Ch4 OFTS

Chapter 4
Wavelength Division
Multiplexed Systems
2011/2012
Adolfo Cartaxo
Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012
Objectives
Introduce WDM systems
Provide knowledge on the main types of WDM systems
Provide knowledge on the main limitations and design of point-topoint WDM systems
Provide knowledge on the architecture, elements and main
impairments of WDM networks
Bibliography
Chapters 5, 7 and 13 of Optical Networks
Adolfo Cartaxo
Basic Elements and Requirements

of a (point-to-point) WDM System
1 optical fibre
1, 2, ... ,N
1, 2, ... ,N
Amplification
Section
Wavelength
Splitter
Wavelength
Combiner
Tunable
optical sources
with
reduced
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linewidth
Challenge:
Individual Optical
Receivers
High selectivity
in the optical domain
(One per wavelength channel,
Low insertion loss
(to separate channels
color blind) 3
Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication
Systems,
2012
with low
crosstalk)
= PIN + electrical receiver
Challenge:
WDM Multiplexing / Demultiplexing

Methods
Selective: uses AWG (loss independent of number of wavelengths)
Non-selective: uses combination of optical filters (loss dependent of
number of wavelengths)
Multiplexers / Demultiplexers: passive (reciprocal) devices

Technologies:
Gratings
Fibre Bragg gratings
Arrayed waveguide gratings (AWGs)
Techniques for high count multiplexing

Multi-stage (per wavelength band)
Interleaving
These technologies and techniques have been addressed in chapter 2
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Tunable Lasers
Why tunable? (... and not fixed-wavelength?)
More expensive
With fixed-wavelength lasers, a 100-channel WDM system needs 100
different laser types inventory and sparing issues from
manufacturers, system providers to network operators
Tunable lasers are also one of the key enablers of reconfigurable
optical networks:
they provide the flexibility to choose the transmit wavelength at the
source of a lightpath; we need as many tunable lasers in a network node
as the number of lighpaths
The tuning time required for such applications is on the order of
milliseconds because the wavelength selection happens only at the times
where the lightpath is set up, or when it needs to be rerouted in the event
of a failure
[ON] section 3.5.3
Adolfo Cartaxo
Tunable Lasers (2)
Tuning mechanisms:
Injection current into a semiconductor laser
Temperature tuning
Mechanical tuning
Ideal tunable laser
can tune rapidly over a wide continuous tuning range of over

100 nm.
should be stable over its lifetime and easily controllable and

manufacturable.
[ON] section 3.5.3

Adolfo Cartaxo
Optical Channel Density

WDM provides a number of uniformly spaced frequency-slots for optical
channels
The system operator may not populate all of them with signals
The spacing of these frequency slots determines the potential optical
channel density
Maximum number of channels (channel capacity)
in a given bandwidth, BWDM :
N ch ,max =
BWDM
ch
ch : channel spacing (assumed the same over the whole bandwidth)

Any channel spacing can be chosen but in practice most WDM systems fall
into two specific categories based on industry standards.
Adoption of standards is important to guarantee the communication between
different manufacturers equipments and reduce manufacturing costs
Adolfo Cartaxo
Categories of WDM: CWDM and ...

CWDM (Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
Based on channel spacing of 20 nm across a range from 1260 to 1620 nm set
by ITU standard G.694.2 18 channels (centered at 1250 + i20 nm)
across the low-loss window of dry fibres (bands O, E, S, C and L)
For use in metro networks where in many cases data rates to 2.5 Gbit/s are
used and transmission distances are at most tens of km optical amplifiers
are not required.
Avoids high costs associated with precise wavelength control (uncooled
lasers and mux/demux with weaker selectivity can be used)
CWDM spacing
is uniform in
wavelength
but not in
frequency units
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Categories of WDM: ..... and DWDM

DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
Uses channel spacing of 200 GHz or less
Normal center-frequency spacings are 200, 100, 50 or 25 GHz based on a
standard grid developed by ITU developed for the EDFA band
Most DWDM systems operate in the EDFA band (around 1550 nm): used
for long-haul, high-capacity transmission
Difference in system capacity between

CWDM and DWDM is dramatic !!!
... while 40 100-GHz DWDM channels
fit into the EDFA C-band (1530-1565 nm),
two CWDM channels do not
quite fit into the same band
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DWDM spacing
is uniform in
frequency but
not in wavelength
units
9
DWDM Frequency Grid by ITU
Fibre loss parameter, a, dB/km
ITU-T G.692: different frequency spacings

between adjacent channels; grid anchored
at 193.1 THz (1552.52 nm); only C and L bands
Alternative
channel spacings
25 GHz (~0.2 nm)
50 GHz (~0.4 nm)
100 GHz (~0.4 nm)
200 GHz (~1.6 nm)
Second
window
~1270-1350nm
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Third
window
~1480-1600nm
Wavelength, nm
10
Third Window Bands

L Band
(Long )
EDFA Gain, dB
C Band
(Conventional)
~ 1530-1565nm
Bandwidth ~35nm
~ 1565-1625nm
Bandwith: ~60nm
Total available bandwidth
~ 90 nm
~ 112 channels
(spaced by 100 GHz,
about 0.8 nm)
Wavelength, nm
Signals are split between a pair of parallel amplifiers (one for each band) with a 5 nm gap between
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Cartaxo
11
C and
L bands.
L band EDFAChapter
amplification
can Telecommunication
be achieved with
longer2012
(100 m or more) doped fibre.
4, Optical Fibre
Systems,
Top-capacity Commercial (P2P) DWDM Systems
System Vendor
Equipment
Designation
CoreStream
Ciena
Lucent
LambdaXtreme
Nokia Siemens
Networks
TransXpress
Infinity
Nortel
OPTera Long
Haul 5000
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Capacity
1.6 Tb/s
Number of
wavelengths
160 s 10 Gb/s
640 s 2.5 Gb/s
2.56 Tb/s
64 s 40 Gb/s
1.28 Tb/s
128 s 10 Gb/s
1.6 Tb/s
160 s 10 Gb/s
3.2 Tb/s
80 s 40 Gb/s
6.4 Tb/s
160 s 40 Gb/s
12
Channel Spacing Requirements

What is the required channel spacing?
Ideally, the WDM demultiplexer should transmit all light (no loss) at the center
wavelength of the optical channel, and block adjacent channels completely.
In practice, the demux has some attenuation at the center of the channel
(typically, 3 to 5 dB), and adjacent channels are attenuated by 20 to 40 dB.
Actual transmission of the demux depends on the technology used and spreads
out more than over the adjacent channels origin of crosstalk (XTalk)
between optical channels.
Demux with transfer function, H
Demux transmittance (dB)
dem
( )
Signal power at demux output: p0 Hdem ( S ) p

2
p0
Signal
p : input power per channel (same for all channels)
Interchannel
Crosstalk
i =pc,i/p0
Power from XTalk channel i: pc ,i H dem ( i ) p

2
pc,1
1
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pc,2
Normalised XTalk power from channel i: i = pc ,i p0
pc,i
2 ... i ... S
Difference in dB between signal and XTalk levels
...
... Nch
(channel suppression, dB): 10log10 i = P0 Pc ,i
13
Demux Bandwidth Requirements

The crosstalk can be reduced by using demuxes with bandwidth narrower
than the optical channel bandwidth (channel spacing) reduces the
amount of leakage power of other optical channels detected by the PIN
... but the bandwidth should be wide enough to transmit the signal and cope
with drift of source wavelength
Rule of thumb for minimum -3 dB Mux and Demux bandwidths:
B-3 dB = 2Rb,ch + 2ch/5
Rb,ch = channel bit rate
ch = channel spacing
This means
B-3 dB < ch
required bandwidth is due to signal bandwidth (2Rb,ch) and

drift of nominal emission wavelength (2ch/5)
ITU-T specifies a maximum drift of ch/5 for a channel spacing 200 GHz
(higher drift causes increase of crosstalk and signal loss)
Adolfo Cartaxo
14
Crosstalk (XTalk) Modeling

Electric field at the PIN input (just one channel interferer):
E ( t ) = 2 p0 dS ( t ) cos [ 2 St + S ( t )] + 2 i p0 di ( t ) cos [ 2 i t + i ( t )]
dS ( t ) ={0, 1}, depending on whether a 0 or 1 is being sent in the desired channel;
di ( t ) = {0, 1}, depending on whether a 0 or 1 is being sent in the XTalk channel;
S and i is the optical frequency of the signal and XTalk carriers;
S ( t ) and i ( t ) are the random phases of the signal and XTalk channels
(it is assumed that all channels have an infinite extinction ratio)
Power incident on PIN within the receiver bandwidth (proportional to the squared electric field)
pi ( t ) =p0 dS ( t ) + i p0 di ( t ) + 2 i p0 di ( t ) dS ( t ) cos 2 ( S i ) t + S ( t ) i ( t )
Worst case XTalk
For interchannel XTalk, S i ,
(lower power level for 1 and higher power level for 0)
and the electrical receiver cuts-off the last term:
For bit 1, dS ( t ) = 1, and d i ( t ) = 0 (worst case): pi ,1 = p0
pi ( t ) = p 0 d S ( t ) + i p 0 d i ( t )
For bit 0, d ( t ) = 0, and d i ( t ) = 1 (worst case): pi ,0 = i p0
Adolfo Cartaxo
S
Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems,
2012
15
Power Penalty due to Interchannel Crosstalk

Definition of power penalty, in dB
pi real
pi w/ XT
PinterXT = 10log10
= 10log10
p
p
i ideal
i no XT
Q factor dependence on power levels of bits 1 and 0
(for dominance of signal-ASE beat noise)
kn ( pi ,1 pi ,0 )
Q=
= k pi ,1 pi ,0
kr pi ,1 + kr pi ,0
Real situation
(with interchannel XTalk):
Ideal situation
(no interchannel XTalk)
pi ,1 = p0 , pi ,0 = 0
Q = k p0 = k 2 pi
pi no XT
1Q
=
2 k
Exercise:
derive expression for the
power penalty in case
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Cartaxosystem
of an
unamplified
Q=k
pi ,1 = p0 , pi ,0 = i p0
p0 i p0 = k 2 pi 1 i
2
1Q
1
pi w/ XT =
2 k 1
i
Interchannel XTalk power penalty, in dB
pi w/ XT
PinterXT = 10log10
= 20log10 1 i
i no XT
Chapter 4, Optical Fibre
Systems, 2012
pTelecommunication
16
Example of Application
Calculation of the required adjacent channel suppression (dB)
for an interchannel XTalk penalty not exceeding 1 dB.
1. Assuming just one adjacent channel
i = (1 10
PinterXT 20 2
Channel suppression (dB)= 20log10 (1 10PinterXT
20
PinterX T 1 dB i 0.0118 C hannel suppression 19.27 dB
2. Assuming the main XTalk comes from the two adjacent channels
(neglecting XTalk coming from the other channels)
In case of N interfering channels, i should be replaced by iN=1 i :
PinterXT = 20log10 1 iN=1 i
When the two channels have the same suppression, 1 = 2 =
= (1 10
PinterXT 20 2
Required
suppression
increases with
the number of
interfering
channels
2 Channel suppression (dB)= 20log10 (1 10PinterXT 20 ) + 3
PinterXT 1 dB 0.0059 Channel suppression 22.27 dB

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17
Capacity Limitations in DWDM systems

imposed by the maximum
power of the WDM signal
imposed by the maximum

bandwidth of the WDM signal
Maximum count of channels:
Nch,max = pmax / pch
Nch,max = BWDM,max / ch
pmax = maximum power imposed by,

e. g., EDFAs
BWDM,max = maximum bandwidth imposed
pch = average power per channel

(necessary to fulfil the required
system margin)
ch = channel spacing
by, e. g., the EDFAs gain
Maximum bit rate of the WDM signal

Adolfo Cartaxo
Rb,WDM,max = Nch,max Rb,ch

Chapter
4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012
Rb,ch = channel bit rate

18
Calculation of the maximum bit rate of a WDM signal in
a 25 GHz channel spacing and 2.5 Gbit/s per channel link
... that uses EDFAs with uniform gain in the 1530-1560 nm band
and maximum output power of 20 dBm
assuming that the average signal power per channel required
at the PIN input to guarantee the target system margin is -6 dBm
EDFAs bandwidth, in Hz:
BWDM,max = c / (0)2 ()max = 3768 GHz
(0 = 1545 nm ; ()max = 30 nm)
Nch,max = pmax / pch = 100 / 106/10 = 398.1
Nch,max = BWDM,max / ch = 3768 / 25 = 150.7
Maximum bit rate of the WDM signal

Adolfo Cartaxo
Chapter=4,N
Optical Fibre
Telecommunication Systems, 2012
Rb,WDM,max
ch,max Rb,ch = 150 2.5 = 375 Gbit/s
19
Gain Equalization in EDFA Chains

No equalisation
Pre-emphasis
Equalizing filter
within each amplifier
The preferred solution today is to add an optical filter within the amplifier
with a carefully designed passband to compensate for the gain spectrum of
the amplifier so as to obtain a flat spectrum at its output.
Both dielectric thin-film filters and long-period fiber gratings are good
candidates for this purpose.
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20
Dependence of Q-factor on Launch Power Level

Single-channel
Q-factor variations with launched
power in long-haul systems.
The reduction in multi-channel systems

is more pronounced than in single
channel systems due to the contribution
of interchannel nonlinear fibre effects.
XPM is usually the most important
multi-channel nonlinear impairment at
10 Gbit/s per channel: just a few (~6)
channels contribute to this limitation.
Adolfo Cartaxo
Q factor
Q factor increases initially with

launched power, reaches a peak value,
and then decreases with a further
increase in power because of the onset
of the nonlinear effects.
Multi-channel
Section input power
Reduction of maximum input power

Reduction of maximum nonlinear phase shift
due to interchannel nonlinear fibre effects
(XPM, FWM and SRS)
21
Design of WDM Links

The similar steps to single channel systems design are followed but
with a reduction of the maximum input power per section
Remarks
1) Transmission penalties due to multi-channel fibre nonlinear effects (XPM,
FWM and SRS) should be taken into account.
2) FEC has no impact on the penalty due to each multi-channel fibre
nonlinear effect.
System margin of the link
M s dB = OSNRR OSNRR ,i ,FEC Pi ,SPM,max Pi ,XPM,max Pi ,FWM,max

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22
WDM Networks
These networks provide circuit-switched end-to-end optical channels, or
lightpaths, between network nodes to their users, or clients.
A lightpath consists of an optical channel, or wavelength, between two
network nodes that is routed through multiple intermediate nodes. Intermediate
nodes may switch and convert wavelengths.
These networks may thus be thought of as wavelength-routing networks.
Lightpaths are set up and taken down as dictated by the users of the network.
Noteworthy features of these networks:
Wavelength reuse
Wavelength conversion
Transparency
Circuit switching
Survivability
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23
Architecture of WDM Networks

WDM Network Elements
Lightpaths
Optical Line Terminals (OLTs)
Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers

(OADMs),
Optical Crossconnects (OXCs)
Optical line amplifiers deployed along the fibre link at

periodic locations to amplify the
light signal
OLTs, OADMs, and OXCs may

themselves incorporate optical
amplifiers
OLTs are widely deployed, and

OADMs are deployed to a lesser
extent. OXCs are just beginning
to be deployed
The architecture supports a variety of topologies, including ring and mesh topologies.
The users (or clients) of this network are connected to the OLTs, OADMs, or OXCs.
The
network supports a variety of client types, such as IP routers, ATM switches, and
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SONET terminals and ADMs.
24
OLT
OLTs multiplex multiple wavelengths into a single fiber and also demultiplex a
composite WDM signal into individual wavelengths.
OLTs are used at either end of a point-to-point link.
Transponder
Router IP
ADM SDH
Non ITU
Non ITU
O/E/O
O/E/O
ITU 2
MUX
1, 2, 3, OSC
EDFA
ITU 3
ADM SDH
Only the multiplexing function is

illustrated. The demultiplexing is
also performed in the OLT (for
the opposite direction of
communication)
ITU 1
OSC
Adaptation
functions
Laser
Optical Line Terminal
Transponder adaptation functions:
Addition of optical
supervisory channel, OSC
= 1510 or 1620 nm
Transponder aspects:
Can be fixed-wavelength or tunable.

Modification of the signal wavelength
(in order to get an ITU wavelength)
typically are the bulk of the cost, footprint,
and power consumption in an OLT.
Addition of overhead for control and
management functions
reducing the number of transponders helps
Addition of FEC
minimize both the cost and the size of25the
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equipment deployed.
BER monitoring
OADMs
OADMs are used at locations where some fraction of the wavelengths need to
be terminated locally and others need to be routed to other destinations.
They are typically deployed in linear or ring topologies.
Several architectures (parallel, series) using different technologies (AWG, FBG)
have been proposed
Static and reconfigurable OADMs are available
In reconfigurable OADMs, the wavelengths that are dropped and added in the
OADM can be changed
Reconfigurable OADMs allow the lightpaths can be set and removed as needed
Reconfigurable OADMs can be implemented using optical switches or tuned FBGs.
Nch
Example of a
reconfigurable
OADM using a
parallel
architecture
1, 2, ..., Nch
MUX
Transponders
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DMUX
Optical switch
(electrically controled by 26
the network management)
OXCs
OXCs features
Functions are similar to OADMs but on a much larger scale in terms of number
of ports and wavelengths involved,
are deployed in mesh topologies or in order to interconnect multiple rings
allow a fast reconfiguration of the network lightpaths
OXC architectures
Opaque (O/E and E/O conversions are used inside the OXC)
Signal regeneration is possible
Wavelength conversion is possible
Limited capacity and just one bit rate is used
Transparent (all-optical)
Several architectures have been proposed with and without wavelength conversion
Remark
OADM and OXC performances are mainly degraded by intrachannel XTalk
Signals of same optical frequency are combined in OADMs and OXCs
due to the imperfect isolation between ports of the optical switches
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27
All-optical OXC Architectures

1
OLT 2
3
1 , 2 , 3
1
OLT 2
3
1 , 2 , 3
OLT 2
3
1 , 2 , 3
With
wavelength
conversion
1 , 2 , 3
1 , 2 , 3
Without
wavelength
conversion
1 , 2 , 3
Optical
Switch
1
2 OLT
3
1 , 2 , 3
1
2
3 OLT
1 , 2 , 3
1
2
3 OLT
1 , 2 , 3
OLT
1
2
3
1
2 OLT
3
1 , 2 , 3
OLT
1
2
3
1
2
OLT
3
1 , 2 , 3
OLT
1
2
3
1
2
OLT
3
1 , 2 , 3
Optical
Switch
Wavelength
Converters
Remark: OLTs of OXC do not use transponders

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28
Intrachannel XTalk Modeling

Electric field at the PIN input (just one channel interferer):
E ( t ) = 2 p0 dS ( t ) cos [ 2 St + S ( t )] + 2 i p0 di ( t ) cos [ 2 i t + i ( t )]
dS ( t ) ={0, 1}, depending on whether a 0 or 1 is being sent in the desired channel;
di ( t ) = {0, 1}, depending on whether a 0 or 1 is being sent in the XTalk channel;
S and i is the optical frequency of the signal and XTalk carriers;
S ( t ) and i ( t ) are the random phases of the signal and XTalk channels
(it is assumed that all channels have an infinite extinction ratio)
Power incident on PIN within the receiver bandwidth (proportional to the squared electric field)
pi ( t ) =p0 dS ( t ) + i p0 di ( t ) + 2 i p0 di ( t ) dS ( t ) cos 2 ( S i ) t + S ( t ) i ( t )
Worst case XTalk

(lower power level for 1 and higher power level for 0)
For intrachannel XTalk, S = i :

pi ( t ) =p0 dS ( t ) + i p0 di ( t ) +
For bit 1, dS ( t ) = 1, and di ( t ) = 1, cos [] =-1 (worst case), i i :
pi ,1 = p0 1 2 i
t )] Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

( ) ( t ) cos [SChapter
( t ) 4,i (Optical
2 Adolfo
i p0 Cartaxo
d i t dS
29
For bit 0, dS ( t ) = 0, and di ( t ) = 1 (worst case): pi ,0 = i p0
Power Penalty due to Intrachannel XTalk

Definition of power penalty, in dB
pi real
pi w/ intra
PintraXT = 10log10
= 10log10
p
p
i ideal
i no intra
Q factor dependence on power levels of bits 1 and 0
(for dominance of signal-ASE beat noise)
kn ( pi ,1 pi ,0 )
= k pi ,1 pi ,0
Q=
kr pi ,1 + kr pi ,0
Real situation (with intrachannel XTalk):

pi ,1 = p0 (1 2 i ) , pi ,0 = i p0
Ideal situation
(no intrachannel XTalk)
pi ,1 = p0 , pi ,0 = 0
Q=k
Q = k p0 = k 2 pi
1Q
pi no XT =
2 k
(1 2 ) p
i
pi
w/ intra
1Q
=
2 k
( 1 2 )
Intrachannel XTalk power penalty, in dB

i 1
pi w/ intra
Pintra = 10log10
= 20log10 1 2 i i 20log10 1 2 i
pi no intra
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( 1 2 )
i p0 = k 2 pi
Exercise: derive expression for the intrachannel Xtalk power penalty in case of an unamplified system
30
Calculation of the switch required isolation (dB)
for an intrachannel XTalk penalty not exceeding 1 dB.
1. Assuming just one interferer
i = (1 10
Pintra 20 2
4 Switch isolation (dB)= 20log10 (1 10Pintra
20
)+6
Pintra 1 dB i 0.0118 4 Switch isolation 25.27 dB
2. Assuming the intrachannel XTalk comes from two interferers

resulting from the same switch isolation level
In case of N interferers, i should be replaced by iN=1 i :
Pintra = 20log10 1 2iN=1 i
Required
isolation
increases with
the square of the
number of
interferers
When the two interferers result from the same isolation, 1 = 2 =
= (1 10
Pintra
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16 Switch isolation (dB)= 20log10 (1 10Pintra
1 dB i 0.0118 16 Switch isolation 31.27 dB
Pintra 20 2
20
) + 12
31
OTN Optical Transport Network

OTN is a recent ITU-T standardisation (G.709)
designed to transport data packet traffic such as IP and Ethernet over fibre optics,
as well as legacy traffic (SDH).
the target is long distance transmission with data bit rates from 2.5 Gbit/s up to
40 Gbit/s
defines an Optical Transport Hierarchy (OTH) similar to SDH with two stages:
first is electrical (mapping of tributary signals and overhead insertion) and
second is optics (creation of optical channels and WDM structure)
Capabilities: FEC - RS(255,239) -, management, protocol transparency and
asynchronous timing
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OTN (G.709)
Line rates
SDH
Line rates
OTU1
2.666 Gbit/s
STM-16
2.488 Gbit/s
OTU2
10.709 Gbit/s
STM-64
9.953 Gbit/s
OTU3
43.018 Gbit/s STM-256 39.813 Gbit/s
32
Forward Error Correction (FEC) for OFTS
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33
Why Forward Error Correction?

It is entirely possible that a specified BER cannot be achieved.
Only viable alternative use an error-correction scheme.
In one approach, errors are detected but not corrected.
Suitable when packet switching is used (Internet protocol).
In FEC, errors are detected and corrected at the receiver without
any retransmission of bits.
This scheme is best suited for lightwave systems operating with
SONET or SDH protocol (synchronous transmission).
Historically, lightwave systems did not employ FEC until the use
of in-line optical amplifiers became common.
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34
Basics of Error-Correcting Codes

Basic idea: add extra bits at transmitter using a suitable code.
At the receiver end, a decoder uses these control bits to detect and
correct errors.
How many errors can be corrected depends on the coding scheme
employed.
In general, more errors can be corrected by adding more control
bits to the signal.
There is a limit to this process since line bit rate of the system
increases after the FEC coder.
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35
FEC Code Overhead and Redundancy

Tx
Rx
FEC coder
Transmission
path
Rb,i
Rb,l
Information
(data) bit rate
Effective (line)
bit rate
Optical
transmitter
Optical
channel
FEC decoder
Rb,l
Rb,i
Optical
receiver
Code redundancy: FEC= Rb,l / Rb,i 1

Code ratio: rFEC = Rb,i / Rb,l
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36
Types of Error-Correcting Codes

Classified under names such as:
linear,
cyclic,
Hamming,
ReedSolomon,
convolutional,
product, and
turbo codes.
Among these, ReedSolomon (RS) codes have attracted

most attention for lightwave systems.
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37
Characterisation of RS Codes
Blocks of
k symbols
Tx
RS(n,k)
coder
Blocks of
n=k+r
symbols
Transmission
path
Blocks of
n=k+r
symbols
Rx
RS(n,k)
decoder
Blocks of
k symbols
Reed-Solomon (RS) codes do not operate on bits but on groups of bits

symbols
RS code considers blocks of k data symbols and calculates r additional symbols
with redundant information (FEC overhead), based on the code.
The transmitter sends the blocks of n = k + r symbols to the receiver RS(n,k).
k + r coded symbols have to be transmitted in the same duration as k information
symbols, each coded symbol has k/(k+r) the duration of uncoded symbol line
bit rate increases by n/k rFEC = k / n
RS(n,k) codes have the restriction that if a symbol consists of b bits length of
the code: n = 2b-1.
code length of n = 255 if (8-bit) bytes are used as symbols.
The number of redundant bits r can take any even value.

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38
Performance of RS Codes
The receiver considers a block of n symbols, and knowing the code used by
the transmitter, it can correctly decode the k data symbols even if up to r/2
of the n symbols are in error.
Coded (line) symbol error probability
Pe,s,l = 1 (1 Pe,b,l )
Pe,b,l : line bit error probability
Information symbol error probability

Pe, s ,i =
n i
i n i
Ci Pe,s ,l (1 Pe ,s ,l )
2 +1 n
i = r
Pe ,s ,l : line symbol error probability

Cin : number of i -combinations from n elements
x : greater integer contained in x
Information bit error probability

Pe,b,i = 1 (1 Pe,s,i )
1b
Pe,s,i = 1 (1 Pe,b,i )
Pe,s,i : information symbol error probability

Adolfo Cartaxo
39
Useful Approximation
to Calculate the Data Bit Error Probability
Approximation for information symbol error probability
r 2 + 1
Pe, s ,i = C nr
Adolfo Cartaxo
r 2 +1
P
2 +1 e , s ,l
(1 Pe,s,l )
n r 2 1
for
nPe, s ,l <<1
40
RS Codes for OFTS
Single
RS
codes
G.709 ITU (OTN)

recommendation
RS(255, 239) with b = 8:
FEC overhead of 6.7%.
RS(255, 223) with b = 8:
FEC overhead of 14.4%
RS
product
codes
Improvement in BER
Concatenated
RS
codes
Adolfo Cartaxo
due to FEC is quantified

through the coding gain
41
Coding Gain (1)

Coding gain: a measure of improvement in bit error probability through FEC.
It is expressed in terms of the equivalent value of Q (for a given bit error probability) as
Coding gain
Qmin
G c = 20 log10 Qmin 20 log10 QFEC,min = 20 log10
QFEC,min
QFEC,min : minimum Q factor required at receiver input
with FEC to achieve the required data bit error probability

Qmin : minimum Q fa ctor required at receiver input
without FEC to achieve the required data bit error probability
Factor of 20 is used in place of 10 because performance is often quantified

through Q2.
If FEC decoder improves BER from 103 to 109, Q increases from 3 to 6,
resulting in a coding gain of 6 dB.
Magnitude of coding gain increases with the FEC overhead.
Adolfo Cartaxo
42
Coding Gain (2)
10-9
Adolfo Cartaxo
Coding gain of
RS(255,239)
Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication
Systems,
2012
Coding gain
of
RS(255,223)
43
Coding Gain of RS codes
@ bit error
probability
of 10-9
For single RS codes, coding gain is 5.5 dB for 10% overhead and
increases sublinearly, reaching 8 dB for 50% overhead.
It can be improved by concatenating two or more RS codes or by
employing the RS product codes.
Adolfo Cartaxo
44
Compromise on FEC Implementation

While implementing FEC, one faces a dilemma.
As the overhead is increased to realize more coding gain, line bit rate
increases.
Since Q factor realized at the receiver depends on the bit rate, its value is
reduced, and BER actually worsens.
Decoder improves it but it first has to overcome the degradation caused by
the increased bit rate.
If an aggressive FEC scheme is employed, BER may degrade so much

that the system is not operable even with the FEC coder.
An optimum range of coding overhead exists for every system designed
to operate at a specific bit rate over a certain distance.
Adolfo Cartaxo
45
Gross vs. Net Coding Gain

Gc, N
Net coding gain

= OSNRmin OSNRFEC,min
OSNRFEC,min : minimum OSNR required at receiver input

with FEC to achieve the required data bit error probability
What really matters

from the viewpoint
of system design
(achievable distance)!
OSNRmin : minimum OSNR required at receiver input

without FEC to achieve the required data bit error probability
Using the approximation for the required OSNR

osnrR =
Q2 Be,n
Bo
1+ r
(1 r )
and, for the same extinction ratio and optical filter with and without FEC, we can write
Gc, N
Be,n,FEC
= 20log10 Qmin 20log10 QFEC,min 10log10
Be,n

Gross coding gain, G

c ,G
For Be ,n Rb ,i and Be ,n ,FEC Rb ,l
Be,n,FEC
Gc,N = Gc,G 10log10
Be,n
Adolfo Cartaxo
(in the same proportionality)

G c , N = Gc ,G
Rb ,l
10 log10
Rb ,i
46
Symbol Interleaving
RS(n,k)
Indexes
...
...
n-k redundant symbols
k+1
k+2
k+2
...
2k
2k+1
2k+2
2k+3
...
3k
...
...
...
...
...
(d-1)k+1
(d-1)k+2
(d-1)k+3
...
Information symbols
...

dk
Redundancy symbols
Without interleaving, the symbols would be transmitted in row order symbols in row 1
are transmitted, followed by the symbols in row 2, and so on.
The idea of interleaving is to transmit the first d symbols in column 1, followed by the first d
symbols in column 2, and so on. Thus, symbol 1 would be followed by symbol k + 1.
When d symbols have been transmitted from all n columns, we transmit the next d symbols
in column 1 - from rows (d + 1) to 2d -, followed by the next d symbols in column 2, and so
on. The parameter d is called the interleaving depth.
Suppose there is a burst of b symbol errors. Only ceil(b/d) of these symbols will occur in the
a (255,223) Reed-Solomon code will be able to correct any
Adolfo same
Cartaxorow due to interleaving
47
burst of b errors when interleaving to depth d is used, provided ceil(b/d) < 16.

Ch4 OFTS

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Ch4 OFTS

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Chapter 4

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Basic Elements and Requirements

WDM Multiplexing / Demultiplexing

Multiplexers / Demultiplexers: passive (reciprocal) devices

Techniques for high count multiplexing

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Tunable Lasers (2)

Injection current into a semiconductor laser

Ideal tunable laser

can tune rapidly over a wide continuous tuning range of over

should be stable over its lifetime and easily controllable and

[ON] section 3.5.3

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Optical Channel Density

ch : channel spacing (assumed the same over the whole bandwidth)

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Categories of WDM: CWDM and ...

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Categories of WDM: ..... and DWDM

Difference in system capacity between

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

DWDM Frequency Grid by ITU

Fibre loss parameter, a, dB/km

ITU-T G.692: different frequency spacings

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Third Window Bands

Top-capacity Commercial (P2P) DWDM Systems

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Channel Spacing Requirements

Signal power at demux output: p0 Hdem ( S ) p

p : input power per channel (same for all channels)

Power from XTalk channel i: pc ,i H dem ( i ) p

Normalised XTalk power from channel i: i = pc ,i p0

Difference in dB between signal and XTalk levels

(channel suppression, dB): 10log10 i = P0 Pc ,i

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Demux Bandwidth Requirements

required bandwidth is due to signal bandwidth (2Rb,ch) and

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Crosstalk (XTalk) Modeling

S and i is the optical frequency of the signal and XTalk carriers;

Worst case XTalk

For interchannel XTalk, S i ,

(lower power level for 1 and higher power level for 0)

and the electrical receiver cuts-off the last term:

For bit 1, dS ( t ) = 1, and d i ( t ) = 0 (worst case): pi ,1 = p0

For bit 0, d ( t ) = 0, and d i ( t ) = 1 (worst case): pi ,0 = i p0

Power Penalty due to Interchannel Crosstalk

Channel suppression (dB)= 20log10 (1 10PinterXT

PinterX T 1 dB i 0.0118 C hannel suppression 19.27 dB

PinterXT = 20log10 1 iN=1 i

When the two channels have the same suppression, 1 = 2 =

2 Channel suppression (dB)= 20log10 (1 10PinterXT 20 ) + 3

PinterXT 1 dB 0.0059 Channel suppression 22.27 dB

Chapter 4, Optical Fibre Telecommunication Systems, 2012

Capacity Limitations in DWDM systems

imposed by the maximum

Maximum count of channels:

Maximum count of channels:

Nch,max = pmax / pch