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Heat transfer

1. Introduction
Heat transfer is that science which seeks to predict the energy transfer which may take place
between material bodies as a result of a temperature difference.
(state 1state 2)(process)
(conduction)
(convection)
(radiation)

State 1

Process
Q

Cold
Q
T2

State 2

Hot

Patm

Cold

T1

1-1 CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER


q
T

A
x

.
qgen =qAdx

Temperature
profile
qx

qx

qx+dx

X
Fig 1-1

Fig 1-2

energy conducted in left face + heat generated whitin element


= change in internal energy + energy conducted out right face

energy in left face = qx = -kA

T
x

Hot

Change in internal energy = cA

-kA

T
x

+ qAdx =cA

dx A[k

dx

T
x

T
x

dx]

or

T
x

+ q = c

qy+dy
qz
X
Y

dy

qx+dx

dz

qx

qz+dz

dx

(b)

qy

(c)

so that the general three-dimensional heat-conduction equation is

T
x

+ y k y +

T
z

+ q =c

where the quantity = k/c is called the thermal diffusivity of the material.
1-2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
On the basis of this definition, experimental measurements may be made to determine the thermal
conductivity of different materials.
1-3 CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
It is well known that a hot plate of metal will cool faster when placed in front of a fan than when
exposed to still air. We say that the heat is convected away, and we call the process convection heat
transfer.
For example, we know that the velocity at which the air blows over the hot plate obviously
influences the heat-transfer rate. But does it influence the cooling in a linear way; i.e., if the velocity
is doubled, will the heat-transfer rate double?
The answer is that the temperature gradient is dependent on the rate at which the fluid carries the

heat away; a high velocity produces a large temperature gradient, and so on.
Newtons law of cooling:
q = hA(Tw - T)
Here the heat-transfer rate is related to the overall temperature difference between the wall and fluid
and the surface area A. the quantity h is called the convection heat-transfer coefficient. [natural, or
free, convectionas][forced convection].
1-4 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
in contrast to the mechanisms of conduction and convection, where energy transfer through a
material medium is involved, heat may also be transferred through regions where a perfect vacuum
exists. The mechanism in this case is electromagnetic radiation. We shall limit our discussion to
electromagnetic radiation which is propagated as a result of a temperature difference; thisis called
thermal radiation.
qemitted = AT4
Stefan-Boltzmann constant with the value of 5.669*10-8W/m2K4.
qnetexchange
T14 T24
A
q = FFGAT14 T24
where F is the emissivity function and FG is the geometric view factor function.
Example 1-1 CONDUCTION THROUGH COPPER PLATE. One face of a copper plate 3 cm
thick is maintained at 400, and the other face is maintained at 100. How much hear is
transferred through the plate?
Solution. From Appendix A the thermal conductivity for copper is 370 W/M at 250. From
Fouriers law
q
dT
= -k
dx
A
Integration gives
q
T
(370)(100 400)
= -k
=
= 3.7 MW/m2[1.173 106 Btu/hft2]
-2
x
A
3 10

Example 1-2 CONVECTION CALCULATION. Air at 20 blows over a hot plate 50 by 75 cm


maintained at 250. The convection heat-transfer coefficient is 25 W/m2. Calculate the heat
transfer.
Solution. From Newtons law of cooling
q = hA(Tw-T)
= (25)(0.50)(0.75)(250-20)
= 2.156 kW[7356 Btu/h]

Example 1-3 MULTIMODE HEAT TRANSFER. Assuming that the plate in Ex. 1-2 is made of
carbon steel (1%) 2 cm thick and that 300 W is lost from the plate surface by radiation, calculate the
inside plate temperature.
Solution. The heat conducted through the plate must be equal to the sum of convection and
radiation heat losses:
qcond = qconv + qrad
-kA

T
= 2.156 + 0.3 = 2.456 kW
x

(2456)(0.02)

T = (0.5)(0.75)(43) = -3.05[-5.49]
where the value of k is taken from Table 1-1. The inside plate temperature is therefore
Ti = 250 + 3.05 = 253.05

Example 1-5 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER. Two infinite black plates at 800 and 300
exchange heat by radiation. Calculate the heat transfer per unit area.
Solution. Equation (1-10) may be employed for this problem, so we find immediately
q/A = (T14 T24)
= (5.669 10-8)(10734-5734)
= 69.03 kW/m3[21,884 Btu/hft2]

2. Steady-State Conduction One Dimension


2-1 INTRODUCTION
We now wish to examine the applications of Fouriers law of heat conduction to calculation of heat
flow in some simple one-dimensional systems.
2-2 THE PLANE WALL
q=-

kA
x

(T2-T1)

A
q

RA

RB

RC

q
A

q=

Temperature
profile

T1

T2

T3

T1 T 4
XA / kAA XB / kBA XC / kCA

Heat flow =

thermal potential difference


thermal resistance
q=

Toverall
Rth

2-3 INSULATION AND R VALUES


R=

T
q/ A

2-4 RADIAL SYSTEMS


Cylinders
Rth=

In( ro / ri )
2kL

q
r0

ri

dr

q
Ti

To

T4

Spheres
Example2-1 MULTILAYER CONDUCTION. An exterior wall of a house may be approximated
by a 4-in layer of common brick [k = 0.7 W/m] followed by a 1.5-in layer of gypsum plaster [k =
0.48 W/m]. What thickness of loosely packed rock-wool insulation [k = 0.065 W/m] should
be added to reduce the heat loss (or gain) through the wall by 80 percent?
Solution. The overall heat loss will be given by
q =

T
Rth

Because the heat loss with the rock-wool insulation will be only 20 percent (80 percent reduction)
of that before insulation
q with insulation
q without insulation

Rth without insulation


= 0.2 = Rth with insulation

We have for the brick and plaster, for unit area,


Rb =

Rp=

x
( 4)(0.0254)
=
= 0.145 m2/W
k
0.7

x
(1.5)(0.0254)
=
= 0.079 m2/W
k
0.48

so that the thermal resistance without insulation is


R = 0.145 + 0.079 = 0.224 m2/W
Then

R with insulation =

0.224
= 1.122 m2/W
0 .2

and this represents the sum of our previous value and the resistance for the rock wool
1.122 = 0.224 + Rrw
Rrw = 0.898 =
so that

x
x
=
k
0.065

Xrw = 0.0584 m = 2.30 in

Example 2-2 MULTILAYER CYLINDRICAL SYSTEM. A thick-walled trbe of stainless steel


[18%Cr, 8%Ni, k = 19 W/m] with 2-cm inner diameter (ID) and 4-cm outer diameter (OD) is
covered with a 3-cm layer of asbestos insulation [ k = 0.2 W/m]. If the inside wall temperature of
the pipe is maintained at 600, calculate the heat loss per meter of length. Also calculate the tubeinsulation interface temperature.
Solution. The accompanying figure shows the thermal network for this problem. The heat flow is
given by
2 (600 100)
q
2 (T 1 T 2)
=
=
= 680 W/m
5
ln(r 2 / r1) / ks ln(r 3 / r 2) / ka
(ln 2) / 19 (ln ) / 0.2
L
2

Stainless steel
T1 =600 C

r1
r2

r3
Asbestos

T2 =100 C

This heat flow may be used to calculate the interface temperature between the outside tube wall and
the insulation. We have
q
Ta T 2
= ln(r 3 / r 2) / 2ka = 680 W/m
L

where Ta is the interface temperature, which may be obtained as


Ta = 595.8
The largest thermal resistance clearly results from the insulation, and thus the major portion of the
temperature drop is through that material.

Convection Boundary Conditions

qconv = hA(Tw-T )

qconv =

Tw T
1 / hA

TA TB
1 / h1 A x / kA 1 / h 2 A

q = UA Toverall

U=

TA

q
TA

T1

T2

h1

h2

Fluid B

q=

Fluid A

2-5 THE OVERALL HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

T1

T2

TB

(b)

1
1 / h1 x / k 1 / h2

TB
(a)

Example 2-3 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A COMPOSITE WALL. Two-by-four wood


studs have actual dimensions of 4.13*9.21 cm and a thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/m. A typical
wall for a house is constructed as shown figure Ex. 2-3. Calculate the overall heat-transfer
coefficient and R value of the wall.
Solution. The wall section may be considered as having two parallel heat-flow paths: (1) through
the studs, and (2) through the insulation. We will compute the thermal resistance for each, and then
combine the values to obtain the overall heat-transfer coefficient.

Outside air convection,h=15W/m2 C


8cm

Common brick,k=0.69

Gypsum
sheath

1.9cm,k=0.96
9.21cm
1.9cm,k=0.96
40.6cm
Insulation,k=0.04
2x4 studs
Inside air convection

sheath

outside

insul

sheath

inside

Tair

Tair

outside

outside

R convection

R convection

inside

outside

R sheath
outside

R stud

R sheath
inside

1.Heat transfer through studs(A = 0.0413 m2 for unit depth). This heat flow occurs through six
themal resistances:
a. Convection resistance outside of brick
R=

= (15)(0.0413) = 1.614/W
hA

b. Conduction resistance through outer sheet


0.08

R = x / kA (0.69)(0.0413) 2.807 /W
c. Conduction resistance through outer sheet
x

0.019

R = kA (0.96)(0.0413) 0.48 /W
d. Conduction resistance through wood stud
R

x
0.0921

22.3 /W
kA (0.1)(0.0413)

e. Conduction resistance through inner sheet


R

x
0.0019

0.96 /W
kA (0.48)(0.0413)

f. Convection resistance on inside


R

1
1

3.23 /W
hA (7.5)(0.0413)

The total thermal resistance through the wood stud section is


Rtotal 1.614 2.807 0.48 22.3 0.96 3.23 31.39 /W

(a)

2.Insulation section (A = 0.406 0.0413 m2 for unit depth). Through the insulation section, five
of the materials are the same, but the resistances involve different area terms, i.e., 40.6 40.13 cm
instead of 4.13 cm so that each of the previous resistances must be multiplied by a factor of 4.13/
(40.6 4.13) = 0.113. The resistance through the insulation is
R

x
0.0921

6.31
kA (0.04)(0.406 0.0413)

and the total resistance through the insulation section is


Rtotal = (1.614 + 2.807 + 0.48 + 0.96 + 3.23)(0.113) + 6.31 = 7.337/W(b)
The overall resistance for the section is now obtained by combining the parallel resistances in Eqs.
(a) and (b) to give
Roverall

1
5.947 /Wc
(1 / 31.39) (1 / 7.337)

This value is related to the overall heat-transfer coefficient by


q UAT

T
Toverall

where A is the area of the total section = 0.406 m2. Thus,


U

1
1

0.414W / m 2
RA (5.947)(0.406)

As we have seen, the R value is somewhat different from thermal resistance and is given by
Rvalue

1
1

2.414 m2/W
U 0.414

Comment. This example illustrates the relationships between the concepts of themal resistance, the
overall heat-transfer coefficient, and the R value. Note that the R value involves a unit area concept,
while the thermal resistance does not.

2-6 Critical thickness of insulation


q

2L(Ti T )
ln(ro ri )
1

k
ro h

dq
k
0 , ro
dro
h

Example 2-5 CRITICAL INSULATION GHICKNESS. Calculate the critical radius of in


sulation for asbestos [k = 0.17 W/m] surrounding a pipe and exposed to room air at 20 with
h=3.0 W/ m2. Calculate the heat loss from a 200, 5.0-cm-diameter pipe when covered with the
critical radius of insulation and without insulation.
Solution. We calculate ro as
ro

k 0.17

0.0567 m 5.67cm
h
3.0

The inside radius of the insulatyion is 5.0/2 = 2.5 cm, so


q
2 (200 20)

105.7W / m
1
L ln(5.67 / 2.5)

0.17
(0.0567)(3.0)

q
h(2r )(Ti To ) (3.0)(2 )(0.025)(200 20) 84.8W / m
L

So, the addition of 3.17 cm (5.67-2.5) of insulation actually increases the heat transfer by 25
percent.
As an alternative, fiberglass having a thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/m might be employed as
the insulation material. Then, the critical radius would be
ro

k 0.04

0.0133m 1.33cm
h
3 .0

2-7 HEAT-SOURCE SYSTEMS


d 2T q
0
dx 2 k
T Tw at x L

q 2
x C1 x C 2
2k

q =heat
x=0

To C 2

T To

q 2
x
2k

T To
x
( )2
Tw To
L

To

Tw
Tw
x

generated per
unit volume

2( kA

dT
] X L ) q A2 L
dx

qL2
To
Tw
2k

This same result could be obtained by substituting T = Tw at x = L into Eq. (2-22a).


T Tw
x2
1 2
To Tw
L

2-8 CYLINDER WITH HEAT SOURCES

d 2 T 1 dT q

0
r dr k
dr 2
T Tw at r = R

q R 2 L k 2RL

dT
]r R
dr

dT
0 at r=0
dr

d 2 T dT
d
dT

(r
)
2
dr dr dr
dr

dT qr 2
r

C1
dr
2k

qr 2
T
C1 ln r C 2
4k

qR q R C1
dT
]r R

dr
2k
2k
R

C1=0
We could also note that C1 must be zero because at r=0 the logarithm function becomes infinite.

q R2
T Tw
C 2 at r = R
4k

so that

q R2
C 2 Tw
4k

The final solution for the temperature distribution is then

q
T Tw
(R 2 r 2 )
4k

T Tw
r
1 ( )2
To T w
R

where T0 is the temperature at r = 0 and is given by

q R2
T0
Tw
4k

It is left as an exercise to show that the temperature gradient at r = 0 is zero.


For a hollow cylinder with uniformly distributed heat sources the appropriate boundary conditions
would be
T = Tiat r = ri (inside surface)
T = Toat r = ro (outside surface)
The general solution is still

qr2
T
C1 ln r C 2
4k

Application of the new boundary conditions yields

q
r
T To
( ro2 r 2 ) C1 ln
4k
ro

where the constant C1 is given by

T To q( ri 2 ro2 ) / 4k
C1 i
ln(ri / ro )

Example 2-6 HEAT SOURCE WITH CONVECTION. A current of 200 A is passed through a
stainless-steel wire [k = 19 W/m] 3 mm in diameter. The resistivity of the steel may be taken as
70 cm, and the length of the wire is 1 m. The wire is submerged in a liquid at 110 and
experiences a convection heat-transfer coefficient of 4 kW/m2. Calculate the center temperature
of the wire.
Solution. All the power generated in the wire must be dissipated by convection to the liquid:
P = I2R = q = hA(Tw-T)
The resistance of the wire is calculated from
R

L (70 10 6 )(100)

0.099
A
(0.15) 2

where is the resistivity of the wire. The surface area of the wire is dL, so from Eq.
( 200) 2 (0.099) 4000 (3 10 3 )(1)(Tw 110 ) 3960W
and

Tw = 215[419]

The heat generated per unit volume

is calculated from

P q V q r 2 L

so that

3960
560.2 MW / m 3 [5.41*107 Btu/hft3]
(1.5 10 3 ) 2 (1)

qr2
(5.602 10 8 )(1.5 10 3 ) 2
To o Tw
215 231.6 [449]
4k
(4)(19)

2-9 CONDUCTION-CONVECTION SYSTEMS


dq conv hPdx(T T )

qx+dx

q
dx

Base

Energy in left face = q x kA


dT

dT
dx
dT

Energy out right face = q x dx kA dx ] x dx kA( dx

d 2T
dx 2

dx)

Energy lost by convection = hPdx(T T )


o To T
Let T T
at x=0
CASE 1 The fin is very long, and the temperature at the end of the fin is essentially that of the
surrounding fluid.
CASE 2 The fin is of finite length and loses heat by convection from its end.
CASE 3 The end of the fin is insulated so that dT/dx=0 at x=L.
C1 e mx C 2 e mx
For case 1 the boundary conditions are
0 at x = 0
0 at x =
and the solution becomes
T T

e mx
0 T0 T

For case 3 the boundary conditions are


0 at x = 0

d
0 at x = L
dx

0 C1 C 2

Thus

0 m(C1 e mL C 2 e mL )

Solving for the constants C1 and C2, we obtain


cosh[ m( L x)]

e mL
e mL

2 mL
2 mL
0 1 e
cosh mL
1 e

The hyperbolic functions are defined as

sinh x

e x ex
2

cosh x

e x ex
2

tanh x

sinh x e x e x

cosh x e x e x

The solution for case 2 is more involved algebraically, and the result is
T T
cosh m( L x) (h / mk ) sinh m( L x)

T0 T
cosh mL (h / mk ) sinh mL

All of the heat lost by the fin must be conducted into the base at x = 0. Using the equations for the
temperature distribution, we can compute the heat loss from

q kA

dT
] x 0
dx

An alternative method of integrating the convection heat loss could be used:


L

q hP (T T ) dx hPdx
0

In most cases, however, the first equation is easier to apply. For case 1,

q kA( m 0 e m ( 0 ) )

hPkA 0

For case 3,
1
1
q kA 0 m(

) hPkA 0 tanh mL
2 mL
1 e
1 e 2 mL

The heat flow for case 2 is


q hPkA (T0 T )

2-10 FINS
Fin efficiency =

sinh mL ( h / mk ) cosh mL
cosh mL (h / mk ) sinh mL

Actual heat transferred


Heat which would be transferred
(if entire fin area were at base temperature)

=f

For case 3 above, the fin efficiency becomes


f

hPkA 0 tanh mL tanh mL

hPL 0
mL

where z is the depth of the fin and t is the thickness. Now, if the fin is sufficiently deep, the term 2z
will be large compared with 2t, and
2hz
L
ktz

mL

2h
L
kt

Multiplying numerator and denominator by L1/2 gives


2h 3 / 2
L
kLt

mL

Lt is the profile area of the fin, which we define as


Am = L t

So that

mL

2h 3 / 2
L
kAm

A corrected length Lc is then used in all the equations which apply for the case of the fin with an
insulated tip.

Lc L

t
2

The error which results from this approximation will be less than 8 percent when

ht 1 / 2 1
)

2k
2

Lc L

d 2 / 4
Ld /4
d

Example 2-8 STRAIGHT ALUMINUM FIN. An aluminum fin [k = 200 W/m] 3.0 mm thick
and 7.5 cm long protrudes from a wall, as in Fig. 2-9. The base is maintained at 300, and the
ambient temperature is 50 with h = 10 W/m2. Calculate the heat loss from the fin per unit
depth of material.
Solution. We may use theapproximate method of solution by extending the fin a fictitious length t/2
and then computing the heat transfer from a fin with insulated tip as given by Eq. (2-36). We have
Lc L t / 2 7.5 0.15 7.65cm [3.01in]

h(2 z 2t ) 1 / 2
hP
[
] 5.774
kA
ktz
q (tanh mLc ) hPkA 0

A (1)(3 10 3 ) 3 10 3 m 2 [4.65in 2 ]

and
q = (5.774)(200)(3*10-3)(300-50)tanh[(5.774)(0.0765)] = 359 W/m [373.5 Btu/hft]

Example 2-9 CIRCUMFERENTIAL ALUMINUM FIN. Aluminum fins 1.5 cm wide and 1.0 mm
thick are placed on a 2.5-cm-diameter tube to dissipate the heat. The tube surface temperature is
170, and the ambient-fluid temperature is 25.Calculate the heat loss per fin for h = 130 W/m2
for aluminum.
Solution. For this example we can compute the heat transfer by using the fin-efficiency curves in
Fig.2-12. The parameters needed are
Lc = L + t / 2 = 1.5 + 0.05 = 1.55 cm
r1 = 2.5/2 = 1.25
r2c = r1 + Lc = 1.25 + 1.55 = 2.80 cm
r2c/ r1 = 2.80 / 1.25 = 2.24

Am = t(r2c - r1 ) = (0.001)(2.8 1.25)(10-2) = 1.55*10-5 m2


L3c / 2 (

h 1/ 2
130
)
(0.0155) 3 / 2 [
]1 / 2 0.396
kAm
(200)(1.55 10 5 )

From Fig. 2-12 f = 82 percent. The heat which would be transferred if the entire fin were at the
base temperature is (both sides of fin exchanging heat)
q max 2 (r22c r12 )h(T0 T ) 2 ( 2.8 2 1.25 2 )(10 4 )(130)(170 25) 74.35W [ 253.7 Btu / h]

The actual heat transfer is then the product of the heat flow and the fin efficiency:
q act (0.82)(74.35) 60.97W [208 Btu / h]

2-11 THERMAL CONTRCT RESISTANCE

XA

(a)

XA

T
T1
T2A
T2B
T3
(b)

q kAA

T T3
T1 T2 A T2 A T2 B

k B A 2B
x A
1 / hC A
x B

or q

T1 T3
x A / k A A 1 / hc A x B / k B A

1/hcA is called the thermal contact resistance and hc is called the contact coefficient.
Example 2-11 INFLUENCE OF CONTACT CONDUCTANCE ON HEAT TRANSFER. Two
3.0-cm-diuameter 304 stainless-steel bars, 10 cm long, have ground surfaces and are exposed to air
with a surface roughness of about 1 m. If the surfaces are pressed together with a pressure of 50
atm and the two-bar combination is exposed to an overall temperature difference of 100,

calculate the axial heat flow and temperature drop across the contact surface.
Solution. The overall heat flow is subject to three thermal resistances, one conduction resistance for
each bar, and the contact resistance. For the bars
Rth

(0.1)(4)
x

8.679 /W
kA (16.3) (3 10 2 ) 2

From Table 2-2 the contact resistance is


Rc

(5.28 10 4 )(4)
1

0.747 /W
hc A
(3 10 2 ) 2

The total thermal resistance is therefore


Rth = (2)(8.679) + 0.747 = 18.105
and the overall heat flow is
q

T
100

5.52W [18.83Btu / h]
Rth 18.105

The temperature drop across the contact is found by taking the ratio of the contact resistance to the
total thermal resistance:

Tc

Rc
(0.747)(100)
T
4.13 [39.43]
Rth
18.105

In this problem the contact resistance represents about 4 percent of the total resistance.

3. Steady-State Conduction Multiple Dimensions


3-1 INTRODUCTION

Laplace equation applies

2T 2T

0
x 2
y 2

The solution to Eq. (3-1) will give the temperature in a two-dimensional body as a function of the
two independent space coordinates x and y.
q x kAx

T
x

q y kA y

T
y

3-2 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION


It is worthwhile to mention here that analytical solutions are not always possible to obtain; indeed,
in many instances they are very cumbersome and difficult to use.
Three sides of the plate are maintained at the constant temperature T1, and the upper side has some
temperature distribution impressed upon it .
T = XY where X = X (x)
Y = Y (y)

1 d2X
1 d 2Y

X dx 2
Y dy 2

d2X
2 X 0
2
dx
d 2Y
2Y 0
dy 2

For 2 0

T = (C1 + C2x)(C3 + C4y)

For 2 < 0

T (C 5 e x C 6 e x )(C 7 cos y C 8 sin y )

For 2 > 0

T (C 9 cos x C10 sin x)(C11 e y C12 e y )

Now, it is possible to satisfy the sine-function boundary condition; so we shall attempt to satisfy the
other conditions. The algebra is somewhat easier to handle when the substitution

T T1

is made. The differential equation and the solution then retain the same form in the new variable ,
and we need only transform the boundary conditions. Thus
=0
at y = 0
=0
at x = 0
=0
at x = W
= Tm sin

x
at y = H
W

Applying these conditions, we have


0 (C 9 cos x C10 sin x)(C11 C12 )
0 C 9 (C11 e y C12 e y )
0 (C 9 cos W C10 sin W )(C11 e y C12 e y )
Tm sin

x
(C 9 cos x C10 sin x)(C11 e H C12 e H )
W

Accordingly,

C11 = - C12
C9 = 0

and
This requires that

0 C10 C12 sin W (e y e y )

SinW = 0

n
W

where the constants have been combined and the exponential terms converted to the hyperbolic
function. The final boundary condition may now be applied:

Tm sin

x
nx
nH
C n sin
sinh
W
W
W
n 1

which requires that Cn = 0 for n > 1. The final solution is therefore


T Tm

sinh(y / W )
x
sin( ) T1
sinh(H / W )
W

Note that the heat-flow lines are perpendicular to the isotherms.


We now consider the set of boundary conditions
T = T1
T = T1
T = T1
T = T2

at y = 0
at x = 0
at x = W
at y = H

T T1 C n sin
n 1

ny
nx
sinh
W
W

Applying the fourth boundary condition gives

T2 T1 C n sin
n 1

nx
nH
sinh
W
W

This is a Fourier sine series, and the values of the Cn may be determined by expanding the constant
temperature difference T2 T1 in a Fourier series over the interval 0<x<W. This series is

T2 T1 (T2 T1 )

T T1
2

T2 T1

(1) n 1 1
nx
sin
n
W

( 1) n 1 1
nx sinh( ny / W )
sin

n
W sinh( nH / W )
n 1

3-4 THE CONDUCTION SHAPE FACTOR


q kSToverall

For a three-dimensional wall, as in a furnace, separate shape factors are used to calculate the heat
flow through the edge and corner sections. When all the interior dimensions are greater than onefifth of the wall thickness,

S wall

A
L

Sedge = 0.54D

Scorner = 0.15L

where A = area of wall


L = wall thickness
D = length of edge

Example 3-1 BURIED PIPE. A horizontal pipe 15 cm in diameter and 4 m long is bouried in the
earth at a depth of 20 cm. The pipe-wall temperature is 75, and the earth surface calculate the
heat lost by the pipe.

Solution. We may calculate the shape factor for this situation using the equation given in Table 3-1.
Since D < 3r.
S

2 ( 4)
2L

15.35m
1
cosh ( D / r ) cosh 1 (20 / 7.5)

The heat flow is calculated from


q kST (0.8)(15.35)(75 5) 859.6W [2933Btu / h]

Example 3-2 CUBICAL FURNACE. A small cubical furnace 50 by 50 by 50 cm on the inside is


constructed of fireclay brick [ k = 1.04 W/m] with a wall thickness of 10 cm. The inside of the
furnace is maintained at 500, and the outside is maintained at 50. Calculate the heat lost
through the walls.
Solution. We compute the total shape factor by adding the shape factors for the walls, edges, and
corners:
Walls:

A (0.5)(0.5)

2.5m
L
0 .1

S 0.54 D (0.54)(0.5) 0.27 m


Edges:
Corners:
S = 0.15L = (0.15)(0.1) = 0.015m
There are six wall sections, twelve edges, and eight corners, so that the total shape factor is
S = (6)(2.5) + (12)(0.27) + (8)(0.015) = 18.36 m
and the heat flow is calculated as
q = kST = (1.04)(18.36)(500-50) = 8.592 kW [29,320 Btu/h]

3-5NUMERICAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS


An immense number of analytical solutions for conduction heat-transfer problems have been
accumulated in the literature over the past 100 years. Even so, in many practical situations the
geometry or boundary conditions are such that an analytical solution has not been obtained at all.
For such situations the most fruitful approach to the problem is one based on finite-difference
techniques, the gbasic principles of which we shall outlihne in this section.
The temperature gradients may be written as follows:
T
x
T
x

m 1 / 2 , n

m 1 / 2 , n

Tm 1, n Tm , n
x
Tm , n Tm 1, n
x

2T

x 2
2T

y 2

If x = y, then

Tm 1, n Tm 1, n 2Tm , n
( x) 2

m, n

Tm , n 1 Tm , n 1 2Tm , n
( y ) 2

m, n

Tm+1,n+Tm-1,n+Tm,n+1+Tm,n-1-4Tm,n = 0

3-6 NUMERICAL FORMULATION IN TERMS OF RESISTANCE ELEMENTS


qi
j

T j Ti
Rij

3-7 GAUSS-SEIDEL ITERATION

Tin 1 Tin

for all Ti

4. Unsteady-State Conduction
4-1 INTRODUCTION
T T1 4 1 [ n / 2 L ]2

nx

e
sin
I Ti T1 n 1 n
2L

n = 1, 3, 5

4-2 LUMPED-HEAT-CAPACITY SYSTEM


We continue our discussion of transiengt heat conduction by analyzing systems which may be considered
uniform in temperature. This type of analysis is called the lumped-heat-capacity method. Such systems
are obviously idealized because a temperature gradient must exist in a material if heat is to be conducted
into or out of the material.
T T
e hA / cV
T0 T

Applicability of Lumped-Capacity Analysis


h(V / A)
0.1
k

V/A = s as a characteristic dimension


hs
= Biot number = Bi
k

convection coefficient of 25 percent are quite common.


Do not dismiss lumped-capacity analysis because of its simplicity. Because of uncertainties in the
convection coefficient, it may not be necessary to use mor elaborate analysis techniques.

Example 4-1 STEEL BALL COOLING IN AIR. A steel ball [c = 0.46 kJ/kg, k = 35 W/m] 5.0 cm in
diameter and initially at a uniform temperature of 450 is suddenly placed in a controlled environment
in which the temperature is maintained at 100. The convection heat-transfer coefficient is 10 W/m2.
Calculate the time required for the ball to attain a temperature of 150.
Solution.
h(V / A) (10)[(4 / 3) (0.025) 3

0.0023 0.1
k
4 (0.025) 2 (35)

T = 150
T = 100
T0 = 450

= 7800 kg/m3 [486lbm/ft3]


h = 10 W/m2 [1.76Btu/hft2]
c = 460 J/kg [0.11 Btu/lbm]

(10) 4 (0.025) 2
hA

3.44 10 4 s 1
3
cV (7800)(460)(4 / 3)(0.025)
T T
e [ hA / cV ]
T0 T
4
150 100
e 3.34410
450 100
5819 s 1.62h

4-3 TRANSIENT HEAT FLOW IN A SEMI-INFINITE SOLID


2T
1 T

2

x

The boundary and initial conditions are


T (x,0) = Ti
T (0,) = T0 for> 0
erf

x
2

x / 2

e d

is a dummy variable
T ( x , ) T0
2

Ti T0

q0

x / 2

e d

kA(T0 Ti )

Constant Heat Flux on Semi-Infinite Solid

T Ti

x2
2q 0 /
exp
kA
4

q0 x
x
1 erf
kA
2

Example 4-2 SEMI-INFINITE SOLID WITH SUDDEN CHANGE IN SURFACE CONDITIONS.


A large block of steel [ k = 45 W/m, = 1.4*10-5 m2/s] is initially at a uniform temperature of 35. The
surface is exposed to a heat flux (a) by suddenly raising the surface temperature to 250 and (b) through
a constant surface heat flux of 3.2*105 W/m2. Calculate the temperature at a depth of 2.5 cm after a time
of 0.5 min for both these cases.
Solution.
x
2

0.025
0.61
( 2)[(1.4 10 5 )(30)]1 / 2

The erro9r function is determined from Appendix A as

erf

x
2

erf 0.61 0.61164

We have Ti = 35 and T0 = 250so the temperature at x = 2.5 cm is determined from Eq. (4-8) as
2

T ( x, ) T0 (Ti T0 )erf

250 (35 250)(0.61164 ) 118 .5

For the constant-heat-flux case b, we make use of Eq. (4-13). Since qo/A is given as 3.2 105 W/m2, we
can insert the numerical values to give
T ( x, ) 35

( 2)(3.2 10 5 )[(1.4 10 5 )(30) / ]1 / 2 ( 0.61) 2 (0.025)(3.2 10 5 )


e

(1 0.61164 ) 79.3
45
45

x 2.5cm, 30 s

For the constant-heat-flux case the surface temperature after 30s would be evaluated with x = 0 in Eq. (413). Thus
T ( x 0) 35

(2)(3.2 10 5 )[(1.4 10 5 )(30) / ]1 / 2


199.4
45

Example 4-3 HEAT REMOVAL FROM SEMI-INFINITE SOLID. A large slab of aluminum at a
uniform temperature of 200 suddenly has its surface temperature lowered to 70. What is the total
heat removed from the slab per unit surface area when the emperature at a depth 4.0 cm has dropped to
120
Solution. We first find the time required to attain the 120 temperature and then integrate Eq. (4-12) to
find the total heat removed during this time interval. For aluminum,
8.4 10 5 m 2 / s

k 215W / m [124 Btu/hft]

We also have Ti 200 T0 70 T ( x, ) 120


120 70
x
erf
200 70
2
x
0.3553
2
(0.04) 2

37.72 s
( 4)(0.3553) 2 (8.4 10 5 )

The total heat removed at the surface is obtained by integrating Eq. (4-12):
q
k (T T )
Q0

0
i
0 d
d 2k (T0 Ti )
0
0
A
A

37.72
(2)(215)(70 200)
5
(8.4 10 )

1/ 2

21.13 10 6 J / m 2 [-1861 Btu/ft2]

4-4 CONVECTION BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

hA(T T ) x 0 kA

T Ti
hx h
1 erfX exp

T Ti
k2
k

T
x

x 0

h
1 erf X

The most important cases are those dealing with (1) plates whose thickness is small in relation to the
other dimensions, (2) cylinders where the diameter is small compared to the length, and (3) spheres.
T ( x, ) T or T (r , ) T

i Ti T
0 T0 T
Qo cV (Ti T ) cV i

Applicability of the Heisler Charts


F0

0.2
s2

Example 4-4 SUDDEN EXPOSURE OF SEMI-INFINITE SLAB TO CONVECTION. The slab of


Example 4-3 is suddenly exposed to a convection-surface environment of 70 with a heat-transfer
coefficient of 525 W/m2. Calculate the time required for the temperature to reach 120 at the depth
of 4.0 cm for this circumstance.
Solution. We may use either Eq. (4-15) or Fig. 4-5 for sulution of this problem, but Fig. 4-5 is easier to
apply because the time appears in two terms. Even when the figure is used, an iterative procedure is
required because the time appears in both of the variables h / k and x /(2 ) . We seek the value of
such that
T Ti
120 200

0.615
T Ti
70 200
We therefore try values of and obtain readings of the temperature ratio from Fig. 4-5 until agreement
with Eq. (a) is reached. The iterations are listed below. Values of k and are obtained from Example 43.
T Ti
s
x
h
from Fig. 4-5
T Ti
2
k
1000
3000
4000

0.708
1.226
1.416

0.069
0.040
0.035

0.41
0.61
0.68

Consequently, the time required is approximately 3000s.


Example 4-5 ALUMINUM PLATE SUDDENLY EXPOSED TO CONVECTION. A large plate of
aluminum 5.0 cm thick and initially at 200 is suddenly exposed to the convection environment of
Example 4-4. calculate the temperature at a depth of 1.25 cm from one of the faces 1 min after the plate
has been exposed to the environment. How much energy has been removed per unit area from the plate in
this time
Solution. The Heisler charts of Figs. 4-7 and 4-10 may be used for solution of this problem. We first

calculte the center temperature of the plate, using Fig. 4-7, and then use Fig. 4-10 to calculate the
temperature at the specified x position. From the conditions of the problem we have
i Ti T 200 70 130 8.4 10 5 m 2 / s [3.26 ft2/h]
2L = 5.0 cmL = 2.5cm
= 1 min 60s
2
k = 215 W/m [124 Btu/hft ]
h = 525 W/m2 [92.5 Btu/hft2]
x = 2.5 - 1.25 = 1.25 cm
Then

k
215
(8.4 10 5 )(60)
x 1.25

16.38

8.064
0.5
2
2
hL (525)(0.025)
L
2.5
L
(0.025)

k
215
(8.4 10 5 )(60)
x 1.25

16.38

8.064
0.5
2
2
hL (525)(0.025)
L
2.5
L
(0.025)

0
0.61 0 T0 T (0.61)(130) 79.3
i
x / L = 0.5

0.98
i

and T T (0.98)(79.3) 77.7


T=77.7+70=14.7
We compute the energy lost by the slab by using Fig. 4-14. For this calculation we require the following
properties of aluminum:
2700kg / m 3 c 0.9kJ / kg C

Q
h 2 (525) 2 (8.4 10 5 )(60)
hL (525)(0.025)
0.41

0
.
03

0
.
061
we need

Q0
k2
( 215) 2
k
215

For unit area


Q0 cV i

c( 2 L ) i ( 2700)(900)(0.05)(130) 15.8 10 6 J / m 2
A
A

so that the heat removed per unit surface area is


Q
(15.8 10 6 )(0.41) 6.48 10 6 J / m 2 [571 Btu/ft2]
A

Example 4-6 LONG CYLINDER SUDDENLY EXPOSED TO CONVECTION. A long aluminum


cylinder 5.0 cm in diameter and initially at 200 is suddenly exposed to a convection environment at
70 and h = 525W / m 2 C . Calculate the temperature at a radius of 1.25 cm and the heat lost per unit
length 1 min after the cylinder is exposed to the environment.
Solution. This problem is like Example 4-5 except that Figs. 4-8 and 4-11 are employed for the solution.
We have
i Ti T 200 70 130 8.4 10 5 m 2 / s
r0 2.5cm 1 min 60 s

k 215W / m C h 525W / m 2 C r 1.25cm


2700kg / m 3 c 0.9kJ / kg C

We compute
k
215
r
1.25
(8.4 10 5 )(60)

16.38

0.5

8
.
064

hr0
(525)(0.025)
r0
2.5
r02
(0.025) 2

From Fig. 4-8

0.98
0.38 and from Fig. 4-11 at r / r0 0.5
0
i

so that

(0.38)(0.98) 0.372
i i 0

and

T T (0.372)(130) 48.4

T 70 48.4 118 .4C

To compute the heat lost, we determine


h 2 (525) 2 (8.4 10 5 )(60)
hr
(525)(0.025)

0.03 0
0.061
2
2
k
( 215)
k
215

Then from Fig. 4-15


Q
0.65
Q0

For unit length


Q0 cV i

cr02 i ( 2700)(900) (0.025) 2 (130) 6.203 10 5 J / m


L
L

and the actual heat lost per unit length is


Q
(6.203 10 5 )(0.65) 4.032 10 5 J / m [116.5 Btu/ft]
L

4-5 MULTIDIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS


P(X 1 )P(X 2 )

2L 2
(b)

P(X)S(X 1 )

2L 1
(a)

P(X 1 )P(X 2 )P(X 3 )

2L 3

2L 2
(d)

S(X)P(X 1 )P(X 2 )

2L 2
(c)

C () S ( X )

C () P ( X )

2L

2r0
(f)

2r0
(e)

C ()

= solution for infinite cylinder


P(X) = solution for infinite plate
S(X) = solution for semi-infinite solid

Heat Transfer in Multidimensional Systems


Q

Q0
Q

Q0

total

Q
Q0

total

Q
Q0

Q
Q0

Q
Q0

Q
1

2
Q0

Q
1

2
Q0 1


Q0
1

Q
Q0


Q
1

1
Q0 2

Example 4-7 SEMI-INFINITE CYLINDER SUDDENLY EXPOSED TO CONVECTION. A semiinfinite aluminum cylinder 5 cm in diameter is initially at a uniform temperature of 200. It is suddenly
subjected to a convection boundary condition at 70 with h = 525 W / m 2 C .Calculate the
temperatures at the axis and surface of the cylinder 10 cm from the end 1 min after exposure to the
environment.
Solution. This problem requires a combination of solutions for the infinite cylinder and semi-infinite slab
in accordance with Fig. 4-18e. For the slab we have
x 10cm 8.4 10 5 m 2 / s k 215W / m C

so that the parameters for use with Fig. 4-5 are

h (525) 8.4 10 5 (60)

k
215
x
2

0.1

(2) 8.4 10 5 (60)

1/ 2

1/ 2

0.173

0.704

From Fig. 4-5


semi-infinite slab

= 1 0.036 = 0.964 = S(X)

For the infinite cylinder we seek both the axis and surface-temperature ratios. The parameters for use with
Fig. 4-8 are

k
16.38 2 8.064 0 0.38
r0 2.5cm
hr0
r0
i
This is the axis-temperature ratio. To find the surface-temperature ratios, we enter Fig. 4-11, using
r

1.0
0.97
r0
0
Thus

0.38
at
C()
i (0.38)(0.97) 0.369

r 0
r r0

Combining the solutions for the semi-infinite slab and infinite cylinder, we have

semi-infinite slab

C () S ( X )
r 0
(0.38)(0.964) 0.366
at
r r0
(0.369)(0.964) 0.356

The corresponding temperatures are


r 0
T 70 (0.366)(200 70) 117 .6
at
r r0
T 70 (0.356)(200 70) 116 .3

Example 4-8 FINITE-LENGTH CYLINDER SUDDENLY EXPOSED TO CONVECTION. A short


aluminum cylinder 5.0 cm in diameter and 10.0 cm long is initially at a uniform temperature of 200. It
is suddenly subjected to a convection environment at 70, and h 525W / m 2 C . Calculate the
temperature at a radial position of 1.25 cm and a distance of 0.625 cm from one end of the cylinder 1 min
after exposure to the environment.
Solution. To solve this problem we combine the solutions from the Heisler charts for an infinite cylinder
and an infinite plate in accordance with the combination shown in Fig. 4-18f. For the infinite-plate
problemL = 5 cm
The x position is measured from the center of the plate so that
x 5 0.625 4.375cm

x 4.375

0.875
L
5

For aluminum
8.4 10 5 m 2 / s k 215W / m C

so hL (525)(0.05) 8.19 2
L
k

215

(8.4 10 5 )(60)
2.016
(0.05) 2

From Figs. 4-7 and 4-10, respectively,

0.95
0.75
i
i

so that
i

(0.75)(0.95) 0.7125
plate

For the cylinder r0 2.5cm


r
1.25
k
215

0.5

16.38
r0
2.5
hr0
(525)(0.025)

(8.4 10 5 )(60)

8.064
r02
(0.025) 2
and from Figs. 4-8 and 4-11, respectively,
0

0.98
0.38
0
i
so that

(0.38)(0.98) 0.3724
cy1

Combining the solutions for the plate and cylinder gives


short cylinder

= (0.7125)(0.3724) = 0.265

Thus T T (0.265)(Ti T ) 70 (0.265)(200 70) 104.5C

Example 4-9 HEAT LOSS FOR FINITE-LENGTH CYLINDER. Calculate the heat loss for the short
cylinder in Example 4-8.
Solution. We first calculate the dimensionless heat-loss ratio for the infinite plate and infinite cylinder
which make up the multidimensional body. For the plate we have L = 5 cm = 0.05 m. Using the properties
of aluminum from Example 4-8, we calculate
hL (525)(0.05)

0.122
k
215
h 2 (525) 2 (8.4 10 5 )(60)

0.03
k2
( 215) 2

From Fig. 4-14, for the plate, we read (

Q
) p 0.22
Qo

For the cylinder r0 = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m, so we calculate


hro (525)(0.025)

0.061
k
215

and from Fig. 4-15 we can read


Q

Q0

0.22 (0.55)(1 0.22) 0.649


tot

The specific heat of aluminum is 0.896 kJ/kg and the density is 2707 kg/m3, so we calculate Q0 as
Q0 cV i ( 2707)(0.896) (0.025) 2 (0.1)(200 70) 61.9kJ
The actual heat loss in the 1-min time is thus
Q (61.9kJ )(0.649) 40.2kJ

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