacuum

26

in.

rometer
Ba-

card factor of .80.

from

231

the

engine with the followingareas:

head end, 1.32 sq. in.,crank end, 1.35 sq. in. ; intermediate
H.P. cylinder,
head
cylinder,
end, 1.8 sq. in.,crank end, 1.71 sq. in.;L.P. cylinder,
head end, 2.01 sq. in.,crank end, 2.04 sq. in. Length of all cards,3 in.
used on the H.P. cylinder,a 50 Ib. spring on the
A 160 Ib. spring was
diameters
of the
The
intermediate,and a 20 Ib. spring on the L.P.
follows: H.P. cylinder2 in.;intermediate
as
cylinder,
piston rods were
2^ in.;L.P. cylinder,3 in.
is the rated H.P. of the engine?
(a) What
(6) What per cent, of the rated H.P. is being developed?
Solution.
(a)
were

"

Atmospheric

pressure

28.65

Exhaust

pressure,

p2,

D2
r

M.E.P

36 X

.8

26)

36

.491

8 X

36 X

36

{ lO.oO

15 X

log"r)

15

3 X

15 X

15

(1 + log-15.35) 1.3 \
-

L.P.

.8(58.1

1.3)

45.46

cylinder

3.1416

2 X

Rated

15.35.

pt

Area

1.3 Ibs.

xd*

239
=

(28.65

14 Ibs.

"""

M.E.P.

.491

45.46

Ibs.
X

18 X18

2.5 X

1018

1018

sq. in.

100

I.H.P.
33000

a 700-H.P.
Practically

engine.

H.P., H.E.,
H.P., C.E.,
I

70.3 Ibs.

72

"

160

Q8X

50

30

50

28.5

20

13.4

"

20

13.6

"

M.P., H.E.,

"

M.E.P.

1Q71
X

M.P., C.E.,

"

L.P., H.E.,

L.P., C.E.,

HEAT

232

ENGINES

Area

LN

Constant

H.P., H.E.
H.P., C.E.
M.P., H.E.
M.P., C.E.
L.P., H.E.
L.P., C.E.

I.H.P.

2.5 X

100
.007575.

70.3 X

176.7

.007575

94.4

72

173.6

.007575

94.7

.007575

102.5

.007575

96.5

.007575

103.5

.007575

104.2

595.8

30

452

28.5 X

447

13.4 X

1018

13.6 X

1011

X
X

Total
Per

cent,

of rated H.P.

developed

595.8
.851

700

85.1 per

f(a)

700

H.P.

1(6)85.1
158.
a

Combined

hypothetical figurewhich

expansion and
the

exhaust

would

all took

low-pressurecylinder of
which

on

be

may

of that

steam.

appears

in its true

In

any

it the

combined

The

"

be obtained

place in

one

compound*

measured

point in the stroke of

any

cent.

per

Cards.

Indicator

cent.

if the

admission,
cylinder,and that

indicator

of the steam

cylinders,and
card

combining

necessary
volumes.

to. reduce

from

the cards from

them

all to the

compound*

at

cylinder

same

engine,it is first

scale of pressures

It is

the
to

and

diagram

change the

diagrams.
each

of the

line

diagrams lay off

distance equal to the

cylinder. These
Divide
*

gram
dia-

the volume

each

convenient
to use
generally more
from the low-pressure
cylinderas the basis to which

On

proportion.

When

other

It is

engine.

the pressure

of the

is

diagram

See note

the
at

high and
bottom

clearance

of page

225.

for that particular

volume

lines represent the lines of

intermediate

mission
of the ad-

vertical line back

diagrams into

zero

any

volume.

convenient

COMPOUND

number

ENGINES

of parts by vertical

Multiply the distance

from

lines

the

233

spaced equidistant apart.

atmospheric line

of each

of the

i 5

points where

these vertical lines

of the scale of the

cross

spring used in the

diagrams,by the ratio

cylinderbeing considered to
the

HEAT

234

ENGINES

low-pressurecylinder. The results will be the

ordinates of the pointsto be plotted when
drawing the combined
diagram. (The pressure in each cylinder at any point in the

that

in the

used

stroke

be

may

determined

from

the

indicator

card

for

that

cylinder,knowing the value of the spring used and the position

of the atmosphericline). Multiply the horizontal distances from
line to the points of intersection of the vertical
the zero
volume
of the cylinder
lines and the diagram, by the ratio of the volume
under consideration to the volume
of the low-pressurecylinder.
combined

points on

the

plot the results using the atmosphericline and line of zero

the low-pressurediagram as the horizontal and vertical
on

volume

the

abscissae of the

the

diagram.

Now

axes

will be

results obtained

The

from

which

to

measure

pointsso plotted,draw

abscissae.

the ordinates

and

the combined

diagram.

Through

diagram from a triple-expansion

Fig. 132 shows the combined
pumping engine. The indicator cards for the high,intermediate,
and low-pressure cylinders,
have all been reduced
to the same
The ordinates in this diagram are
scale of volumes
and pressures.
absolute
card

and

pressures

from

each

parts and

the abscissae are

divided

cylinder was

the pressure

volume

and

volumes.

into

cylinder,it

will be

noticed,does

line,the difference between

and

the

zero

The

expansion would
in the

zero

saturation
have

been

engine had

of
equal number
of these points was

indicator

begin

volume

representingthe

of volumes
dotted

not

curve

if the
remained

shows
actual

indicator

an

at each

computed and plotted in the figure. The

The

at

card for each

the

of the
volume
what

zero

volume

indicator card
of the
the

weight of

curve

steam

ance.
clearof
panding
ex-

saturated.

PROBLEMS
1. A

Initial
300 r.p.m.
engine is 8" X 16" X 12" and runs
Cut-off
steam
150 Ibs. absolute;back pressure, 2 Ibs. absolute.
pressure,
in high-pressure cylinder at \ stroke.
If the steam
expands along an
isothermal of a perfectgas and the card factor is 70 per cent.,what I.H.P.
will the engine develop?
2. A single-acting
compound engine is 9" X 15" X 9"; initial pressure,
125 Ib. gage; back pressure,
atmospheric; cut-off in high-pressurecylinder,
would
What
be
card factor of 80 per cent.
Assume
i stroke;r.p.m., 250.
the horse-power rating of the engine?
Initial
3. A compound
80 r.p.m.
engine is 27" X 35" X 48" and runs
2 Ibs. absolute;cut-off in the high-pressure
back pressure,
pressure, 125 Ibs.;

compound

COMPOUND

" stroke;

cylinder,
if each
4.

card

factor,

develops

cylinder

pressure

cylinder,

pressure

cylinder,

\ stroke.

of

6.

is

Engine

factor
A

80

absoluta;

50

35"

of

85

Cut-off

low
Ibs.

card

engine?
cut-off

48";

Ibs.;

high-

in

pressure,

the

back

in

high-

What

Ibs.

pressure,

cent.

per

in

and

Assuming

of

130

factor

horse-power

\ stroke;

r.p.m.

55"

pressure,

card

its

Ibs.; back

135

runs

be

36".

horse-power

27"

Steam

Assume

40.

r.p.m.,

40"

cylinder,

and

rated

is

stroke.

27"

will

horse-power?

pressure,

acting

engine

cylinder,

pressure

of

intermediate

is the

what

pumping

number

Steam

double

cent.,

per

city

in

235

What

cent.

per

is 20"

engine

\ stroke;

absolute.

80

equal

an

triple-expansion

ENGINES

is its

rated

horse-power?
6.

high-pressure

9.

from

of
is

Ibs.

120
51

in.

7.

rod

piston
4

Indicator

in.

Ibs;
as

H.P.

for

L.P.

is

is

cylinder,

cylinder,

20

in.;

H.P.

for
Ibs.

An

20

Ibs.

indicator

for

area

36"

cylinder,
Ibs.;

160

and

lengths

for
of

H.E.,
C.E.

H.E.,
C.E.

the

total

I. H.P.

H.P.
"

Cyl.,

area

"

"

"

"

"

"

If

L.P.

"

"

"

"

"

M.P.
"

inch,

square

length

in.

L.P.

M.P.

in.

1\

"

"

"

"

"

2^

"

"

2J

"

"

"

"

3i

"

"

3"

"

arm

180
of

cylinder,

cylinder,

indicator

runs

Diameter

for

"

"

brake

and

"

"

weight

gross

follows:

C.E.

indicator

efficiency.

in.;

cylinder,

the

24"

28

vacuum,

M.P.

of

sure,
pres-

low-pressure
a

length

the

indicator

in

on

mechanical
X

the

is used

carrying

the

28"

cylinder,
The

in

and

of

in

back

low-pressure

spring

and

Ibs.;

area

83-lb.

F.H.P.;
18"

the

brake

cut-off

125

the

from

Pony

absolute;

Ibs.
2

and

spring
a

B.H.P.;

200

spring

H.E.,

Find

brake

the

in.;

sq.

the

r.p.m.,

pressure,

acting

in.

with

engine

pressure,

for

.9

40-lb.

fitted

I.H.P.;

triple-expansion
Steam

r.p.m.

of

tare

the

single
is

320

runs

Steam

is 2.35

and

is

engine

The
Find

each

cylinder

The

cylinder.

is

cylinder
of

length

and

\ stroke.

being

high-pressure
The

9"

Engine

high-pressure

on

15"

absolute.

in.

sq.

9"

cylinder

Ibs.

3
card

is

engine

An

cards

60
are

CHAPTER

XIV

CONDENSERS
159.

There

are

two

jet condenser

and

the

FIG.

jet type,
contact

the

with

AND

general forms

of

PUMPS

condensers

surface condenser.

133."

condensing
each

AIR

Jet

water

other, while

In

in

condensers

use,

of

the
the

condenser.

and
in the
236

the

steam

surface

are

brought

condensers

the

into
con-

ENGINES

HEAT

238

chamber

into the condenser

the water

sible to draw

by

the

in the

vacuum

F.

135, the water and

steam, after coming in contact, pass as water through a narrow
The
water
passing
.opening in the throat of the condenser.
condenser, Figs.134 and

In the barometric

through this

forms

of the steam
be

pumped

throat carries the air with it.

narrow

into the

vacuum,

but the

combining chamber,

tion
condensa-

The

condensing water
as

this chamber

must

is ele-

Relief Valve

FIG.

vated

135.

"

Complete

at least 35 ft. above

atmosphere

upon

installation of barometric

the hot

condenser.

well,so that the

the surface of the water

in this well cannot

The quantity of water

it up into the chamber.
be decreased
cannot
the throat of the condenser
if the
be

velocityof the

insufficient to

barometric
The

passingis reduced

maintain

condenser

jet condenser

water

is not

the

is the form

most

to variable

used

in

of the
force

passing through
much, as,
very

to any

For

vacuum.

adapted

pressure

extent, it will

this

reason

the

loads.

stationaryplants,

CONDENSERS

AND

AIR

PUMPS

239

240

HEAT
it is less

as

clean

ENGINES

expensiveto install,
and, where
requiresless repairs,
is available,gives as good results as the surface

water

condenser.
161.

Surface

'the steam

Condensers.

to be condensed

direct contact
on

with

side of

one

coming in

The

is the

other

off

forced

or

of the tubes

brass.

the

The

with

the

which
The

the steam

thin

are
as

The

by
densed
con-

The

condensing
circulating
pump.
with

the steam

eter,
always of small diampossibleand usually of

is used where

A surface condenser

is condensed

in contact

tubes

in

come

is circulated

side of the tubes.

come

as

do not

coolingwater

by the air pump.

through by the

is made

metal

condenser, Fig. 136,

coolingwater

tubes, and

condensing surface.
and

the

other.

is drawn

surface

surface

series of

is drawn

water

and

each

contact

steam

In

"

the

coolingwater

is not

suitable for feed water, and

and

over

again

over

being distilled water, contains

steam

is excellent

and

matter

however,
is allowed

to

see

that

of the

salt water, marine

the

The

"

independent condenser
The

and

pipe into

air

tank,

this hot well

from

for the boilers in

the surface

is immaterial

as

is sometimes
air pump
is done to avoid the use
which

pump,

70 to 120 Ibs. of steam

water

With

steam

condenser,
of it will be

none

This is the form of condenser

engine. This

using from

must

always used in

practice.

162. Air Pumps.

from

scale-forming
be taken,

no

Care

water.

to the boiler.

coolingwater

feed water.

as

for feed

of the oilcontained in the exhaust

none

to go back

the nature
used

it is necessary
to use the same
water
for making steam
in the boilers.
The condensed

is

operated directly
of steam
by the

always uneconomical,

per I.H.P.

per

hour.

usuallydischarged through the discharge

well, called the hot well,and the overflow

are

or

into the sewer,

runs

river.

or

The

condensingplant is usually taken

feed water

from

the hot

well.
In

plants,when

many

added

dry air pump,

it,the

in addition to

the

are

as

degree of vacuum
condenser is too high,low

water

and

the

is

vacuum

to the

high as 28 in. and over

163. Amount
of Cooling Water.
requiredin a condenser depends
Vacuums

desired,there is
the devices already described.

high

combining chamber so as to remove

removing only the
regular vacuum
pump

This is attached
from

very

"

maintained

The

the

upon

desired.
vacuum

water.

in these
of

amount

the air

plants.
coolingwater

temperature

of the

If the temperature

cannot

be

in

obtained,as the

AND

CONDENSERS
in the condenser

AIR

If the

be less than

cannot

of the

temperature

correspondingpressure as givenin
which is the lowest possiblepressure
lower

is

vacuum

the condenser

the steam

must

be lowered.

can

This

can

Ibs.,

be obtained.

If

leaving

water

be done

in two

ways,

decreasingthe temperature, of

or

the initial temperature

t2

the final temperature of the

jet condenser,

120",

that

let ti

in

well is

tables is 1 7

desired,the temperature of the

the amount,
by increasing
coolingwater.
we

in the hot

water

the

If

241

the pressure
responding
corto the temperature of the boiling
ser.
point in the conden-

pressure

PUMPS

the

of the

of

coolingwater;
coolingwater (and,

the

condensed

steam

also);
"3

the temperature
a

weight

steam

ing
leav-

condenser;

(above 32") in the

heat

the

surface

of the condensed

of the

steam

cooling

enteringthe

water

denser;
con-

entering per

minute ;
w

then the heat

the

weight of

the steam

given up by

win

and

the heat received

by

these two

W(t2

expressionsmust

in

(t2

per

minute;

jetcondenser

32)!,

(i)

the water
=

But

condensed

steam

t,).

be

(2)

ing,
equal, and equatingand solv-

(3)

face
coolingwater per pound of steam enteringa surcondenser
is largerthan that used in a jetcondenser, as the
is higher than the temperasteam
temperature of the condensed
ture
the
condenser.
of the cooling water
leaving
Substituting
/3 for /2 in equation (1),equation (3)becomes,

The

amount

of

yiH^JS)"
[2

which

16

expressionfor the weight of cooling water used

pounds of steam per minute in a surface condenser.

is the

condense

"

to

242

HEAT

In

ENGINES

ordinary stationary practice, 1

ft. of

sq.

face
coolingsur-

is allowed

for every
10 Ibs. of steam
condensed per hour,
where
1 sq. ft.
except in the case of turbines using high vacuum,
is allowed for every 4 to 8 Ibs. of steam.
In navy
practice,from
1 to 1 J sq. ft.of surface

allowed for every

indicated

horse-power.
Increase of Power
by Use of Condenser.
Condensing the
steam
diminishes the back pressure by creatinga partial

164.

are

"

exhaust

in

vacuum

measured

the

exhaust

in inches

maintained

of mercury.

in the
In the

common.

condenser

exceeds

is

vacuum

It is seldom

expressionfor

M.E.P.

This

system.

that

in.,and

26

generally

the

vacuum

in. is

24

more

effective pressure,

mean

Pl

the

is the term
In a nonquantity affected by the vacuum
p2.
condensing engine this is usually about 15 Ibs. and the M.E.P.
about 40 Ibs.,but in the condensing engine the effect of adding
is to lower pz to about 2 Ibs.,and increase the M.E.P.
a condenser
for
of

singlecylinderengine to 53 Ibs.,adding to
the engine about 20 per cent.

the

165.

Condensers

for Steam

plants,surface condensers
the exhaust
condensed

from
is an

the steam

In most

"

turbine

possible in

as

the

does not contain

it contains
surface

of circulating
largequantities
water,

and

turbine

steam

used,principallyfor

ideal feed water,

It is also

matter.

are

Turbines.

horse-power

that

reason

oil,and when

scale-producing

no

condenser

to

thus reduce

use

very

the temperature

of the condenser.
In turbine

plantsan

of the turbine

increase in the

materially,and

increases the

vacuum
means

every

is used

to

omy
econ-

get the

highestpossiblevacuum.
PROBLEMS
1. A

150

H.P.

engine has a guaranteed steam

I.H.P. per hour;
On being tested,it was
found
engine operates 10 hours per day, 300 days

of 20 Ibs. per
The
21.6 Ibs.

consumption
that it took
per

year,

and

$4500

cost
'

produce. How
per
much
should be deducted from the cost price to compensate the purchaser
for the increased cost of operation above that requiredunder the guarantee?
Allow 6 per cent, interest and 5 per cent, depreciation. (Suggestion: Find
the present worth
of an annuity equal to the loss per year due to the excess
steam
consumption.)
2. Given a plant equipped with two
20 Ibs.
5000 H.P. engines that use
of steam
Feed temperature, 70";steam
pressure,
per horse-power per hour.
to

install.

The

steam

costs

25

cents

1000

Ibs. to

Ibs.

150

$2.25

Boilers

these

engines

using

only

the

on

3.
and

The

and

cent,

biiy?

paid

in

days

hour

how

the

new

be

saved

engines

if

depreciation

of

the

If

new

ones

installed;

will

cost

year.

and

are

much
the

Coal

coal.

horse-power

per

for

the

investment,

(6)

10

per

How

much

(a)

and

steam

how

(a)
per

they

year
to

are

engines

per

being

be

engine

the

Allowing

the

per

and

engine,

economical

over

save

Ibs.

1000

per

high-speed

most

I.H.P.

per

cents

hour

per

steam

year.

the

on

of

20

costs

days

I.H.P.

per

Ibs.

26

plant

will

one

of

uses

300

which

the

will

the

depreciation

cent,

Corliss,

the

on

in

day

per

Ibs.

engine

Steam

hours

32

uses

Corliss

H.P.

$2200.
10

runs

engine

100

costs

interest,

per

(6)

be

of

300

per

saved;
can

automatic

H.P.

plant

cent,

much
the

$5

horse-power
be

will

day,

for

243

pound

per

hours
sold

per

how

on

$1500.

hour

steam

water

PUMPS

100

costs

per

cent,

per

cent.

per

(c)

bill;

and

out

of

horse-power

coal

return

Ibs.

of

10

run

taken

are

boiler

many

Engines

12

Ibs.

evaporate

ton.

per

AIR

AND

CONDENSERS

engine

other

to

in

year

per

operation?
4.

engine
I.H.P.

can

per

Engine

per

150".

Cost

units.

by

can

be

one

92

of

Steam

the

hour

give

give
145

pressure,

more

over

in

steam

economical
the

an

other?

each

95

150"

case,

installation

20

Ibs.

per

and

how

steam.

cent.

of

per

per

dry

20

steam

Ibs.

Feed

superheat.
cents

steam

steam

150";

water,

consumption

steam

Ibs.;

14^

of

feed

efficiency,
a

board.

switch

economy

Ibs.;

generator
will

the

at

145

pressure,

cent.;

K.W.

1000
will

which

generating
is

per

per

installed

hour.

deliver
which

Steam

hour.

Which
this

to

installed

be

efficiency,

turbine
K.W.

is

plant

power

water,
heat

1,000,000
much

per

is

saved

CHAPTER

TURBINES

STEAM
166. Historical.

From

"

XV

the

earliest time

attempts have been

produce a rotary motion by steam without converting

into the rotary motion
Devices for
a
reciprocatingmotion
doing this have, with the exception of the steam turbine,been
made

to

failure.
The

modern

of steam
to

Hero's

first contrivance

The

motor.

before

the birth

of this kind

Fig. 137, which

in

turbine, shown

centuries

is the revival of the earliest form

turbine

steam

was

Hero's

of Christ.

dates

back

designed two

turbine

consisted

137.

FIG.

of

hollow

"

Hero's

turbine.

sphericalvessel pivoted on

suppliedwith

steam

from

boiler

central

through

axis.

It

the support M

was

and

from

the sphericalvessel
pivots. The steam escaped
through bent pipes or nozzles,N, N, facingtangentiallyin opposite
Rotation was
directions.
produced by the reaction due to the
one

of the

nozzles,just as a Barker's mill is

moved
Hero's turbine
by the water escaping from its arms.
moved
was
by the reaction of the steam jetsalone,so that it is

steam

called

dischargedfrom

the

reaction turbine.
244

HEAT

246

be used

described may

to

ENGINES

give the drivingimpetus

in

steam

turbine.
168.

Classification.
"

paragraph

166

are

The

two

types of turbines

typical of the modern

described

in

classification of turbines,

viz:
takes
Impulse turbines,in which the expansion of the steam
the
place only in the stationary nozzles or guide vane
passages,
both sides of the moving blades or wheel being the
on
pressure
and

same,

FIG.

139.

"

forces
Diagram illustrating

of

impulse

and

reaction.

Reaction

turbines,in which the expansion takes place either

or
completely, in the moving blades or buckets.
partially

Fig.

In

140

is shown

impulse turbine nozzle and

In this wheel, the motion
blades.
is produced by the impulsive
action of the steam
The entire expansion of
strikingthe blades.
the steam
takes place in the nozzle there being no expansion in
an

actual

the blades.
The

blades and

Fig. 141.

Here

nozzle of
the

partialreaction turbine are shown

expansion of the steam is not complete in

in

the

nozzle,which is so designed that it cannot fullyexpand the steam

of the expansionis
by the time the jethas left it. The remainder
The
nozzles are
shaped like
completed in the blade passages.
the blades,and are called stationary blades.
But they expand
the steam
therefore essentially
as nozzles would, and
are
lent
equivato nozzles.

The

passageways

through the blades

are

conver-

STEAM

TURBINES

247

gent in cross-sections. In commercial

usually made

are

Action

169.

in

steam

the

impulse turbines blade

slightlydivergent.

in Turbine.

of Steam

turbine

steam

fundamentally different from

manner

uses

that in which

of both
reciprocatingengine uses it. The purpose
of the
the potentialor pressure
is to convert
energy
mechanical
work.
The
into
complishes
reciprocating engine ac-

steam

machines
steam

this

FIG.

140.

allowing the

by

nozzle

directlyupon

its

steps in

transformation.

the

steam

piston. In the

is converted

kinetic

energy

work.

The

of the

into

steam

FIG.

Impulse type.

"

Turbine

the

The

"

sages
pas-

to exert

141.

"

Reaction

pressure

type.

blades.

and

steam

turbine, there

First, the
kinetic

jet is changed

potentialenergy

energy;

into

are

and

two

of

second, the

mechanical

or

useful

operationsis performed by the nozzles

whose
function it is to expand the steam
to
from one
pressure
another in such a way
velocityof jet
as to produce the maximum
time to direct this jet properly upon
possible,and at the same
the blades.
or

moving

firstof the two

The

second

elements

of velocity from

the

operation is accomplishedby the blades

whose

functions

steam, and

it is to abstract

convert

it into

the energy
useful form.

HEAT

248

ENGINES

expand partly in the blades,

in addition to the expansion which
has already taken place in
the nozzle.
When
this is the case, the turbine belongs to the

Sometimes, the

is allowed

steam

partialreaction,or Parsons
170.
its

Turbine

Nozzles.
is

pressure

velocity of
proceeds
the

At

the

time

same

also grows

steam

nozzle

the

creased.
correspondingly in-

is

steam

of the

through

flows

steam

the

as

steam

of
The
area
continuallydiminishing pressure.
particularcross-section is dependent upon
any

nozzle

As

particlesof

volume

at

type.

"

gradually reduced.

the

The

to

at

the
well as
of the steam
as
velocity and volume
upon
for
Since the weight is the same
total weight passingper second.
volume
increased at
all cross
if the velocityand specific
sections,
the

the

rate,then the

same

be the

nozzle at all cross-sections would

the nozzle would

and

same

of

area

nothing

be

than

more

tube

of

Throat
Entrance

Mouth

Mouth

Entrance

Throat

FIG.

142.

Turbine

"

nozzle-

FIG.

143.

"

uniform

diameter.

volume
specific

do

As

matter

not

of

form

Ordinary
nozzle.

longitudinalcross-section.

of fact,however, the

increase at the

rate.

same

velocityand

During the
more
rapidly

part of the expansion the velocity increases

than
the specific
volume; while during the latter part of the
increases more
volume
rapidly than the
expansion the specific
velocity. The cross-sectional area of the nozzle is determined by
first

the ratio of

minimum

velocityto volume,

should diminish

and

value and then increase to

maximum

at first to

at the end.

The

point of least cross-section is called the throat and is that placein

the

steam's

increase

progress

through

the

nozzle

at

which

the

rate

of

volume
overtakes the rate of increase in velocity.
specific
dinal
Fig. 142 shows the generalshape of a nozzle on a longituin

shown

is
ordinarily constructed
in Fig. 143,and differsfrom the nozzle of Fig. 142 in that the

throat

cross-section has been

cross-section.

The

The

nozzle, as
moved

very

near

the entrance

convergent portion of the nozzle consists merely of

end.

rounding

divergent portionis comparativelylong and of

straighttaper. All nozzles have a convergent portion. When

or

fillet. The

STEAM
the back
cent,

the nozzle is discharging

is 58 per
of the initial pressure, the nozzle should be wholly

more

convergent

it should

or

to the

discharge end.

58 per

cent,

be uniform

in cross-section from

when

But

the back

of the initialpressure
The

divergent part also.

relation of the
function

249

againstwhich

pressure

or

TURBINES

mouth

the nozzle

of the relation between

to the

should

have

at the mouth

area

the back

is less than

pressure

size of the nozzle

at the

area

then

the throat

at the

pressure

the

or

throat

and

is

the intial

pressure.

The

followingtable

increase

as

how

shows

the

falls during adiabatic

the pressure

CHANGES

STEAM

171.

SPECIFIC

VELOCITY,

IN

FLOWING

Speed of Turbine.

specificvolume

expansion:

XXI

TABLE
RELATIVE

velocityand

THROUGH

VOLUME
A

AND

PRESSURE

OF

NOZZLE

speed at which the blades of the

turbine wheel will give the best efficiency
shows the velocityat
which the steam
tion
In Fig. 144 the direcimpinges upon the blade.
of the steam

Suppose

the

jet as
velocityof

the blade be of such

it leaves
this
form

through an angle of 180".

that

is the turbine

The

"

wheel

jetto

same

the nozzle.
be

as

the

emerge

ft. per

second.

the

same

An

jet is

ft. per

turned

second

second
any

and

let

direction

as

it enters, or

it

steam

left

to be frictionless the steam

will

velocity with

Assuming the blade

with

ft. per

Assuming the blade to be stationary,

blocked, then the speed of the steam

absolute

graduallydeflected

be 2000

that the

relative to the blade will be 2000

is the

the nozzle is representedby ah.

in direction without

which

loss of

the

velocityand will

speed at which it entered, namely,

impulsiveforce will have been exerted

2000
upon

250
the

HEAT

blade, but

because

there

another

case

second.

no

been

in which

Then

will have

energy

has

been

motion

no

the blade

taken

of the

the steam

blade.

with

moves

from

Now

jet

assume

speed of 500 ft. per

the

speed of the jet as it enters the blade will be

second relative to the blade, although the absolute

only 1500 ft. per

that
velocity,

is the

ft. per

the blade

and

before

which

velocityat

nozzle,is still2000
as

ENGINES

second.

The

will emerge

from

the steam

leaves

jet will

continue

it with

the

the

along
speed

same

2000
Steam

Jet

2000
^

_GOO
1000

2000

FIG.

with

144.

which

relative
rea

Diagram showingg

"

it

entered, that is,2000

velocities of steam

ft. per

jetand

second.

since

But

the blade

is traveling
at 500 ft. per second in a direction opposite
to that of the leadingjet,the actual absolute velocityof the jet
at exhaust

from

the energy
has left an

is not

the blade with

per
as

us

assume

second.
enters
[it

blade

and

relative
itself is

abstracted

the

All

jetbecause the steam

represented by the velocityof

still

the

then

jetit will

that

be necessary

in order

1000

to abstract

for the steam

all

to leave

velocity.

no

another

case

in which

the blade
in this

will be

case

1000

the

the blade

speed is

1000

ft.

as

before, the velocity of the jet

1000

ft. per second relative to the

will leave the blade with a

Then, reasoning

velocityof
now

only 1000 ft. per second.

from

of energy
It is evident

amount

ft. per second.

the energy from
Let

the blade will be

steam

ft. per

second.

But

traveling1000 ft. per second, the

since
steam

the

blade

will be dis-

STEAM

charged having

TURBINES

absolute

no

251

velocity. In this

case,

then, all the

kinetic energy
of the steam
has been abstracted by the blade and
it is,therefore,operating under
the most
efficient speed. It
therefore

general that for turbines with a single

of blades and excluding friction,
the peripheralspeed of the
row
blades for greatest efficiency
should be one-half the speed of the
cannot
jet. In actual practicethe steam
usually be deflected
through an angle of 180" nor can the blade be so designedas to
may

avoid

be said in

friction.

Both

these

toward

tend

causes

reducing the

speed of the blade below one-half the speed of the jetfor maximum
this speed reduction being from 10 to 15 per cent.
efficiency,
In

nozzle

absolute to

expanding

issuingjet may

would

give

which

is almost

be

high as

as

blade

construction.

speed of from
prohibitive even

of the multiple pressure

is the attainment

of

1000
the

under

velocity
This

ft. per second,

best mechanical

led to

ment
thexdevelopmultiplevelocitystage
whose
primary purpose

that

has

later and

high efficiencywith

Ibs.

160

second.

ft. per

to

stage and

described

are

of

pressure

4000

1700

It is this condition

turbines,which

of 1 Ib. absolute,the theoretical

pressure

of the

under

steam

much

lower

blade

speed.
172. De

Laval

consists of
wheel

to

The

"

of nozzles

group

which

of this form

Turbines.

the

blades

of turbine

single-stageturbine

Laval

De

located

around

attached.

are

peripheryof a
blades and jets

the

The

diagrammatically in Fig. 145,

in
and a plan of the turbine together with its gearingis shown
Fig. 146. The turbine wheel W is supported upon a lightflexible
shaft between
the bearing Z, provided with a sphericalseat,
and a gland or stuffing-box
of this flexibleshaft
P.
The purpose
is to permit the wheel, when
running at high speeds, to revolve
about

its center

of

gravity instead of

thus reducing vibration

of the shaft to make
wheels

and

steam

function

and

the

its

Teeth

wear.

pinions on

each

are

geometricalcenter,
cut into the metal

side of K

fit the gear

B.

Fig. 145 shows

The

shown

are

the

divergingnozzles

of these

by expanding

nozzles

it.

At

of the De

is to reduce

the

same

time

the
the

Laval
pressure

turbine.
of the

velocityof

the

of pressure
words, the energy
which the steam
contains before entering the nozzles is changed
issues
in the nozzles into the energy
steam
of velocity. The
that
from the nozzles at a very high velocity. It has been shown
steam

is increased.

In

other

HEAT

FIG.

145.

"

ENGINES

De

Laval

turbine

wheel.

L-89

Driven

Coupling
Driving

Coupling

146.

"

Cross-section of De

Laval

turbine.

HEAT

254
In

blade.

or

in Curve

shown

FIG. 148.

and
De

similar
The

I.

Casing

"

the steam
the pressure

change of the

figure shows

of De

issues from

zero

Laval

the

and

that

the

velocityat

the pressure

is

pressure

the

maximum.

impulse turbine.
velocity-stage

nozzle,the velocityis maximum

minimum.

Laval turbines

type in which

the

manner,

to the nozzle is almost

entrance

When

ENGINES

are

the steam

FIG.

149.

"

of the velocity-stage
impulse
is expanded from the initial to the final
also made

Nozzles

of Curtis

turbine.

nozzles,but the velocityis absorbed in two

sets of moving blades with a set of stationaryones
between; and
in the pressure-stageimpulse or multicellular type where
the
steam
expands through successive sets of nozzles with correpressure

in

one

set of

"

STEAM

spending

TURBINES

255

steps,the velocityproduced in each stage being

pressure

This is
expended upon a corresponding row of moving buckets."
wheels each enclosed in a separate
reallya series of single-stage
"

cell

These

types of De

two

similar

are

Curtis

and

turbine

stage turbine
removed.

of

row

and

buckets

of

row

is redirected

moving buckets

173. The

Curtis

Curtis turbine

the

are

second

in

place.

In

Turbine."
De

first

which

by

seen

by

mediate
inter-

the

upon

in the

as

been

the

upon

stationaryguide vanes
the steam

velocity-

nozzles

individual

moving

on.

has

rotor

is directed

steam

later

casing of

after the

The

which

single-stage
Rateau
turbine,

the

shaft."

common

will be described

Fig. 148 shows

upon

turbines

Laval

to
respectively

of which

both

all mounted

and

compartment

or

the

Laval, the

is

expanded in nozzles before

reaching the moving blades, but the
complete expansion from the boiler to
the exhaust pressure
occurs
usually in a
steam

series of stages,

through
separated from

passes

In
Curtis
one

The

succession

very

are

each

small

nozzles

two

steam

of chambers

other

phragms.
dia-

by

sizes of

the

is

usually only
in larger sizes

stage, but

from

the

steps, as

turbines, there

pressure

there

or

to five.

of the Curtis

SECTION

FIG.

turbine

are

150.
velocityand

Variation

of
in
a
pressure
Curtis turbine.
single-stage
"

generally rectangular in cross-section,

and, because they are always grouped close together,they are
either cast integralwith the diaphragms or in separate nozzle
phragms.
plates (Fig. 149), which in assembling are bolted to the diaMost

Curtis

turbines

are

made

with

horizontal

cally.
shafts,though the largersizes often have the shafts placed vertiIn these vertical turbines the weight of the turbine is
supported on a specialfoot-stepbearing which carries the shaft
on

thin film of oil suppliedto the

It is
more

typicalof these

rows

of

blades,or

turbines
"

bearingunder

that

there

are

pressure.

always three

buckets," followingeach

group

of

or

noz-

HEAT

256

zles,and

of these

ENGINES

is stationary. This

arrangement in the
turbine is illustrated in Fig. 150.
No
single-stage
expansion
takes place in the stationary
eral
blades,and the objectin using sevof
reduce
the
be
to
absorbed
blades is on.ly
rows
velocityto
one

and

row,

per

consequentlyto

wheels necessary
buckets

and

in

elevation of

FIG.

The

151.

"

reduce

to attain the best

Fig. 151 shows

or

rows

Path

the

peripheralspeed of
efficiency.

the

through the blades

path of the steam
Curtis turbine, and
Fig. 152 shows the plan
the

two-stage Curtis

of steam
in

turbine.

through moving
a

and

stationarybuckets

Curtis turbine.

speed of the turbine is controlled by

number

of

governor

that "cuts

nozzles

dischargingsteam
by the governor.
through the turbine blades being determined
in a largerange of sizes,
The Curtis turbine is made
being sold in
The most
sizes from
15 to 30,000 kw.
common
applicationof
out"

the

nozzles, the

driving of electric generators.

A section of a 9000 kw. Curtis vertical turbine generator is
This figureshows the electric generator at the
in Fig. 153.
shown
top of the figure,the diaphragms and the wheels of the five presthese turbines is to the

STEAM

TURBINES

stages immediately below, and

sure

174. The
"

termed

cells,or

Turbine.

Rateau

"

The

that is,it
Multicellular,"

the

Rateau
consists of

stages,of which

pressure

at

bottom,

the

step-

turbine

has

been

of the vertical shaft.

the end

bearingat

257

each

stage is like

152.- -Plan and

elevation showing path of steam

of

separate

ELEVATION

FIG.

large number

in

two

-stage Curtis

turbine.

De
single-stage

Laval

turbine.

stage contains

Each

one

row

of

by
blades,so that the velocitythat can be absorbed efficiently
and
the
turbine
must
contain
than
in
the
each stage is less
Curtis,
a

largernumber

Fig. 154
of

groups
17

shows

of stages between

the

diagrammaticallya

nozzles,and therefore with

limits of pressure.
Rateau turbine with two

same

two

pressure

stages. Steam

HEAT

258

FIG.

153.

"

Section

of

ENGINES

9,000 kilowatt

Curtis turbine-generator.

STEAM
at the initialpressure

enters

TURBINES

259

the firstgroup

of the first stage.

of nozzles and

expands

In this

expansion it delivers a
portion of its energy to the blades. It then expands to the
of nozzles,shown in the diaexhaust pressure in the second group
gram
to the pressure

between

the first and

stages.

turbines of this

In the commercial

stage is small and

second

the nozzles

are

fcypethepressure drop at each

always made with a uniform

HV
SECTION

FIG.

154.

"

cross-section
"

Variation

along

of

velocityand pressure
turbine.

their

length; or

non-expanding."
Fig. 155 shows four typicalstages of

156 shows

cross-section of

in

Southwark-

in

two-stage Rateau

other

Rateau
Rateau

words, they

are

turbine,and Fig.
turbine.

Impulse turbines with bucket wheels of

the Pelton type have been developed to the commercial
stage.
and
the
the
Pelton
The Kerr turbine was
was
formerly of
type
most
characteristic. But as constructed at the present time it is
175. Kerr

Turbine.

"

HEAT

260

of the Rateau
practically

ENGINES

Fig. 157 shows a bucket wheel and

Fig.158 shows the new type of Kerr

type.

nozzles of the older type; and

turbine.
176. The
which

the

the bucket

Sturtevant
steam

wheel

jetsare

the

as

turbine,showing

155.

"

Another

on

Four

steam

turbine

in

radial direction upon

the Sturtevant
In this
turbine.

the older Kerr

"reversing"buckets

FIG.

"

dischargedin

is known

respect it resembles
illustrationof this

Turbine.

turbine.

Fig. 159 is

the buckets

the inside of the

stages of Rateau

on

good

the wheel and

casing.

These

re-

turbine.

ence,
versing buckets are not cut all the way around the circumfereach nozzle,depending
but three,four,or five are cut following
The buckets are cut out of the
of the steam.
the velocity
on
solid metal of the rim of the wheel, which is a single forging of
open-hearthsteel. By this construction a wheel of great strength
This
eliminated.
is secured and blade breakage is practically

262

HEAT

turbine

was

amount

of attention and

designed in

ENGINES
all its parts to

requirethe minimum

repairs. It is stated that it can

be erated
oplittle more

continuouslyunder ordinary conditions with

attention
than that required for filling
the oil-wells

once

week.
177. The

Parsons

Turbine.

"

The

Parsons

turbines

are

the

turbines of the reaction type, and these operate

only commercial
this principle.In these turbines the stationary
only partially
on
blades take the place of the nozzles in other forms, and direct the

157.

FIG.

steam

upon

Parsons
admission

the

"

Bucket

moving

turbine is shown

blades.
in

of

The

Fig. 160.

in the

Kerr

turbine.

system of blading in the

Steam

figure,and

enters

from

the

through the
stationaryblades where it expands with an increased velocity.
these blades it is passed to the first set of moving blades,
From
in which it againexpands. The variation of velocity
and pressure
in passing through one
in
of these turbines is clearlyshown
Fig. 160.
A section of one
in
of the simplestParsons turbines is shown
tions
Fig.161. The rotatingpart is a long drum of three different secRows
two
at each end.
supported on
bearings one
of moving blades are mounted
the circumference of this drum
on
and
corresponding stationary blades are fitted to the inside
of the turbine casing. An annular space A is a steam
chest which
this
mains.
From
receives high-pressure
steam
from the steam
space

as

shown

wheel

"

passes

annular
and

space,

the steam

other

annular

spaces

passes

to the

stationaryblades

where

increased in diameter, and

thrust

or

FIG.

of the

steam

pressure,

casing
"

in the

158.

in

"

through alternate

exhaust

There

at B.

the section of the

at these

of moving

rows
are

drum,

or

also two

rotor, is

unbalanced

places is an

sure,
pres-

right (in this design)caused by the

This thrust is increased by the expansion

the

toward

of the steam.

pressure

263

TURBINES

STEAM

Cross-section of

unsymmetrical

new

type Kerr

blades.

To

turbine.

balance

this axial

pistonsare provided at the left end of the

for each section of the rotor.
Passages are cored out

three balance
one

casing to make

each

communicate
balance-piston

correspondingsection of the rotor, so

each pistonis approximately the same

that the steam

as

that in the

with

pressure

its
on

correspond-

HEAT

264

ENGINES
differences in the

ing section. Except for some

the turbine shown
details,
usual Parsons
the steam

decreases

as

The

type.
in
the

The

turbine

is

well the

ting
governed by admit-

interval of time

the

between

puffs

creases,
in-

load

the

capacity of the
is reached, the

turbine

in

is admitted

steam

Fig. 161 representsvery

Parsons

puffs.

until,when
overload

in

cal
design of mechani-

practicallycontinuous
stream.

178.

"Impulseand
Double-flow

"

action"
Rebines.
Tur-

Recently a design

Drum

Rotor

"Hi
SECTION

SECTION

FIG. 159.

"

Sturtevant

turbine.

FIG.

160.

of velocity and
Variation
in a Parsons turbine.

"

pressure

adopted by the Westingdouble-flowturbine has been

sons
Parfor large sizes to replace the single-flow
house Company
type. There are two principaladvantages resultingfrom
this change: (1) end thrust is practically
eliminated;and (2)
the impulse element
reduces very considerablythe length of the
of

turbine.

jFig.162 illustratessuch

double-flow

turbine with

In its essential parts this turbine consists of

element.

nozzles, an

moving

and

impulse wheel with

one
stationary, and
"

three
two

rows

of

intermediate

an
a

impulse
group

blades

"

of
two

and two low-

STEAM

TURBINES

265

266

HEAT
sections of

pressure

Steam

ENGINES

is admitted

chamber

typical Parsons, or
to the turbine through

at the bottom

of the

figure,and

"

reaction"
the

blading.

nozzle

block

or

is

dischargedfrom the
nozzles at a very high velocityto impinge on the impulse blades.
After passingthrough these blades,it divides,one
half expanding
through the intermediate and low pressure Parsons blading
at the right of the impulse wheel, and the other half expanding
through the blading to the left. After leavingthe low-pressure
bladingit exhausts through the passages E, E into the condenser.

FIG.

179.

162.

"

Double-flow

Low-pressure Turbines.

obtained with the modern

Westinghouse turbine.
"

The

condenser

have

of the

turbine in which
low-pressure

below

atmospheric pressure.
pound of steam, expanded in

"A

ordinaryboiler
one

pressures

-half of the total work

pressure

from

the

led to the

the pressure

in the range

other half

be

development
is

range

perfectheat

28-in. vacuum,

can

entirely

motor

from

will

develop about
of expansion above atmospheric

in the

range

of

expansion

The
cating
atmospheric pressure to vacuum.
ordinary reciproin the range
above
engine operates with fair efficiency

atmospheric
third

and

to

that

high vacuums

of

the

pressure,

work

but fails to

develop

more

than

about

one-

available
below
theoretically
atmospheric
This is partlybecause of the narrowness
of the exhaust
pressure.
ports and the alternate coolingand heatingof the cylinderwalls,
but principally
of the lowbecause of the restricted volume
cylinder,or rather,the limitations which are placed
pressure
the ratio of expansion. The
steam
on
turbine, on the other
to
hand, is not hampered in this way, as it is a simple matter
provide all the area requiredby the steam at the lowest condenser
and the alternate heating and coolingof metal surfaces
pressure,

STEAM
avoided.

are

below

With

type of

other

It thus

is better than

conjunction with

through

motor

steam

about

comes

267

types of turbines

most

atmospheric pressure

any

that

the

obtainable

that
any

efficiencyratio
of pressure.

range

turbines

low-pressure steam

with

used

in

efficient

high-pressurereciprocatingengines
ratio
publishedrecord for highest efficiency

present hold the

at

TURBINES

in

largesizes."
"In practiceit is found that a low-pressureturbine of,say, 300
horse-power capacity,will develop a horse-power hour on about
at atmospheric pressure,
28 Ibs. of steam
exhausting into a
of 28 in. In other words, the output of reciprocating
vacuum
creased
engine plants,at present running non-condensing, can be in100 per cent, through the use of exhaust turbines,without
steam
the burning of more
or
requiringthe generation of more
fuel. Where
simpleenginesare at present running condensing,
be increased by
the output of power
can
per pound of steam
60 per cent, and the output of compound
condensingengines by
somewhat
less amount
about 25 per cent.
a
By lengthening
the period of admission
of the engines, the power-producing
capacity can be increased in a stillgreater ratio."
"

180. Mixed
in which

Flow

low

or

pressure

stage from

some

engine, are

known

Turbines.

Mixed

Pressure

steam

is admitted

to

as

the

mixed

or

mixed

as

flow

intermediate

an

exhaust

exterior source,

"Turbines

"

of

pressure

steam

turbines.

usually designedto operate normally with low pressure

steam
only as requiredin case
steam, admitting high pressure
of a deficiency
of the low pressure
steam
supply. They differ
They

are

from

standard

high pressure
condensing turbines principally
in the different proportioning
of the areas
through the two parts
of the turbines and in the provisionof a specialgoverning gear
for automaticallycontrolling
the admission
of the live steam.
In case
of complete failure of the low pressure
steam
supply,
the

turbine

will operate with

alone.

steam

Other

good

arrangements

high
also supplied

economy
are

on

pressure
to

meet

specialconditions."
181. Bleeder
from

an

Turbines."

intermediate

Turbines

stage for

use

of the feed water, etc.,are

from
in

which

steam

is drawn

heating, raisingthe

perature
tem-

called bleeder turbines.

The
Turbine.
steam
turbine
Application of the Steam
is adapted primarily to the drivingof machines
which requirea
high rotative speed. They are not applicablewhere a large
182.

"

HEAT

268

are

which

Its
make

it

is

torque

highly

the

forces

is

therefore

of

vehicles,
of

also

into

coming
and

suitable

freedom
to

this

to

the

power

is

turbine

the

The

or

capable

extensive
from

field.

in

electric

as

vibration

require
of

is
of

more

producing.
in

are

driving

generators,

turbine

driving

use

turbine

the

principally

wheels.

propeller

in

acting

such

load,

applications

than

turbine

uniform

and

Such
effort

use

without

start

propelling

drive.

starting
steam

the

to

as

Their

fans,

centrifugal
suited

required,

small.

relatively

machines

belt

is

effort

starting

ENGINES

marine

points

not

mills

by

initial
The
work.
which

270

HEAT

ENGINES

duction
coke

of power
from the waste
There are stillmany
ovens.

combustion

engineswhich will,in
extensive use as a prime mover.
184. Classification

divided into two

of

Gas

of blast furnaces

gases

and

other
the

of internal
applications
future,increase its already

Gas

Engines.
"

engines

be

may

general types;

(1) those in which the ignitionoccurs

(2) those in which the ignitionoccurs
it is possibleto conceive
Theoretically

at constant
at constant

of

volume;
pressure.

engine working so
ignitionwould occur at constant temperature, but practically
an
engine working in such a cycle has not been constructed.
Engines of the first type may be sub-divided into two classes;
(a) those in which the charge is ignited without previous
an

that

compression,and
(6) those

in which

pression.
charge is ignitedwith previous com-

the

engine built belonged to type (1),

class (a)of which the Lenoir was
a good example; but
owing to
its low efficiency,
this class of engine is no longer used.
the charge
185. Type (1),Class (a). In an engine of this class,
in at atmospheric pressure
for a part of
of gas and air is drawn
its stroke,then the valve is closed and the charge ignited. The
forcingthe pistonforward for the remainder
pressure rises rapidly,
of the stroke.
On the return stroke, the products of ignition
forced out of the cylinder. The working cycle consists of:
are
(1) feeding the cylinderwith explosivemixture; (2)ignitingthe
charge of gas and air;(3) expanding the gases after explosion;
Fig. 163 shows an indicator
(4) expellingthe burned gases.
is the atmoscard taken from an engine of this class. Line AB
pheric
A to C the charge is drawn in,from C to D
line. From
explosionoccurs, from D to E the gases expand, and along the
the gases
lines EB
and BA
are
expelledfrom the cylinder.
Owing to the lack of previouscompression,the pressure at D
must
exceeding 40 Ibs.
always be comparatively low, seldom
The

first internal combustion

"

lower initial temperature

This, of course, means
reduced
point of explosion and correspondingly

type of engine uses

about

60,000 B.T.U.

per

at the maximum
economy.

This

horse-power

per

hour.

interestingmodification of this type of engine is the

free piston engine of Otto and Langen, which was first shown at
The
not originalwith
idea was
the Paris Expositionin 1867.
A

very

THE
but

them

the

INTERNAL

ENGINE

COMBUSTION

engine was

adaptation of

271

engine originally
in Italy
proposed (but never
built)by Barsanti and Matteucci
in 1854.
In this particular
cally
type of engine the cylinderis set vertiand the piston is shot up by the explosionof the gases,
without
stroke it engages,
resistance. On its return
through
suitable mechanism, with the fly-wheelwhich
is rotated by the
forces of gravity and atmospheric pressure
acting against the
piston on this downward
or
working stroke.

FIG.

186. Type
at
was

constant

first

(1),Class
volume

an

Type (1),class (a).

163."

(b). In this engine, explosionoccurs

with previous compression. This cycle
"

de

proposed by Beau

put into successful

engine

stroke

of the

charge

compressed.

FIG.

in

1862, and

Otto

in

1876.

In

in with

the

the

164."

air is drawn

and

engine, and
Near

Rochas

operation by

of gas

an

the

on

end

of

return

the

stroke

this

was

the

first
Otto

first out

charge

compression stroke,

is

the

Type (1),class (6)" Otto cycle.

the

followingout stroke, expands.

On the next return stroke the chargeis expelledfrom the cylinder.
There are five operationsin this cycle:(1)chargingthe cylinder
with gas and air; (2) compressing the charge in the clearance
the mixture; (4)expanding the hot gases after
space; (3)igniting
ignition;(5) expellingthe burned gases on the exhaust stroke.
in Fig. 164.
A diagram of this cycle is shown
Along the line
charge is ignited,and

AB

the

charge is drawn

on

in; along the line BC

it is

compressed;

HEAT

272

ENGINES

along CD it is ignited;along DE it is expanded; and

it is expelled from the cylinder.
Otto

compressed the

realize that this

which

his

gases

did

previous to ignitionbut

in itself the

was

along EA

for the marked

reason

not

economy

enginesthat had previously

been built. He attributed the economy
of his engineto the compression
of the gas producing a thorough mixture and preventing
the gas and air from being in layersin the cylinder.
The cycle just described is that of " four-cycle
engine,that is,
to complete the cycle of the gases
requiresfour strokes of the
engine. In the two-cycleengine the same
cycle of events for
the gases
The

engineshowed

over

all other

is

completed in two strokes.

method
of obtaining the full cycleof events in

in the smaller

two

strokes

types of engines is illustrated in Fig. 165.

1.
FIG.

165.

"

2.

Cross-section

of

two-cycle engine.

Figure 165-1 shows the engine in its initial position. The

fly-wheelhas previouslybeen rotated, drawing a charge of gas
and air through port I into the engine base and partly compressing
it there.
In the largerengines this charge of gas and
the fuel
air is externallycompressed. In the position shown
charge previouslycompressed in the base is enteringthe cylinder
time the burned gases are leaving
through the port 1%. At the same
the cylinderthrough the exhaust port Is. A deflectingplate
P on the head of the cylinderprevents the incoming gases from

passing out
covers

of

the

ports Iz and

clearance

space.

center, shown

in

exhaust

port.

Is, and further

As

the

piston moves

compresses

the gas

up

it

into the

dead
piston approaches the upper
Fig. 165-2, the gases are ignited. This ignition
As

the

INTERNAL

THE
when

occurs

be said to

COMBUSTION

pistonis practically
stationaryso

the

at constant

occur

ENGINE

the

rapid heating of the

for

volume.
due

The

pressure

273
that it may

produced by

forces the piston

ignition,
down
the dead center is passed. While the piston
as
soon
as
is in the position
in Fig. 165-2, port / is fullyuncovered
shown
and the vacuum
of the piston
produced by the upward movement
draws
air and gas through the carbureter into the crank case
air for the next cycleof the engine.
so as to furnish fresh gas and
stroke of the pistonthe burned
During the followingdownward
the piston are allowed to expand, and the fresh
above
gases
charge below it is compressed. This stroke brings the piston
in Fig. 165-1 and the cycleof operations
to the positionshown
is thus completed in two strokes instead of four, as described
gases

to

engine.
four-cycle

187. Type (2). The most representative

engine of this type
in commercial use is the Diesel.
"

typicalindicator card of this

engineis shown in Fig. 166.
In this engineair isdrawn in on

the downward

stroke and

compressedon
to

pressure

the next up stroke

of about 500 Ibs.

inch.

per square

The

sion of the gas to this

sure
over

then

compres-

highpres-

increases itstemperature to

1000" F.

of the next

At the

down

FlG'

Card "f

m-

beginning

stroke

of the

pressed
engine fuel oil previouslycomto a pressure
of about 800 Ibs. is injected
into the cylinder
and owing to the high temperature of the air in the cylinder,
the
oil on enteringis ignited. The heat produced by this ignition
of
the oil maintains the pressure in the cylinderup to the point at
which the oil supply is cut off by the governor.
For the remainder
this
stroke
the
of
are
expanded. On the
gases in the cylinder
fourth stroke of the enginethe gases are exhausted from the cylinder.
The cycleof operationis shown
in Fig. 166 in which the
line AB
representsadmission,BC compression,CD the periodof
fuel admission controlled by the governor,
DE
expansion,and EA
The cyclejustdescribed is for a four-cycle
representsexhaust.

motor, but this

In the

same

two-cyclemotor
on

18

the

next

cycle may

duringthe
stroke

be used

in

two-cycle motor.

firststroke the air will be

(for about
expansion]

75

per

pressed,
com-

cent.

274

HEAT

ENGINES

INTERNAL

THE

stroke),exhaust

the

of

COMBUSTION
and

two-cycle Diesel engine the

by the external pump
driving

burned

the

out

cylinder.
Until recentlythe
horizontal enginesare

and

shaft

air

also

For

the

entering the cylinder is

pressed
com-

to about
or,

will

275

8 Ibs. and
it is

as

occur.

this air assists in

called,scavenging the

engines have been

but
vertical,

air in two

compresses

now

of this type.

being made

Diesel engine for marine

four-cylinder
is coupled to one
end of the
vertical air pump

shows

Fig. 167*
A

admission

gases

Diesel

ENGINE

stages from

750

poses.
pur-

crank

100Q Ibs.

to

is provided that

adjuststhe speed from 150

to 400 r.p.m.
By reducing the quantity of fuel delivered by the
the speed can be stillfurther reduced.
The working cycle
pumps
the same
and details of operation are essentially
in the older
as
types of stationaryDiesel engine. The engineshown in the figure
is a recent type of high-speedDiesel engine and develops about
250 H. P., is 11 ft. 10 in. long,39 in. wide and 7 ft. high. The
weight of the engine is about 26,000 Ibs. The actual test of
this engine showed
J Ib. of fuel oil per
a consumption of about
A governor

pressure.

horse-power per hour at 350 r.p.m. and a full load.

about
mechanical
at full load was
78 per cent.
efficiency

brake

engine converted

about

into available mechanical

56

per

cent.,

available

so

heat

that

cent, of the total heat

34 per

Its theoretical

energy.

about

60

per

In

principal types of engine we

conditions; one in which the

must

exhaust

Theoretical

pressure

exhaust

and

pressure

of the fuel

actually utilized in the engine.

was

Cycles.
from
expressionfor efficiency
188.

This

was
efficiency
theoretically

of the

cent,

The

"

and

one

begins

at

the

gas

theoretical
in each
is

in which
a

the

determining

cycles for the two

case

distinguishtwo

expanded completely

the gas

pressure

mathematical

is

to the

partiallyexpanded

higher than

the

exhaust

line.

Fig. 168 represents an engine of type (1),class (b) working

and CB
assumed
to be
with complete expansion. Lines DE
are
volume
line,line BE is a constant
adiabatics,line CD is a constant
line. All the heat will be absorbed
along the line
pressure
and

CD
heat

all the heat

received

along line CD

temperature
*

Figure taken

will be

from

at C

by Tc

rejectedalong
be
and

the line EB.

represented by H
at D

by Td;

and

let the heat

Power, August 15, 1911, p. 248.

Let

the

the absolute

rejected

HEAT

276

representedby Hz and the absolute temperature

by Te and at B by Tb; and let the weight of the charge w.
be

along EB
at E

Then

Hl

and

Hz
work

The

ENGINES

done

HI

Hi

Efficiency
=

wcv(Td
wcp(Te

Hz

wcv(Td

wcv(Td

H2

Tc)
Tb)

Tc)

"

ff~~

wcp(Te

wcv(Td

wcp(Te

Tb)

Tb)

Tc)

Te-Tb

1-7

From

(1)

Tc

Td-

Fig. 168 it will be seen that for any compression temperature

there is a
Tc and given rise in temperature during ignition
Y

FIG.

168.

temperature Te
pressure

Type (1),class (6)

"

"

at

line AB.

We

at

line touches

therefore,establish

can,

Tb, TC} Td and Te.

complete expansion.

adiabatic

the

which

with

If

we

allow

the pressure

back

tween
relation beand

particularp oint to be represented by P and

with a subscriptcorrespondingto the letter at

each

the

volume

V
that

tively,
respec-

point,

then

PdVJ

PcVcy

and

PeVy

(2)

PbVb.y

(3)

Dividing (2)by (3)

Vd

But

Vc and Pe

Pb,

V7

Pd
therefore

Pd
and

then

and

since

Tc
=

Ve

Te

Fi

Te

T"
_

~Tc~~Tt
Te

Tl

(4)

HEAT

278

ENGINES

Therefore
fTf

FT!

and

YcJ

Yd
by subtraction,
FT?

rrj

fji

rrj

1 b

"

J^b

x"v

J-d

J-d

J-c

J-c

"

Substitutingequation (6)in equation (5),

Efficiency

(7)

~-

J- c

important expression in connection with the

of a gas engineworking
gas engine. It shows that the efficiency
in the Otto cycledepends upon the temperature before and after
compression. The knowledge of this fact,first demonstrated
highby Dougal Clerk,has led to the production of the modern
fact will also be proved for the
efficiency
engine. The same
other types of engines.
The efficiency
also be expressed in terms
of the Otto cycle may
This

is the most

of volume
Since

the

or

pressure.

is

compression curve

Tb_

adiabatic,

an

=:

\Fi

Tc

rri

Substitutingthis value of

equation (7),we

in
"

"L

have

Efficiency
=

where

Equation (8)shows
with

is

(8)

compression.

depends upon
efficiency

that the

Vit the clearance

Finallysince BC

the ratio of

TT

(j^)

and

varies

volume.
an

adiabatic,
zv
~

Tc

Substitutingthis

value

in

equation (7),we

have

/Ph\ y^l

Efficiency
=

(-"")
y

(10)

increases as the
equation (10)it is seen that the efficiency
Pc will
compression pressure, P", increases,since the pressure
From

remain

nearly constant.

INTERNAL

THE
In

COMBUSTION

developing the expressionfor

ENGINE

the

279

of
efficiency

engine

an

that the comworking in the Type (2) cycle,it is best to assume

pression
takes place in the same
cylinder as the expansion and
exhaust, although in the actual engine two cylindersare used.

Fig. 170
when

the theoretical

shows

there

assumed

is

to be

complete expansion.
adiabatics.

under

diagram

The

All the heat

this

lines BC

and

then

must

assumption,
DE

are

be absorbed

Let the
along the line CD and all rejectedalong the line EB.
heat received along CD
be represented by H\t and the absolute
temperature at C by Tc, and at D by Td; let the heat rejected
along EB be represented by Hz, and the absolute temperature
at E by Te, and at B byTb; and let the weight of the charge
w.
=

FIG.

170.

"

Then

Hl

and

#2

The

work

done

with

Type (2)

"

HI

wcp(Td
wcp(Te
H2

Tc)
Tb)

wcp(Td-

#2

1-

Efficiency

complete expansion.

wcp

(Td

Hl

(Td

Tc)
Tc)

wcp

Tc)

(Te

wcp(Te

--

(Td

wcp
-

(Te

-"

Tb)
Tb)

Tc)

Tb)

Td-Tc
Tc-

Tb

(ID

TdBoth

curves

are

adiabatic,hence
/

/Pe\^

Te
=

Td

(Pb\

(pj

IP;)

Tb

Therefore

and

by subtraction,
Te

Te-

Td

Td

Tb
-

Te

(12)

HEAT

280

ENGINES

Substitutingequation (12)in equation (11),

/TT

Efficiency

"

Since the

compressioncurve

adiabatic

/FeV-1

Tc

\vj

Tb

/Pb\r=i

=:

for

values

(13)

is an

Tb

Substitutingthese

(seeequation 7)

--,--.

_J_
=

r^-1

in

/PA i^-1

equation (13),we

have

fVc\y~1

Efficiency

constant
The
BC

Diesel
pressure

DE

(15)

(seeequation 10)

p-j

171."

(16)

Theoretical Diesel cycle.

engine
and

the

as

heat

cycleis approximately that

and

(14)

T-1

/PA

FIG.

the

(seeequation9)

^" [

"

(seeequation 8)

In

(y~)

"

are

assumed

to

built

now

ignition occurs

at

rejectedat constant volume.

The lines
in Fig. 171.
shown

is

be adiabatics.

All the

heat

must

along the line CD and all rejectedalong EB.

Let the heat received along CD
be representedby Hi, and the
absolute temperature at C by Tc and at D by Td',and let the heat
perature
rejectedalong EB be representedby H2, and the absolute temthe weight of the
at E by Te and at B by Tb. Assume
This assumpchargeto be constant for the cycleand equal to w.
tion
then

be absorbed

is permissiblesince the fuel is oil and

of the
Then
and

the increase in weight

charge is small.
Hi
H2

wcp(Td -Tc)
wcv(Te
Tb).
-

The

work

COMBUSTION

INTERNAL

THE
done

Hl

Efficiency

Hz

wcp(Td

#2

(Td

wcp

^Te)

cp

Te

WCp

(T.

cv

(Td

ENGINE

Tc)
Tc)

wcv(Te

wcv(Te

(Td

281

Tb).

Tb)_

r;}

Tb)

Tc)

Tb

y(Td-Tc)'
Since

CD

is

constant pressure line and EB

constant

volume

line

Td

TcVydc

Pe

Te
and

But

(19)

YbP.

(20)

and Pb in

equations(20) and (21) for Pe

Substituting
(19)we

(18)

equation

have

'I"' (ay
"

r.

\VJ

Tb~

"-**\T.l
Substitutingequations(18) and

(17)we

(22) for Td and

Te in equation

have

Efficiency
=

"

(m

V*

\lcve~
T
Tb
=

i (Vd\y

( (vj

(23)

1-

(compare
1-

with
,

equations(24)

9 and

since

15)

282

HEAT

ENGINES

From

equation (24) it is seen

cycledepends not only upon the
the ratio
^
v

upon

clearance
189.
card

lines.

at

cut-off to the

Engine. Fig. 172 shows the theoretical

engine in full lines,and the actual card in dotted
"

difference between
the

to

differs from

losses.

the actual and

The

the theoretical line BC

actual

the combustion

in actual

of the gas

theoretical

card is

compression line BF

because

cylinderwalls during compression.

assumes

of the loss of heat to

The

to take

theoretical

line CD

while
place instantly,

operation,as shown

takes

gas

the ratio of the volume

or

in the Gas

gas

The

largely due
the

ratio of

of the Diesel
efficiency
compression,r, but also

volume.

Losses

of

that the

by the line FG, the burning of the

appreciablelengthof time, and may continue to mid-

an

':

FIG.

172.

stroke.

Due

pressure

at

there is also

actual and

theoretical indicator

fact,it is impossibleto obtain full theoretical

the beginning of the stroke.
During this operation
The expansionline DE in
a loss of heat to the walls.

is not

card
an

is assumed

to be

an

after-burningalways
as
adiabatic,

line,and in addition there is a largeloss of heat

jacketsurrounding the cylinderof the engine.
are

from

(a) The

The

adiabatic.

this

There

cards.

to this

the theoretical
line GH

between

Difference

"

other losses in the gas

the indicator

enginewhich

are

occurs

actual

along

to the water-

not

so

ent
appar-

card.

largestof all losses is the loss of heat in the exhaust

INTERNAL

THE
which

gases,

leave the

COMBUSTION

engine at

ENGINE

283

high temperature, usually over

500".

(b) The next largestloss is the heat carried away by the waterjacket. This water-jacketis necessary in all stationaryengines
to prevent overheating of the cylinder. A similar loss occurs
in
all air-cooled cylinders.
(c) The loss due to the charge of gas and air entering the
cylinderbeing heated by coming into contact with the hot parts of
the

engine. This heating of irhe charge increases its volume and

the engine receives less weight of gas and givesa correspondingly
reduced

horse-power.

(d) There
due

is

loss of effective pressure

to the resistance

in inlet and

The

followingis a statement
engine taken from actual tests
Heat

used in indicated work

Heat

lost in exhaust

Heat

lost in

Heat

lost in radiation and

The

relative

in the

exhaust

valves.

of the distribution
and

expressed in

per

gas

cent.

33 per cent.
5 per cent.

conduction

the

of heat in

25 per cent.
37 per cent.

jacket water

loss from

working medium

exhaust

in the

and

jacket varies

widely in different e, gines. In some

engines the exhaust and
the jacket
jacketlosses are nearl^ the same
amount, and in some
The loss in the
loss is even
higherthan the loss in the exhaust.
increased
jacketmay be appreciablydecreased and the efficiency
will
as successful operation
by running the jacketwater as warm
permit.
be
190. Gas-engine Fuels.
The fuel used by gas engines may
"

classified under

three different heads:

1. Solid fuels.
2.

Liquid fuels.

3. Gaseous

fuels.

The

fuel,no matter
changed to a gaseous

what
form

its

originalstate

before

it

can

be

be,

may

used

in

an

must

be

engine.

be
means
fuel,it is necessary that some
provided for vaporizing them before they are used in the engine.
With

the first two

In the solid

forms

of

fuels,they

are

vaporized in

some

They are then used in the engine as

the liquidfuels,
vaporizationtakes place in some
in the cylinderitself.
or vaporizer, or

of gas ducer.
proproducer gas. In
form

form

reter,
of carbu-

284

HEAT

191.

Gas

Producers."

ENGINES

In the gas

heat of the fuel

producer,the

bed

distilsthe volatile gases from the fresh coal,leavingcoke.

This coke is burned to CO
by introducinginsufficient air. A
small

portion of the carbon

anthracite coal have

and

bituminous

been

is

changed

to

in successful

use

producers

are

CC"2.
for

coming

now

in usingbituminous
difficulty

coal

as

into

Producers
number
use.

fuel for

using

of years,
The principal

producers is

in

removing, or preventing, the formation of tar. The future

of the bituminous
success
producer depends upon the thorough
removal
There

of the tar.
are

two

types of producers:(a) pressure, and (b)suction

producers. In the

FIG. 173.

Cross-section of suction

"

to the

producer by

of the

engine'sdemand

fan.

The

rate

of

gas

steam

are

furnished

producer.

productionis independent

and

furnished to the engine

equivalentto

type, the air and

pressure

the gas must

The gas is
be stored.
at the pressure
ally
produced by the fan,usu-

pressure

of

2-

or

3-in. column

of water.

In the suction

type, the air is drawn through the producer by

the suction formed in the engine cylinder,
so that the rate of production
of gas in the

of the
producer depends upon the demand
furnishes the necessary
engine. The producer then automatically
amount
of gas for the operation of the engine,so that no storage
tank

is

The
gas

required.

suction

produceris becoming very popularfor use with the

in the smaller sizes. The pressure proengine,particularly

HEAT

286

ENGINES

192.

Vaporizationof Oil. The lighteroils,such as gasoline,

are
easilyvaporized by either spraying the oil into a current of
air,or allowinga current of air to pass over the surface of the oil.
be increased or assisted in four ways:
This vaporizationmay
(a) By the applicationof heat;
(6) By increasingthe surface of the oil exposed to the air;
(c) By reduction of pressure or increase in vacuum;
(d) By keeping the air which is in contact with the gasolineas
fresh or as far from the saturation point as possible.
"

With

the

heavier

oils,such

as

distillates and

crude

oil,it is

other means
of vaporizing the oils.
provide some
There
two
In
are
generalmethods to accomplish this purpose.
engines such as the Hornsby-Akroyd, the oil is injectedinto a
cylinderagainsthot plates,or a hot ball,and is almost instantly
In other
vaporized by the contact with the red-hot surface.
external to the
engines the oil is vaporized in a heated chamber
engine. Initial vaporization is often produced by artificially
heating the chamber, and after the engineis in operation,the oil is
of the exhaust passingthrough pipes located in
heated by means
this chamber.
Engines have been placed on the market which
from the wells,and have given fair
used crude oil justas it comes
in using crude oils is in taking care
The
satisfaction.
difficulty
such as paraffine and asphalt, that
of the heavier ingredients,
necessary

The

in them.

occur

into

be at

sufficient temperature

vaporizingthese heavier oils they will be broken

which
are
more
lighter compounds
easilyvaporized.
be broken

Asphalts cannot
Alcohol.

193.

except

hot surface must

that in

so

up

to

"

while alcohol does not

must

is similar

Alcohol

that it will stand

and

up

much

very

contain

in

be removed.
its nature

to

kerosene,

highercompression,so that,

the heat

value

of the petroleum

it will,nevertheless,give almost as much

oils,
power
per pound,
be obtained
which may
owing to the fact of the higherefficiency
by its highercompression. In this country, alcohol has not yet
been extensively
used, but it has been largelyused in Europe and
In usingalcohol in connection with the engine,
Central America.
of heating it so as to
to provide some
it is usuallynecessary
means
alcohol usually
rapid vaporization. Commercial
produce more

contains not

less than

higher.

For

should not contain

more

be

much

water, and the percentage may

operation in a gas engine,it
satisfactory

5 per

than

cent,

10 per cent, water.

THE

INTERNAL

COMBUSTION

194.

ENGINE

287

The heatingvalues of the variHeating Value of Fuels.

ous
in
the
fuels are given
followingtable:
"

TABLE
CALORIFIC

VALUE

CALORIFIC

195. Fuel

Mixtures.

"

GASEOUS

OF

VALUE

The

XXII.

OF

LIQUID

mixture

FUELS

FUELS

of air and

gas

in internal

engines is very important. The possible power

derived
from
an
engine depends upon
obtaining the proper
mixture
of air and gas.
Under
ordinary conditions of pressure
and temperature, a mixture of CO and air will be explosive
when
the range
is from 16 to 74 per cent., by volume, of CO.
With
of mixture is from 8 to 19 per cent.;
illuminating
gas, the range
with gasoline,
It will be noticed that the
from 2J to 5 per cent.
possiblerange of mixtures varies very widely with the nature of
combustion

the

gas

obtained

used.
when

Experiments
the air in the

show

that

the

best

in
cylinderis slightly

results
excess

are

of the

theoretical mixture.
gine
Propagation. A very important point in gas enis
the
flame
rate of
propagation through the mass
operation

196. Flame

of the gas.

"

If this rate is slow, the pressure

will not be obtained

HEAT

288

ENGINES

quicklyenough for the engine to give its maximum

horse-power.
the mixture of the
The rate of flame propagationdepends upon
the method
of ignition.In largeengines it is
upon
gas and
than one igniter
an
becoming a custom to put more
engineso
upon
to produce more
as
rapid flame propagation. High compression
has a tendency to reduce the rate of flame propagation. On tfhe
other hand, however, compressionof the gases increases the ease
be ignited,
and the range of the explosive
with which they may
mixture.
Owing to slow flame propagation, ignition takes
place before the beginning of the working stroke.
The determination of the power
of
-power.
its dimensions
is much
difficultthan of a
more

197. Rated

Horse

"

enginefrom
steam
engine. The theoretical diagram,althoughquitedefinitely
value in determining the horse-power.
defined is not of much
conditions such as
The actual diagram is influenced by so many
tions
the qualityand purityof gas, temperature of the mixture,condiof combustion, heat losses,location and kind of ignition,
and other items,that it is possible
chamber
form of combustion
to obtain almost any result. The card factor as appliedto the
steam
engineis of littlevalue as it shows variations under different
It is not surprising
therefore
conditions as high as 100 per cent.
exist for determiningthe.principal
methods
sions
dimenthat numerous
all of these based on assumpof internal combustion engines,
tions
results.
givingonly approximate
a

gas

One of the best methods

and

for combustion
when
This
years

on

is based
the

on

and

thermal

of air necessary
volumetric efficiencies

the amount

engine is operatingwith the quantity of air assumed.

method
was
developed by Hugo Giildner and for many
the

used with

this has been

Nn

for all sizes and

types of

for various fuels.

enginesand
Let

success

normal

or

rated

horse-power.

r.p.m.

heating value of the fuel in B.T.U."

per pound for liquids.
per cubic foot for gas
fuel consumption per hour at normal
output
in pounds for liquids.
in cubic feet for gas
at the brake.
economic or thermal efficiency
the lower

"

Ch

"

"

yw

*"

Nn X 33000

rhen'

"

G"

2545
~

2545
whence

X 60

"

X N,

^rw~
rjw A /i

X Nn

,".

INTERNAL

THE
Let

Cst

fuel

Lst

ENGINE

suction stroke.

of air in cubic feet

amount

289

suction stroke.

consumption per
comsumption per

proper

air

COMBUSTION

requiredper cubic

fuel.
foot of gas or per pound of liquid
diameter of the cylinder.

stroke of the

engine.
volumetric efficiency.
t]v
Then, for a singleactingfour-cycleengine
S

Ch

^.SXN^

ChXL

84.8XJVnXL

30

Xn~

nXHXrjw

two-cycleenginesequations(27)and (28)must be divided by 2

of the actual charge
During one suction stroke the volume

For

in is

drawn

D2
_

r
C." +

T
Lst

?r

actual

pistondisplacement
volumetric efficiency

^-

4 x

84.8XATnX(l+L)

....

Cublc feet

Solvingfor D,

S, and n,
=

get for engines usinggaseous

we

fuels:

Vsx SfS^-A

"

(")

X^X^

(1+L)
Xr,v

liquidfuel enginesthe

For
as

the volume

term

of fuel is very

(1-fL)

small

(32)

^'m'

may

compared

be put

equal toL,

with the volume

of

air.
In view

of the amount

of

experimentaldata

of the efficienciesrjw and

different types and
purpose

rjv

Tables

XXIII

TABLE

XXIII."

.88

.93

"

sizes of
and

XXIV

are

tion
selec-

the air

and

engines can

VOLUMETRIC

For slow

t]v,

available

be

consumption for
For this
easilymade.

inserted.

EFFICIENCY"

rjv,OF

GAS

ENGINE

speed engines with mechanically operated inlet

valve.
?7v

.80

"

.87

For slow

speed engineswith automaticallyoperated inlet

valves.
rjv

.78

?7v

.65

r)v

.50

"

-85

For

engineswith mechanicallyoperated inlet

high speed-

valve.

19

"

"

.75
.65

high speed engineswith automatic inlet valve.

For very high speed automobile engines with automatic
inlet valves and air cooling.
For

290

HEAT

ENGINES

"

"^

"
O

1
s

"
73

S3^
o.
"_,

203
|
0

to
15
o

"S3
0

5
i
a
o

D, stroke S and speed n have

Diameter

291

ENGINE

COMBUSTION

INTERNAL

THE

certain relation to each

and with

pistonspeeds up

and

for smaller

1200

Example.
per

safelybe built with

Present-dayenginescan

other.

minute
gas

ones.

cylinderdiameter,stroke and revolutions

of a four-cycle,
one-cylinderanthracite producer
single-acting,
ft.
of
800
of
170
a
piston speed
per
H.P., having
engine
the

Determine

"

and

minute

2.5,

for largeengines

minute

to 800 ft. per

1 to

ratio

stroke-diameter

1.35

-w

.90

table XXIII

use

rjv

From

table XXIV

use

17. =.26

140

Solution." From

and

B.T.U.

since

^=

Z.IL)

Zo

solvingfor

W8XNn(l+L)
=

\S

XnXHXirvX
=

.35 X
V1-3

77,

1.877' feet

170

800

140 X

2.7

2.5 X

.26 X

.9

22.5 inches

22.5

1.35 X

108 X

30 inches

800
77

2~X30

r'P'm"

and
stroke of a two-cycle,
the diameter
Example. Determine
4-cylinderDiesel Oil Engine of 150 H.P., having 350
single-acting,
of 700 ft. per minute.
r.p.m. and a pistonspeed
"

Solution.

"

From

table XXIII

rjv

From

table XXIV

i,w

-80

.32

develop 2

cylindermust

Each

18'""

700 X
*

=
.

H.P.

18.75

12
=

108

350

18.75

312
--

American

The

determines
the formula

350

18,000 X

of

.32 X

_
=

7/ .o

"

0.80

Automobile

Manufacturers

automobile
output of four-cycle

enginesby

"

B.H.P.
where

of

Association

the normal

cycle.

2 X

per

the diameter

(33)

ber
cylinderin inches,and N the numis based on a piston speed of 1000 ft.

of the

cylinders. This rule

^|y^

HEAT

292
per minute

and

ENGINES

has,of course,

and conventional value

arbitrary

an

only.
rated

The

horse-power of a gas engine to drive a given size

generator is quite different from that of a steam engine

electric

to drive the

machine.

same

engine as rated has

engine can carry a

is due to the fact that

This

gas

littleoverload

capacity,while a steam
25 per cent, overload
continuouslyand a
In order to
50 per cent, overload for a short period of time.
allow for the overload capacityof the generator,the gas engine
be sufficiently
must
large to drive the generator under that
very

condition.
As
gas

example, to drive
engine is used, while
an

be

It should

their output,

on

noted

that,

generator with

same

present, gas engines are rated

horse-power,while steam engines are

brake

or

drive the

to

H.P.

4500

engine is used.

H.P.

engine, a 3000

steam

k.w. generator,

2000

at

their indicated

horse-power,and that,as stated above,

their maximum
rated at practically
capacity,
gas engines are
while steam
engines are rated at the I.H.P. at which they give

rated

on

the best economy.

Actual

198.

Horse

H.P.) of
(I.

-power.
gas

in

determined

may

be

done

in the

that in the

case

of the

actual

The

"

indicated

power
horse-

engine already built and in operation

almost
as
was
exactly the same
way
steam
engine, the only difference being

formula,
plan
i.tt.r.

33000'

finding the horse-power of

explosionsper minute, when
of the steam
the gas engine, while when
finding the power
engine,it was equal to the revolutions per minute.
n

In both

cases,

I
a

the

length of

the

cross-sectional

square

The

the

in

feet,and

area

of the

The

from

effective pressure

is found

by taking indicator

the

cross-sectional
is

area

usually one-fourth

of the
of

piston in

inches.

engine and then multiplying, by the

spring used, the quotient found by dividing the
card by its length.

cards
the

mean

stroke

piston in the
square

gas

inch,while

scale of
area

of

cator
engine indithat

of the

CHAPTER
DETAILS
199.

In

OF

general,the

frame

and
than

working parts of the gas engine

the correspondingparts of a

is largelydue to the fact that the number

This

engine.

steam

CONSTRUCTION

GAS-ENGINE

heavier in construction

are

XVII

of

is less than
impulses given the gas engine for the same
power
those given the steam
engine, and hence each impulse in the gas
force.
engine must exert more
FRAME.

medium
The

main

size.

The

barrel of the

bearingsupports are

FIG.

CYLINDER
inserted

the frame

Fig. 174 shows

"

AND

174.

PISTON.

in the frame

as

"

"

of

modern

cylinderis cast

cast in the

Gas

same

gas

with

engine of
the frame.

frame.

engine frame.

liningof the cylinderis

separate piece,except in the smaller
The

inner

engines.
Fig. 175 shows the piston and pistonrings. Three rings,at
least,and often six or seven, are used in a gas engine. It is very
important that the piston fit the cylinderas closelyas possibleso
to hold the compression. The
as
piston shown is for a single294

DETAILS

GAS-ENGINE

OF

acting engine, and serves

cross-head pin is shown

piston. This is the

RODS.

similar to

The

"

types of

valves

used have

engines,and

gas

are

most

monly
com-

size

The

"

MECHANISM.

for all

medium

connecting rods used

those in steam-enginepractice.

CONNECTING

same

as

construction for small and

used

VALVE

at the

295

The
piston and cross-head.
and is placed in
top of the figure,

in the side of the

the hole shown

are

both

CONSTRUCTION

engines.
in gas engines

been

almost

the

of the poppet type.

always mechanically operated, but the

inlet valves may
be either automatic or mechanicallyoperated.
Fig. 176 shows the cross-section of a four-cyclegas engine,

The

exhaust

and

shows

valves

of roller

inlet and

both

operated from

are

valves.

These

shaft at the side of the

cam

In

cams.

exhaust

engines these

some

cams

valves

engine by
are

are

means

replacedby

eccentrics.

FIG.

WATER-JACKET.

175.

"

"

Piston

and

ringsfor

gas

engine.

engines, the
cooled by being surrounded
by

-In all except small

cylinder and

air-cooled

cylinderhead are
and in the best enginesthe valves are also watera water-jacket,
in Fig. 176, surrounding
shown
are
jacketed. The water-jackets
reaching between the valves.
of the most
200. Ignition. One
important details of gashas been
the development of a suitable
engine construction
of ignition. The first successful form of ignitionwas
by
means
the valves

and

"

means

the

of

an

proper

open

time.

flame
Flame

which

was

drawn

into the

cylinderat

ignition,however, is uncertain

and so
and is not economical
application,
abandoned
in recent engines.
the hot tube, in which
The next form of ignition
was
tube connected
kept at
with the engine cylinderwas
difficult of

been

has

and

closed

red

heat

HEAT

296

by

means

of

an

external

ENGINES

flame.

into the hot tube

The

ignitesthem
time of ignitionis more
of the tube.

the hot tube

is

was

In

some

controlled

The

compression of

at the proper
or

less

regulated by the temperature

the admission

cases

by

time

the gases
in the stroke.

valve.

This

of the gas into

form of ignition

in small engines,but is hardly sufficient to ignite

satisfactory
to a large engine,and
of gas such as is admitted
a largevolume
does not admit of a change in the time of sparking.
One of the simplestforms of ignitersis that used by the Deisel
Engine Company. In this enginethe air is compressed to a very

DETAILS

GAS-ENGINE

OF

CONSTRUCTION

297

and the temperature is then sufficient to ignite

high pressure
the enteringcharge of oil,
is delivered to the cylinder
or gas, which
at a pressure
slightlyhigher than the compression pressure.
This then requiresno
specialignitingapparatus, and the time
of ignitionis controlled by the time of admission to the cylinder.
In the

Hornsby-Akroyd

oil engine,a hot

bulb,used
igniter.

the

for

vaporizing

also as an
enteringoil,serves
used and the most
At the present time, the most
form of ignitionis by electric spark. This has proven

FIG. 177.

successful
to be the

Magneto.

"

in the large majority of internal combustion

satisfactory
it is used exclusively. It is by far
engines and in automobiles
most

the most

reliable and

flexible method

in

There

use.

are

various

of

generatingthe current used in electrical ignition,such

most
as
a
commonly
battery,dynamo, or magneto, the one
employed at present being the magneto, Fig. 177. This is a piece
of apparatus consisting
of a permanent
steel magnet bent in the
means

form

of

between
it cuts

U, with a coil of wire revolving in the opening

the poles or ends of the magnet.
As the wire revolves
letter

the

magnetic lines of
flowingthrough the wire.
When

the

lines flow
the armature

armature

through

the

force and

is in

core,

this

is then turned

so

an

electric current

positionsuch
core

becomes

that the lines no

is set

magnetic
magnetized. If
longerflow through
that

the

298

HEAT

ENGINES

the core, the core

loses its magnetism and it is this dying away
that produces an electric current
of the magnetism of the core
in the
A

winding.

magneto

thus

FIG. 178." Bottom

of makeand-break jignitor
ing
block, showcontact

FIG. 179.

The

current

intense the
the current

FIG.

180.

"

current
may

Section

and

at the time

suddenly the

more

"

points in

the

Top of make-and-break
ignitorblock.

points.

revolution of the armature

give this

at certain

only

gives a current

not

of

it must

be

so

driven that it will

the

engine needs a spark.

magnetism changes strengththe

will be.

If the

armature

be strong enough to form

cylinder

head

showing

is turned
a

more

slowly,

spark.

make-and-break

ignition

system.
A

batteryof dry cells is frequentlyused to furnish current for

ignitionof small engines.
There
two
viz. the make-andforms of electric ignition;
are
break or low tension,and the jump spark or high tension systems.
Of these,the make-and-break
is the simpler.
In
as

the

shown

system there are two contact points,

in Figs.178 and 180, located inside of the cylinder,
and
make-and-break

DETAILS

GAS-ENGINE

OF

CONSTRUCTION

299

addition,in series with the circuit is placed what is called a

of turns of comparatively
spark coil. This consists of a number
a core
heavy wire wrapped around
composed of iron wires.
This coil acts as an
the circuit
inductive resistance,and when
is broken
it serves
to cause
a hot spark at the point of the break.
The
circuit of the make-and-break
igniter,then, consists of a
are
battery, or magneto, and a spark coil,both of which
in

placed in series with two contact points in the engine. Just

before the point of sparking, the two
contact
points A and B,
Fig. 178, are brought together, and at the point of sparking
the mechanism
is so constructed
(see Fig. 179) that the two

FIG.

points

are

181.

"

Diagram

of

jump-spark ignition.

quickly separated, producing

sufficient spark to

ignitethe charge.
The

advantages

of the make-and-break

spark ensuring ignition;(6) little trouble

system
with

are:

(a) hot

insulation.

The

disadvantagesare : (a)moving mechanism

requiredin the cylinder;
(6) pointsof contact become foul and wear
away.
The make-and-break
engines,
igniteris used in a great many
and is advocated
owing to the low tension at which it
by many,
ary
form of ignitionon stationoperated. It is the most common
engines.
In jump-spark ignition,
Figs.181 and 182, the current is taken
from a battery B, Fig.181,or generator at a low voltage and passed
through an induction coil C, having an interrupter. The induction
is

primary and secondary coil. The interruptedcurrent

passingthrough the primary coil induces a high-tensioncurrent
in the secondary coil. This current at a highvoltage is carried to
in the enginecylinder.
what
is known
as
a spark plug E, located
coil has

300

HEAT

This

spark plug

contains

ENGINES

points about "V m- apart, across

which a high-tensioncurrent is made to jump
at the time of ignition.
The time of ignitionis controlled by a timer D, fastened to
the engine shaft,and, at the proper
time of the stroke,
this timer
closes the batterycircuit,
the high-tension
is generated in
current
the induction coil,
and the spark jumps across
the air gap causing
in the cylinder. There are a great many
detailed modifications
ignition
of this device,
but the above description
the general
covers
construction

by

of them

two

all.

In

some

cases

the current

is furnished

With an alternating
alternating-current
magneto.
current,
This system is almost universally
interrupteris necessary.

an

no

used

on

automobiles.

The

advantages of the jump-spark system are: (a) absence of

moving parts in the cylinder;(b) easy adjustment of the time of

FIG.

182.

"

Section

of

cylinderhead

showing jump-spark ignitionsystem.

ignition.The disadvantagesare: (a) high insulation required;

of spark plug becoming fouled with oil or dirt; (c)
(b) liability
intensityof spark varies with pressure in cylinder.
In all forms of gas-engineigniters,
should be promeans
some
vided
for changing the time of ignition,
so that the pressure
may
In the jumpreach a maximum
time in the stroke.
at the proper
this is done by moving the positionof the commutator
spark igniter
time for ignition
relative to the piston position. The proper
depends upon the mixture and the speed of the engine.
Ignitionis not instantaneous and in order to have the greatest
againstthe pistonwhen it begins the power stroke,the
pressure
mixture must be set on fire before the completionof the compression
stroke. This is called advancingthe spark.
201.

maximum
gas

Governing.

"

thermal

is to obtain the
of all governors
The
at all loads.
governing of a
efficiency
The

aim

engine is different from

engine

under

constant

that of

engine.
cycle of the

steam

load, each

In

steam

engine is

HEAT

302
the

ENGINES

of gas is reduced for the same

decreases,the amount
total charge. This system has the advantage over
Method
No.
2, that the pressure of the compression always remains the same.
On lightloads, however, it is not so economical
No. 2,
as Method
As

load

for when

the

load is very

be so weak
light the mixture may
that the charge will not ignite.
Method
No. 4.
Controllingthe speed by changing the time of
ignitionis used on automobile engines. As the load diminishes,
the time of sparking is brought nearer
to the working stroke,
"

that

is,it is advanced, and

it may

even

occur

after the

dead

(justprevious to the working stroke). As the spark is

The quanadvanced, the enginedevelops less and less power.
tity
and qualityof the charge,however, remains the same.
This
at lightloads.
system of speed control is very uneconomical
center

Method
above

No.

5.
"

systems have

great many

different combinations

been

Often

used.

of the

engineshaving "quantity"
and "quality" governors
for the heavy and medium
loads
change the governingsystem to hit and miss for lightloads. A
combination largelyused in electric lighting
work, on account of
the close regulationobtained,is qualitygoverning at high loads
and quantitygoverning at low loads.
The governing of an automobile is a combination
of quality
and governingby spark advance with
by the throttle,
governor
the ignition
device.
and fuel oil enginesare commonly governed by byKerosene
passing
the fuel so that a greater or less amount
of it is injected
into the cylinder.
Gas-enginegoverningis at present almost as perfectas governing
in obtainingsuffiin the steam
ciently
engine. There is no difficulty
accurate
governing so that alternators driven by gas
enginesmay be operated in parallel.
A carburetor is a device used for vaporizing
202. Carburetors.
oil,particularly
gasoline. It is largelyused in connection with
small launch engines. In a carburetor
the air
automobile
or
be passed over
or through the gasoline,
or the gasolinemay
may
be mechanically sprayed into the current of incoming air.
retor.
Fig. 183 shows a cross-section of one type of Stromberg carbuA float M operates a pairof levers and through them the
the supply of gasoline to the
needle valve K, thus controlling
"

"

"

spray

nozzle

source

of

C.

The

gasoline enters

supply through

0 and

the carburetor

the dirt in it is removed

from

by

the
the

DETAILS
strainer N.
and

GAS-ENGINE

OF
The

hot water

CONSTRUCTION

in the

303

jacketJ keeps the carburetor

vaporizing the gasoline.

At each chargingstroke of the engine,air is drawn
in through
the fixed air inlet S and passes at a high velocityup through the
venturi tube D and around
the nozzle C.
The gasolineis sucked
in a jetfrom this nozzle and is mixed with the air in the mixing
chamber
1.
The throttle valve H regulatesthe supply of the
mixture to the engine.
As the speed of the engine increases,the proportion of air to
This is taken care of by the auxiliary
gasolinemust be increased.
warm

assists in

\
EXPLANATION
Low

A-

B-High
C

.speed adjusting
speed adjusting

Spray nozzle

D-

Venturi

E-

Auxiliary

F-

Low

speed spring

Mixing

J- Water

FIG.

183.

"

chamber

jacket

valve

K- Needle
L- Glass

O
P

Gasoline

strainer
line coupling

cock

Drain

air horn
for

A.ir shut-off

R-

T-

float

Gasoline

Q- Hot
S

chamber

float

Metal

Nvalve

G-High
speed spring
valve
H- Throttle
I

nut

M-

tube
air

nut

Fixed
Season

air

starting

inlet

adjustment

Cross-section of Stromberg gasolinecarburetor.

E, which is opened or closed a greater or less amount

the speed of the engine increases or decreases.
as
203. Vertical Versus Horizontal
Engines. The advantages of
the vertical engine are:
higher rotative speed, better balancing,
the cylindersand pistons.
less floor space, less wear
on
occupy
The advantages are obtained because multi-cylinderengines are
cylinders,
more
easilybuilt of the vertical type. Therefore more
air valve

"

each

of smaller

size,may

be used for the

same

power

than

would

304

HEAT

be the
and

with

case

ENGINES

horizontal engine. This

means

shorter stroke

hence

An increase
higher rotative speed for the same
power.
in the number
of cylindersmeans
better balancing and less vibration.
The
to

the

cause
are

The

reciprocatingmasses
on
engineto move

necessary

than

in

of the

its foundation

FIG.

184.

The
in

"

heavier foundations

of vertical

cost, and, in the enclosed type, too much

causingtrouble.
engine assists

and

engine tend

engines.
increased
vertical engine are:

case

disadvantages of the

horizontal

open

end

cooling the

oil may

first

der,
get in the cylin-

of the

zontal
cylinderon the horipiston. In the larger size

Koerting two-cyclegas engine.

engines,the cylindersare

mobile
generallyhorizontal,while most autoand small launch engineshave vertical cylinders.
204. Large Gas Engines. In the largesizes,the single-acting
engine has been replaced by the double-acting engine,similar
in its arrangement to the steam
engine. Fig. 184 shows a block
plan of a modern two-cyclegas engine of the double-actingtype.
In this figure,
the device for coolingthe pistonand pistonrod is
In most
not shown.
large engines,however, of the doubleacting type, the piston and piston rod are cooled by allowing
"

circulation of water

through a
by

Usually the water

the cross-head,and

pipe connected to
tail rod projecting
through the cylinderhead.

flexible
a

through them.

enters

is

moved
re-

DETAILS
205.

Oil

conditions

CONSTRUCTION

Engines for Ships. For

"

in marine

use

305
work

certain

requiredfor successful

operationof the engine.

be able to be started quicklyfrom any position

are

1. It should

without

GAS-ENGINE

OF

having

to be barred

2. It should

be

3. It should

be able to

round.

capable of rapid reversal.

out
continuouslyfor long periodswith-

run

stop.

economically at various speeds.

4. It should

work

5. It should

start under

6. It should

admit

7. It should

work

load.

of easy

inspectionand adjustment.
smoothly in a rough sea when the propeller

is sometimes

as

partly out of the water.

The relative advantages and disadvantages of Diesel engines
compared with steam enginesand boilers for use on largeships

are

follows:

as

Advantages

(a) Have much higherthermal

(6) Weigh about half as much

efficiency;
and

occupy

the space for the same

power;
(c) Make
possiblecleaner,quickerand

about

easier

two-thirds

"coaling;"

(d) Require less attendants;

(e) Eliminate funnels and dirt;
(f) Start quicker;

(g) Eliminate stand-by losses.

Disadvantages.
in harbors;
(a) Are not so easilyreversed or maneuvered
(b) Fuel is more
expensivein most placesand not so readily
available ;
(c) There

is

of steam

absence

an

for

working

the

auxiliary

devices.
206.

in 1910 there
as

the

Gas

Humphrey
was

Humphrey

gained

exhibited
Gas

world-wide

During the Brussels Exposition

Pump"
a

new

type of pumping engineknown

Pump. Since
reputation. It
has been

into this country and

has
that time this gas pump
introduced
has been successfully

greatlyimproved by

can
Ameri-

in the world, pumping

designers. The largestpump
for the City of London, is of this type. Its operationcan
be understood
The
and

pump

by reference
consists

outlet valves

other.
20

On

the water

of

and

to
a

C.

water

best

Fig. 185.
vertical gas cylinderA with
valves interlock with
These

side of the pump

there is a suction

inlet
each

pipe D,

HEAT

306

suction

valve

S, and

with the pressure

piston.

The

will

We
with

ENGINES

pressure

tank F.

The

operation of the
at the

assume

of gas

mixture

pipe E connectingthe cylinder

water
column G forms a gas-tight
is

pump

as

beginningthat

and

air.

This

follows:
the gas

charge

cylinderis filled
of gas

and

air is

is suddenly increased.
While
this
ignited and the pressure
will scarcelychange so that combustion
takes place the volume
takes place at- constant
volume.
The water
column
practically

FIG.

185.

"

Diagram

of

Humphrey

gas

pump.

ated
owing to the increased pressure on its surface is rapidlyaccelerby the pressure in the gas cylinderand the gases undergo
the gas has reached a predetermined
adiabatic expansion. When
and the sucthe exhaust valves on the top of the cylinder
tion
pressure
valves on the water inlet begin to open automatically. The
inflowingwater follows the moving water column and fillsthe gae
The hydrostaticpressurs
replacing the burned gases.
cylinder,

from

tank

the water

inlet valves and

valve.

valve
burned

When

reverses

the water

column

closingthe

water

the bur-ned gases through the exhaust

level reaches the position
V3, the exhaust

forcingout

the water

closes and

the water

gases to the volume

column

V*.

Now

compresses

the water

the
column

remaining
reverses

DETAILS

GAS-ENGINE

OF

CONSTRUCTION

again. Reexpansion of the compressed

307

takes

gases

place and

the pressure
falls below the
inlet valve opens and the new

Vi is filled. The

water

The mixing
atmospheric pressure.
chargeis taken in until the volume
column
and compresses
again reverses

the

charge to the volume Vz- Ignitionlakes place and the whole

cycle is started over again. The engine works on the four-cycle
the expansion and contraction occurs
and
principle,
adiabatically
the cycleis carried on by the oscillation of the water column
due
The action of the pump
to the changes of pressure.
is not altered
an

air vessel

open

water.

of

into

an

tower.

open

it is

dischargedinto

The

of

having

pump

or

tank

being capable of handling enormous

installed in the City
In the largepump
water
are
dischargedat each dischargeof

advantage
tons

the elevated

into
delivering

ifinstead of

has

pump

the

quantitiesof
of London, 15
the pump,

the

capacity of 150 million gallons.

PROBLEMS
1. A

Ib. of

1
gasolineengine uses
gasolinecontains 19,500 B.T.U.
of the engine?
2. A gas engine uses
20 cu.

per

gasolineper I.H.P. per

pound, what is the actual

ft. of gas

per

cubic

foot of gas contains

600 B.T.U.
is 2000" and the final temperature 800".
thermal

What

heat

If the

emciency

hour.
in the

is the actual and

Each

engine

theoretical

efficiencyof the engine?

3. What

is the

mechanical

of 50 Ibs.

of an
8\" X 14" single-acting
efficiency
gas
explosionsper minute, has a net weight
The length of the brake
is 76.8 Ibs.?

106
225 r.p.m., makes
the brake, and the M.E.P.

engine if it runs
on

is 62.75

arm

horse-power per

Initial temperature

hour.

in. and

the tare

is 19 Ibs.

of the brake

14", single-actinggas engine has an area of

Scale of spring,240 Ibs.;r.p.m.,
225.
.9 sq.
length
Explosions per minute, 100. There is a Prony brake on the engine, the
being 63 in. and the net weight on the brake 42 Ibs.
length of the brake arm
Find the I.H.P. ; B.H.P.; F.H.P.; and the mechanical
efficiency.
6. An 8"X
steam
engine running 250 r.p.m. and
10", single-acting
4. A

card

from

having

an

Steam

is 3 in.

of 35 Ibs.

M.E.P.

average

pressure,

contains

8j"X

an

its

in. and

13,500 B.T.U.

Ib.

per

considered

engine is

A gas
being
singleacting,running 223

r.p.m.

uses
1 Ibs. coal per I.H.P. per hour.
is 1.04 sq. in. and the length 3.33 in.

uses

and

to

run

the
how

the steam

ten
same

hours
coal

a
as

day,

plant.

year? If a Prony
enginehaving a lengthof 4

much

per

per hour.
a

ton

and

indicator card
of the average
Scale of spring,240 Ibs. The engines

The

area

days in the

three hundred

the boiler

per I.H.P.

200"; coal costs $2.50

Efficiencyof the boiler plant,70 per cent.

for the place. The engine is 8^" X 14",
It
and making 75 explosionsper minute.

are

20 Ibs. of steam

uses

feed temperature,
100 Ibs.;

brake
ft. and

Gas

producer
cheaper to run
is placed on each engine,that on
carryinga net weight of 50 Ibs.,

Which

would

year.

be the

HEAT

308

that

and

of

weight

the

on

and

output

the

Ibs.,

58

engine

gas

how

ENGINES

having
being

tare

much?

has

of

which

Ibs.,

19

Which

length

the

in.

.63

engine

and

carrying

will

mechanical

greater

gross

develop

the

larger
and

efficiency

much?

how

6.

engine

steam

H.P.

200

for

considered

making
100

$3

costs

in

the

boiler

If

the

interest

cent.,

per
a

day

single
It

place.

of

and

plant

is

charges
which
for

three

plant

are

would
hundred

5
be

B.T.U.

13,000
and

Ibs.,

the

per
the

days

cheaper
a

year?

the

plant,

same

and

and
how

when

of

much,

gas

plants.

steam

the

ducer,
pro-

and

both

feed

of

gas

engine

The
the

being

M.E.P.

for

perlb.

repairs

hour

per

Gas

of

is

r.p.m.

efficiency

the

temperature
and

cent.,

is

labor

develops

average

$20,000.

costs

of

an

cent.;

per

and

220
I.H.P.

per

developing
70

hour

per

running

B.T.U.

plant,

contains
100

gas

Cost

I.H.P.

per

engine

and

engine

$30,000.

ton

steam

10,000

uses

boiler

the

Steam

costs

of

acting

minute

per

cent.

per

plant

producer

hours

the

Efficiency

Ibs.
80

10

Ibs.

20

uses

24"

explosions

105

Coal

20"

pressure

180".

water,

depreciation,
to

run

ten

ENGINES

HEAT

310

of the various prime movers

consideringthem from
possibilities
internal combustion
engine
a standpoint of heat efficiency.The
efficient as
the steam
is theoreticallyapproximately twice
as
engine.
Heat
208. Commercial
efficiency,
Economy.
however, is not
In actual
the only consideration.
operation, the important
thing is the cost to produce a horse-power for a given period of
"

time.

This cost of
In

unit of time

convenient

is

one

year.

considerations.
great many
the followingitems should be considered

production involves

:
determiningthis cost
(1) Interest on the capitalinvested;
(2) Depreciationof machinery and buildingstructures;
(3) Insurance and taxes;
(4) Fuel cost;
(5) Labor of attendance;
and repairs;
(6) Maintenance
(7) Oil,waste, water, and other supplies.
first three of these items are
called the "fixed charges,"
The

remain

and
be.

The

with

the

and

the

same

of

operatingexpense

In

plants the

most

the load

the

on

plant

may

''operatingexpense," and vary

of the fixed charges
operation. The sum
is the total operatingcost.

last four items

conditions

what

matter

no

the

are

cost

of coal is from

25 to 30

per

cent, of

A saving in the coal cost of operating

operatingexpense.
of
in
the
cost
is not always a saving
total
operating. This
increased
cost of installation that
involve so much
saving may
the new
fixed charges on
the additional
capitalinvested will
This is well illustrated by
than offset the saving in coal.
more

the total

exists in localities

the condition which

having

cheap coal.
for a condensing

very

the

comparison of plant-operatingcosts
that the cost of operating
a non-condensingplant often shows
non-condensing is less than that of the condensing plant,

due

to

careful

and

adds
on

the

fact that

the increased

to the interest and

more

the cost

of coal

used, which

cost

of the condensing plant

depreciationcharges than
is less than

in

is saved

non-condensing

plant.
costs
following table gives the comparative itemized
of operating for a compound condensing engine, a gas engine

The

with
be

gas

producer, and

operatingan

steam

turbine.

electric generatingunit.

These

are

assumed

to

ECONOMY

Comparison
a

and

TABLE

The
and

steam

HEAT

B.H.P.
gas

ENGINES

311

compound
condensing engine,
producer and gas engine plant,

turbine.

Bituminous

coal assumed

ton, with lower heat value of 12,000 B.T.U.

cost $3 per

day

B.H.P.

1000

1000

bituminous

B.H.P.

1000

of

OF

above
300

table

days

of the full rated

COSTS

COMPARATIVE

XXVI.

assumes

per

load.

year,

the
and

RATED

PER

plant

to

the average

HORSE

operate

24

per

to

pound

POWER

hours

per

load to be one-half

HEAT

312

As
will

for

the

cost

make

the

24

of

more

hours,
engine.

for
small

large

the

gas

engine,

coal

With

reciprocating
gas

engines

will

units

smaller
small

gas

first

cost

is

high

full

the

cost

are

or

and

more

steam

the

of

producer

gas

be

could

load

favorable

more

engines

engines,

steam

the

If
be

and

engine

gas

showing.

showing

as

the

increases,

favorable
the

ENGINES

the

to

operation
economical
turbines.

upkeep

carried

rocating
recipis

less
than

With

expensive.

INDEX
Adiabatic

definition

expansion,

change
Advance

angle, 188,
the

Advancing

of,24

during,

of temperature

Boiler, Rust
Scotch

28

240

Alcohol,

use

Ampere,

of

Angle

engines,

advance, 188,

190

of

M.

for
of

horse-power rating
of steam,

quality
Automobile

tube,

water-

rule

E.

finding,

when

boilers,98

89

rated

91

fire-tube

use

water-tube,
Wickes

53

engines,

82

tubular,

vertical,95

coal, 78

S.

85

82

tubulous,

286

use

Anthracite
A.

tubular,
of in gas

95

87

Stirlingwater-tube, 92
tubes, diameter
of, 99

300

Air, composition of, 70

pump,

marine,

setting, 83,

190

spark,

water-tube,

power
horse-

Brake

89

water-tube,

Boyle's law,

of, 291

when

and

95

11

horse-power (see Horse-power,

brake).
Babcock

and

Barker's

mill, 244

Barrus,

Branca's, Giovanni, turbine,

Brasses,
ratio

162

Bituminous

coal, 77
cock,

Unit

Thermal

Brunton,

105

grate surface, 99

of to

British

(B.T.U.),

109

Buckeye

riding

cut-off

power

of

valve,

205

accessories,105

Boiler,
A.

245

163

Breeching, definition of, 99

271

Bearing,

Boiler

boiler,91

52

Barsanti,

Blow-off

Wilcox

S.

Calorific
M.

E.

rule

for

horsepower

78,

rating of, 98
Babcock

and

Calorimeter,

Wilcox

tube, 91

water-

Barrus

classification of, 82

dry-pipe,

85

economy,

99

nipple,
pump)

surface

of return

fire-tube,

48

"normal

reading" of, 48

Peabody

throttling,50

problems,

55

separating,

99
Heine

water-tube,

Capacity

98

Carnot

89

most

50
181

302

cycle, description of, 29

efficient

cycle, 34

reversibilityof, 33

losses,101
problems,

of pump,

Carburetor,

97

internally fired,87
locomotive,

48

throttling,48,

94

horse-power, actual,
rated,

49

coal, 68

fire-tube,82
heating

throttling,52

throttling, 50

(see Feed

pump

48

Carpenter separating,

efficiency,100
feed

fuel, 66, 76, 77,

79

Carpenter,

133

313

49

314

INDEX

Charles'

law, 11
Chimneys, boiler horse-power of,130
brick,131
capacity of, 129
dpaftof, 128
efficiency
of, 130
height of, 131
materials used in, 131
132
steel,self-sustaining,
unlined, 132
Clausius, 10
Clearance, 149
per cent, of, 149
Clerk, Dougal, 269, 278
Coal analysis,64
proximate, 64
ultimate,64
Coal, anthracite,78
bituminous, 77
calorimeter,68
dry, 64
semi-bituminous, 78
Cock, blow-off,105
"

gage,

106

three-way, reversingby

means

of,

212

227

cross,

cut-off

in

low-pressure cylinder

of,229

losses due

to. 225

principalobject of,225

Initial

condensation).

coolingsurface required in,242

coolingwater used by, 240
for steam

turbine

increase in power

use,

242

due

to, 242

jet,237
location

of hot-well

for

use

with,

238

surface,240
types of,236
Conduction, 7
Connecting rod, effect of
diagram, 196
solid-ended,161
strap-ended,161
Convection, 8
Cover plate,201
Corliss engine card, 174
trip gear, 206
valve, 205
effect of using,208
Counter-balance, 162

on

Zeuner

162

Crosby indicator,169
Cross-compound engine, 227
Cross-head, 160, 161
pin, 161
Curtis turbine,255
"Cushion
steam," 150
Cut-off valve (seeValve, cut-off).
Cycle, Beau de Rochas, 271
Carnot, 29
four-,272
Otto, 271

and

aft,"228
horse-power of,229
number
of cylindersin,225
problems, 234
ratio of cylindersin,228
tandem, 226
Compound
expansion, effect upon
initial condensation, 148
Compounding, gains due to, 225

(see

Condensers,barometric, 238

Crank-shaft,

tri-,107
Combustion, air required for,70
heat of,66
problems, 79
rate of,98
theoretical temperature of, 74
gram
diaCompound
engines, combined
232
from,

"fore

Compression, 149
Condensation, initial

two-, 272

"Cylinder feed," 150

Dash-pot, 206
Davis, 5, 40, 42
Dead

center, method
212

engine on,
turbine,251
Diagram factor, 143
De

Laval

Diesel, 269
motor, 273, 296

of

placing

INDEX

Draft, chimney, 128

forced,132
induced, 133
mechanical, 132
systems of, 132
"Dutch
Oven," 95,
Duty, 180
Eccentric

rod,
sheave, 163

112

Expansion, compound, effect of

initial condensation, 148
general case, 17
isothermal,25
ratio of,26, 147
work
of, 18

Feed

throw

of, 190
Eccentricity,188, 190
Economizers, cost of, 126
descriptionof, 125
size of, 127
Economy, engine, commercial, 310
309
relative,
2
16
relative,
governor,
Efficiency,
boiler,100
boiler and grates combined, 100
chimney, 130
fuel,79
gas engine, 275
producer, 285
heat engine, 10, 29, 32
actual,180
mechanical, 179
turbine,best,249
Energy, 8
change in internal,due to change
in temperature, 15

(seeAutomobile

of,310
Corliss (seeCorliss engine).
gas (see Gas engine).
heat (seeHeat engine).
steam
(seeSteam
engine).
Equivalent evaporation, 100
Evaporation, equivalent,100
factor of, 100
per pound of coal,100
Exhaust, heat lost in, 145
lap, 189
'effect of on Zeuner
diagram, 195
24
Expansion, adiabatic,
change of temperature during, 27
economy

location

pump,

of, 122

of, 119

use

Engine, automobile
engine).

upon

Factor, diagram, 143

of evaporation, 100

163

strap, 163

commercial

315

Worthington boiler,120
Feed-water
heaters,advantages of,
123

closed,123
cost of, 125
location of, 125
open,

123

types of, 123

of, 123
charges," 310
Flame
propagation, 287
Flue gas, analysisof, 71
Fly-wheel, 223
Forces of impulse and reaction,245
use

"Fixed

Frame, 164
"Free-piston"
"Fore

and

gas

aft"

engine, 270
compound engine,

228

Fuel, air requiredfor combustion

of,

70

classification of,75

composition of,64
efficiency
of,79
gas engine, 283
heating value of gas and oil,287
68
value of,theoretical,
mixtures, proper, 287
Fusible plug, 108
Gage cocks, 106
glass,105
Gas engine,
and

Matteucci's,271
270
classification,
construction,details of,294
273, 280, 296
Diesel's,
efficiencyof,275
Barsanti

316

INDEX

Gas

272
engine,four-cycle,
"free-piston,"270
fuels,283
types of,300
governors,
historyof the, 269
horizontal
303
vs.
vertical,
horse-power,actual,292
rated,288
kinds of,295
ignition,
Langen's, Otto and, 270
Lenoir's,270
losses in a, 282
Otto (and Langen's), 270

problems, 307
two-cycle,272
of alcohol

in,286
vertical vs. horizontal,303
Gas producers, 283
efficiency
of,285
use

pressure,

284

suction,284
Gas

Humphrey,
Gear, Corliss trip.206
Joy, 212
pump,

305

radial,211

reversing,209, 210

Walschaert,211
Giffard,M.,

121

Governor, automatic,

216

220
centrifugal,
design,relation of items in, 219
218
fly-ball,
"hit and miss," 301
221
inertia,
222
isochronous,

mechanism, 217
quality,301
quantity,301
shaft,218, 220
216
throttling,
used

with

double-ported valve,

203

variable cut-off,
216

Governors, gas-engine,types of,300

in connection
practical considerations
with, 223
relative economy
of,216
variation in speed allowable,223

Grate

surface

in

ratio

Gutermuth,
Giildner,269

stokers,118
of,to breeching,99
to heating surface,98

148

Heat, absorption of, 13

added

at

constant

pressure,

volume,
general case,
boiler plant, 101

at constant

balance

in

22
22

20

capacity,6
lost in exhaust, 145
up stack, 101
of fusion of ice,latent,57
of liquid,38, 40
of steam, latent,38, 41
total,41
of superheat, 38
relation between, and work, 10
of constant
between specific,
sure
presand of constant
volume, 15
specific(seeSpecificheat),
theory of, 1
unit of, 5
Heat
of (seeEfficiency,
engines,efficiency
heat engine),
ideal,29
relative economy
of, 309
Heater, feed-water
(see Feed-water
heaters).
Heating surface,definition of,98
rule for finding,
of fire-tube boilers,
99
ratio

of,to grate surface,98

to rated boiler horse-power, 99
Heating value of fuel,66, 287
higher,66
lower, 66
of combustible, 101
Heine
boiler,94
Hero's turbine,244
"Hit

and

miss"

301

governor,

Hollis,128
Horse-power, boiler,
actual,98
heating surface per,
rated,97

99

318

INDEX

Nozzle, turbine,248
"Normal
reading" of calorimeter,53
Oil,vaporizationof,286
engine, Hornsby-Ackroyd,

286,

Pumps, dry air,240

feed (see Feed pumps).
Pyrometers, 3
Quality

of steam,

48, 53

297

for ships,205

Radial

"Operating expense," 310

Orsat

apparatus, 72

Otto, 269
Parr

coal

calorimeter,68
Parsons
262
turbine,single-flow,
50
Peabody, 40, 42,
Peat, 76
Peclet,7, 8
Perfect gases, definition of, 12
equation of, 12
laws of, 11
problems in, 34
Piston, 160, 161
positionof relative to valve, 190
rod, 160, 161
valve, 198
Planimeter, 173
Port opening, 193
Power, 9
Pressure,absolute,12
gage,
gas

heat

added

Safety valve, size of, 107

Sampling nozzle,48, 53
Saturation

curve,
Semi-bituminous

at

constant,

22

175

coal,78

71

Southwark-Rateau

producer, 284

211

Radiation, 7
Rankine, 10
Rateau
turbine,257
Ratio of expansion, 147, 228
Re-action,245
Reducing motion, indicator,171
Re-evaporation, 145
Regnault, 39
Reversing gear, 209, 210
of three-way cock, 212
by means
Rochas, 271
Rotation, changing direction of,209
Rowland, 10
"Run
over," 209
"Run
under," 209
Rust boiler,95

Smoke,

12

gears,

turbine,259

Specificheat, definition of, 6

of constant
effective,
143, 173
pressure, 7
tion
and
of constant
relation between
perature,
volume, relavolume, tembetween, 15
and, 12, 27
of superheated steam, 40
specificheat of constant, 7
of
constant
133
volume, 7
Problems, boiler,
theory of, 5
calorimeter,55
Stanley, 109
combustion, 79
Steam, action of, in turbine,247
economic, 242
A. S. M. E. rules for findingquality
engine, gas, 307
53
184
of,
steam, actual,
boilingpoint of, 38
compound, 234
150
of,
consumption, determination
theoretical,
177
mixture, 61
of at different loads,
variation
perfectgas, 34
181
Producers, gas (see Gas producers).
cushion, 150
Pumps, capacity of, 181
240
dry saturated, 39
circulating,
mean