NondestructiveTesting

TableofContents
Chapter
No:

NameoftheChapter

Page
No

Coursedailyschedule

CourseContents

IntroductionNDTprocesses&theirUses

311

IdentificationofweldDiscontinuities

1220

PenetrantTesting

2130

MagneticParticleTesting

3148

UltrasonicTesting

4960

RadiographicTesting

6177

EddyCurrentTesting

7880

10

ComparisonandSelectionofNDT Methods

81

ChapterI

INTRODUCTION

NondestructiveTesting
The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, that plays a critical role in
assuringthatstructuralcomponentsandsystemsperformtheirfunctioninareliableand
costeffectivefashion.NDTtechniciansandengineersdefineandimplementteststhat
locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that might otherwise cause
seriousaccidentssuchas,planestocrash,reactorstofail,trainstoderail,pipelinesto
burst,andavarietyoftroublingevents.
Thesetestsareperformedinamannerthatdoesnotaffectthefutureusefulnessofthe
objectormaterial.Inotherwords,NDTallowspartsandmaterialstobeinspectedand
evaluatedwithoutdamagingthem.Becauseitallowsinspectionwithoutinterferingwith
a product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and
costeffectiveness.
NondestructiveEvaluation
NondestructiveEvaluation(NDE)isatermthatisoftenusedinterchangeablywithNDT.
However,technically,NDEisusedtodescribemeasurementsthataremorequantitative
innature.Forexample,aNDEmethodwouldnotonlylocateadefect,butitwouldalso
be used to measure something about that defect such as its size, shape, and
orientation. NDE may be used to determine material properties such as fracture
toughness,ductility,conductivityandotherphysicalcharacteristics.
UsesofNDE

FlawDetectionandEvaluation
LeakDetection,LocationDetermination
DimensionalMeasurements
StructureandMicrostructureCharacterization
EstimationofMechanicalandPhysicalProperties
Stress(Strain)andDynamicResponseMeasurements
MaterialSortingandChemicalCompositionDetermination

BackgroundonNondestructiveTesting(NDT)
Nondestructive testing has been practiced for many decades. One of the earliest
applicationswasthedetectionofsurfacecracksinrailcarwheelsandaxles.Theparts
weredippedinoil,thencleanedanddustedwithapowder.Whenacrackwaspresent,
theoilwouldseepfromthedefectandwettheoilprovidingvisualindicationindicating
that the component was flawed. This eventually led to oils that were specifically
formulatedforperformingtheseandotherinspectionsandtheseinspectiontechniques
arenowcalledpenetranttesting.
Xrayswerediscoveredin1895byWilhelmConradRoentgen(18451923)whowasa
Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany. Soon after his discovery, Roentgen
produced the first industrial radiograph when he imaged a set of weights in a box to
show his colleagues. Other electronic inspection techniques such as ultrasonic and
eddy current testing started with the initial rapid developments in instrumentation
spurredbytechnologicaladvancesandsubsequentdefenseandspaceeffortsfollowing
World War II. In the early days, the primary purpose was the detection of defects.
Critical parts were produced with a "safe life" design, and were intended to be defect
free during their useful life. The detection of defects was automatically a cause for
removalofthecomponentfromservice.
The continued improvement of inspection technology, in particular the ability to detect
smaller and smaller flaws, led to more andmore parts being rejected. At this time the
disciplineoffracturemechanicsemerged,whichenabledonetopredictwhetheracrack
of a given size would fail under a particular load if a particular material property or
fracture toughness, were known. Other laws were developed to predict the rate of
growthofcracksundercyclicloading(fatigue).Withtheadventofthesetools,itbecame
possible to accept structures containing defects if the sizes of those defects were
known. This formed the basis for a new design philosophy called "damage tolerant
designs." Components having known defects could continue to be used as long as it
couldbeestablishedthatthosedefectswouldnotgrowtoacriticalsizethatwouldresult
in catastrophic failure. A new challenge was thus presented to the nondestructive
testingcommunity.
Mere detection of flaws was not enough. One needed to also obtain quantitative
information about flaw size to serve as an input to fracture mechanics calculations to
predicttheremaininglifeofacomponent.Theseneeds,ledtothecreationofanumber
ofresearchprogramsaroundtheworldandtheemergenceofnondestructiveevaluation
(NDE)asanewdiscipline.

NDT/NDEMethods
The list of NDT methods that can be used to inspect components and make
measurementsislargeandcontinuestogrow.Researcherscontinuetofindnewways
of applying physics and other scientific disciplines to develop better NDT methods.
However, there are six NDT methods that are used most often. These methods are
Visual Inspection, Penetrant Testing, Magnetic Particle Testing, Electromagnetic or
EddyCurrentTesting,Radiography,andUltrasonicTesting.
VisualandOpticalTesting(VT)
Visual inspectioninvolves using an inspector's eyes to look for defects. The inspector
mayalsousespecialtoolssuchasmagnifyingglasses,mirrors,orborescopestogain
accessandmorecloselyinspectthesubjectarea.Visualexaminersfollowprocedures
thatrangefmsimpletoverycomplex.

PenetrantTesting(PT)
Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent dye solution. Excess dye is then
removed from the surface, and a developer is applied. The developer acts as blotter,
drawing trapped penetrantout ofimperfections open to the surface.With visible dyes,
vividcolorcontrastsbetweenthepenetrantanddevelopermake"bleedout"easytosee.
With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to make the bleedout fluoresce brightly,
thusallowingimperfectionstobereadilyseen.

MagneticParticleTesting(MT)
This method is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material
and then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended in liquid).
Surface and nearsurfaceimperfections distort the magnetic field and concentrateiron
particlesnearimperfections,previewingavisualindicationoftheflaw.

ElectromagneticTesting(ET)orEddyCurrentTesting
Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced alternating
magnetic field This electrical currents is called eddy currents because they flow in
circles at and just below the surface of the material. Interruptions in the flow of eddy
currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes, or changes in the material's
conductiveandpermeabilityproperties,aredetected.

Radiography(RT)
Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or Xradiation to examine parts
andproductsforimperfections.AnXraygeneratororradioactiveisotopeisusedasa
sourceofradiation.Radiationisdirectedthroughapartandontofilmorotherimaging
media. The resulting radiograph shows the dimensional features of the part. Possible
imperfections are indicated as density changes on the film in the same manner as a
medicalXrayshowsbrokenbones.

Source

Rays

Objectwithdefect
Film

Xrayfilm
Filmwithimage

DefectImage

UltrasonicTesting(UT)
Ultrasonics use transmission of highfrequency sound waves into a material to detect
imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most commonly used
ultrasonictestingtechniqueispulseecho,whereinsoundisintroducedintoatestobject
and reflections (echoes) are returned to a receiver from internal imperfections or from
thepart'sgeometricalsurfaces
Initial
pulse

Probe
Backsurface
echo

Crack
echo

Couplant
Sound
waves

.
Screen

crack

1
0

Plate

AcousticEmissionTesting(AE)
Whenasolidmaterialisstressed,imperfectionswithinthematerialemitshortburstsof
acousticenergycalled"emissions."Asinultrasonictesting,acousticemissionscanbe
detectedbyspecialreceivers.Emissionsourcescanbeevaluatedthroughthestudyof
theirintensity,rate,andlocation.

LeakTesting(LT)
Severaltechniquesareusedtodetectandlocateleaksinpressurecontainmentparts,
pressure vessels, and structures. Leaks can be detected by using electronic listening
devices,pressuregaugemeasurements,liquidandgaspenetranttechniques,and/ora
simplesoapbubbletest.

The Relative Uses and Merits of Various NDT Methods

Test
Method

Eddy
Current

MPI

LPT

High

Lowto
medium

Medium

Low

Consumable Verylow
cost

High

Low

Medium

Medium

Timeof
results

Immediate

Delayed

Immediate

Short
delay

Short
delay

Effectof
geometry

Important

Important

Important

Nottoo
Important

Nottoo
Important

Access
problems

Important

Important

Important

Important

Important

Typeof
defect

Internal

Most

External

External
Near
Surface

Surface
breaking

Relative
sensitivity

High

Medium

High

Low

Low

Operator
skill

High

High

Medium

Low

Low

Operator
training

Important

Important

Important

Important

Not
Important

Training
needs

High

High

Medium

Low

Low

Portabilityof High
equipment

Low

Highto
medium

Highto
medium

High

Thickness
gauging,
grade
sorting

Defects
only

Defects
only

Capitalcost

Capabilities

UT
Mediumto
high

Xray

Thickness Thickness
gauging,
gauging
composition
testing

Table1ReferenceGuidetoMajorMethodsfortheNondestructive
ExaminationofWelds
Inspection
Method

Equipment Enables
Advantages Limitations Remarks
Required
Detectiortof

Visual

Magnifying
glass
Weldsizing
gauge
Pocketrule
Straightedge
Workmanship
standards

Surfaceflaws
cracks,
porosity,
unfilled
craters,slag
inclusions
Warpage,
underwelding,
overwelding,
poorlyformed
beads,
misalignments,
improperfitup

Lowcost.
Canbeapplied
whileworkis
inprocess,
permitting
correctionof
faults.
Gives
indicationof
incorrect
procedures.

Applicable
tosurface
defectsonly.
Providesno
permanent
record.

Should
alwaysbethe
primary
methodof
inspection,no
matterwhat
other
techniquesare
required.
Istheonly
"productive"
typeof
inspection.
Isthe
necessary
functionof
everyonewho
inanyway
contributesto
themakingof
theweld.

Radiographic Commercial
Xrayor
gammaunits
made
especiallyfor
inspecting
welds,
castingsand
forgings.
Filmand
processing
facilities.
Fluoroscopic
viewing
equipment.

Interior
macroscopic
flawscracks,
porosity,blow
holes,
nonmetallic
inclusions,
incomplete
root
penetration,
undercutting,
icicles,and
burnthrough.

Whenthe
indicationsare
recordedon
film,givesa
permanent
record.
Whenviewed
ona
fluoroscopic
screen,alow
costmethodof
internal
inspection

Requires
skillin
choosing
anglesof
exposure,
operating
equipment,
and
interpreting
indications.
Requires
safety
precautions.
Not
generally
suitablefor
filletweld
inspection.

Xray
inspectionis
requiredby
manycodes
and
specifications.
Usefulin
qualification
ofwelders
andwelding
processes.
Becauseof
cost,itsuse
shouldbe
limitedto
thoseareas
whereother
methodswill
notprovide
theassurance
required.

Magnetic Special
Particle commercial
equipment.
Magnetic
powders dry
orwetform
maybe
fluorescent
forviewing
under
ultraviolet
light.

Excellentfor
detecting
surface
discontinuities

especially
surfacecracks.

Simplerto
usethan
radiographic
inspection.
Permits
controlled
sensitivity.
Relatively
lowcost
method.

Applicableto
ferromagnetic
materialsonly.
Requiresskill
in
interpretation
ofindications
and
recognitionof
irrelevant
patterns.
Difficulttouse
onrough
surfaces.

Elongated
defectsparallel
tothemagnetic
fieldmaynot
givepattern
forthisreason
thefieldshould
beapplied
fromtwo
directionsator
nearright
anglestoeach
other.

Commercial
Liquid
Penetrant kits
containing
fluorescentor
dyepenetrants
and
developers.
Application
equipmentfor
thedeveloper.
Asourceof
ultraviolet
light if
fluorescent
methodis
used.

Surfacecracks
notreadily
visibletothe
unaidedeye.
Excellentfor
locatingleaks
inweldments.

Applicableto
magneticand
nonmagnetic
materials.
Easytouse.
Lowcost.

Onlysurface
defectsare
detectable.
Cannotbe
used
effectivelyon
hotassemblies.

Inthinwalled
vesselswill
revealleaksnot
ordinarily
locatedby
usualairtests.
irrelevant
surface
conditions
(smoke,slag)
maygive
misleading
indications.

Ultrasonic Special
commercial
equipment,
eitherofthe
pulseechoor
transmission
type.
Standard
reference
patternsfor
interpretation
ofRFor
video
patterns.

Surfaceand
subsurface
flawsincluding
thosetoosmall
tobedetected
byother
methods.
Especiallyfor
detecting
subsurface
laminationlike
defects.

Very
sensitive.
Permits
probingof
joints
inaccessible
to
radiography.

Requireshigh
degreeofskill
ininterpreting
pulseecho
patterns.
Permanent
recordisnot
readily
obtained.

Pulseecho
equipmentis
highly
developedfor
weldinspection
purposes.
The
transmission
typeequipment
simplifies
pattern
interpretation
whereitis
applicable.

10

ChapterII

IDENTIFICATIONOFWELDDISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These interruptions
may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones. Discontinuities,
which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specification used to invoke and
control an inspection, are referred to as defects.
General Welding Discontinuities
The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.
Cracks:
Crack is tight linear separations of metal that can be very short to very long indications.
Cracks are grouped as hot or cold cracks. Hot cracks usually occur as the metal
solidifies at elevated temperatures. Cold cracks occur after the metal has cooled to
ambient temperatures ( delayed cracks).
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction
that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will
appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as
"tails" on inclusions or porosity.

11

Lack of Fusion:
Lack of fusion (Cold Lap) is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly
fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass material (inter pass cold lap). The
arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to
flow into base material without bonding.

12

Porosity:
Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many
shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks
appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes porosity is elongated and may
have the appearance of having a tail This is the result of gas attempting to escape while
the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in
the material it will have a radiographic density more than the surrounding area.

Cluster porosity:
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture.
The moisture turns into gases when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the
welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but
the

indications

will

be

together.

13

grouped

close

Slag inclusions:
Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or
along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.

Incomplete penetration (IP):

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal
fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack
of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The
appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows
the land or root face down the center of the weldment.

Root concavity:
14

Root or Internal concavity or suck back is condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph
it looks similar to lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite
wide in the center of the weld image.

Internal or root undercut:

Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In
the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of
the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow
a ground edge.

External or crown undercut:

15

External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the
weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the
weld area.

Offset or mismatch:
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being
welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image is a noticeable
difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the
difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by failure of the weld
metal to fuse with the land area.

Inadequate weld reinforcement:

16

Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by
radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the
area of suspected inadequacy will be more (darker) than the image density of the
surrounding base material.

Excess weld reinforcement :

Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of
that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a
localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld
reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering requirements.

Discontinuities in TIG welds

17

The following discontinuities are peculiar to the TIG welding process. These
discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process including aluminum and
stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld
which when radiographed is easily interpreted.

Tungsten inclusions.
Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten
inert gas ( TIG ) welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be
entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is denser than aluminum or steel;
therefore, it shows as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.

Oxide inclusions:
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially
aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding materials and,
therefore,

appear

as

dark

irregularly

shaped

discontinuities

radiograph.

Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)

The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.
18

in

the

Whiskers:
Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface
of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wire
like" indications.

Burn-Through:
Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate
the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld creating a thick globular
condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a
radiograph, burn through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light
globular areas (icicles).

19

ChapterIII

PENETRANTINSPECTION
Introduction
Liquidpenetrationinspectionisamethodthatisusedtorevealsurfacebreakingflaws
bybleedoutofacoloredorfluorescentdyefromtheflaw.Thetechniqueisbasedonthe
abilityofaliquidtobedrawnintoa"clean"surfacebreakingflawby capillaryaction.
After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface penetrant is removed and a
developer is applied. This acts as a "blotter." It draws the penetrant from the flaw to
revealitspresence.
Colored(contrast)penetrantsrequiregoodwhitelightwhilefluorescentpenetrantsneed
tobeviwedindarkenedconditionswithanultraviolet"blacklight".
A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on
glazedpottery,wherebythecarbonblackwouldsettleinsurfacecracksrenderingthem
visible. Later it became the practice in railway workshops to examine iron and steel
components by the "oil and whiting" method. In this method, heavy oil commonly
available in railway workshops was diluted with kerosene in large tanks so that
locomotive parts such as wheels could be submerged. After removal and careful
cleaning,thesurfacewasthencoatedwithafinesuspensionofchalkinalcoholsothat
awhitesurfacelayerwasformedoncethealcoholhadevaporated.Theobjectwasthen
vibrated and stroked with a hammer, causing the residual oil in any surface cracks to
seepoutandstainthewhitecoating.
Thismethodwasinusefromthelatterpartofthe19thcenturythroughtoapproximately
1940, when the magnetic particle method was introduced and found to be more
sensitive for the ferromagnetic iron and steels. Penetrant Inspection Improves the
DetectabilityofFlaws
The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) offers over an unaided visual
inspection is that it makes defects easier to see for the inspector. There are basically
twowaysthatapenetrantinspectionprocessmakesflawsmoreeasilyseen.First,LPI
producesaflawindicationthatismuchlargerandeasierfortheeyetodetectthanthe
flawitself.Manyflawsaresosmallornarrowthattheyareundetectablebytheunaided
eye.
ThesecondwaythatLPIimprovesthedetectabilityofaflawisthatitproducesaflaw
indicationwithahighlevelofcontrastbetweentheindicationandthebackgroundwhich
alsohelpstomaketheindicationmoreeasilyseen.Whena

visible dye penetrant inspection is performed, the penetrant materials are formulated
usingabrightreddyethatprovidesforahighlevelofcontrast
20

betweenthewhitedeveloperthatservesasabackgroundaswellastopullthetrapped
penetrant from the flaw. When a fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed, the
penetrantmaterialsareformulatedtoglowbrightlyandtogiveofflightatawavelength
thattheeyeismostsensitivetounderdimlightingconditions.
BasicProcessingStepsofaLiquidPenetrantInspection

1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant

inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease,
water,orothercontaminantsthatmaypreventpenetrantfromenteringflaws.The
sample may also require etching if mechanical operations such as machining,
sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and other mechanical
operationscansmearthesurfaceofthesample,thusclosingthedefects.
2. PenetrantApplication:Oncethesurfacehasbeenthoroughlycleanedanddried,
the penetrant material is applied on the surface by spraying, brushing, or
immersingthepartsinapenetrantbath.
3. PenetrantDwell:Thepenetrantisleftonthesurfaceforasufficienttimetoallow
as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect.
Penetrantdwelltimeisthetotaltimethatthepenetrantisincontactwiththepart
surface.Dwelltimesareusuallyrecommendedbythe

penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The times

vary dependingon the application, penetrant materials used, the material being
inspected,andthetypeofdefectbeinginspected.Minimumdwelltimestypically
range from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer
21

penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal
dwelltimeisoftendeterminedbyexperimentationandisoftenveryspecifictoa
particularapplication.
4 Excess Penetrant Removal: This is a most delicate part of the inspection
procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of
the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from defects.
Dependingonthepenetrantsystemused,thisstepmayinvolvecleaningwitha
solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treated with an emulsifier and then
rinsingwithwater.
5 DeveloperApplication:Athinlayerofdeveloperisthenappliedtothesample
to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible.
Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry
powdered),dipping,orspraying(wetdevelopers).
6 IndicationDevelopment:Thedeveloperisallowedtostandonthepartsurface
foraperiodoftimesufficienttopermittheextractionofthetrappedpenetrantout
ofanysurfaceflaws.Thisdevelopmenttimeisusuallyaminimumof10minutes
andsignificantlylongertimesmaybenecessaryfortightcracks.
7 Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect
indicationsfromanyflawsthatmaybepresent.
8 Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part
surfacetoremovethedeveloperfromthepartsthatwerefoundtobeacceptable.
PenetrantTestingMaterials
The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the kerosene
andwhitingfirstusedbyrailroadinspectorsneartheturnofthe20thcentury.Today's
penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the
inspector.
1 Penetrant: Penetrant materials are classified in the various industry and
governmentspecificationsbytheirphysicalcharacteristicsandtheirperformance
Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below:

Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants

Type2VisiblePenetrants

Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed to
ultraviolet radiation. Visible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast
against the white developer background. Fluorescent penetrant systems are more
sensitive than visible penetrant systems because the eye is drawn to the glow of the
fluorescingindication.However,visiblepenetrantsdonotrequireadarkenedareaand
an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection. Visible penetrants are also less
vulnerable to contamination from things such as cleaning fluid that can significantly
reducethestrengthofafluorescentindication.
22

Penetrantsarethenclassifiedbythemethodusedtoremovetheexcesspenetrantfrom
thepart.Thefourmethodsarelistedbelow:

MethodAWaterWashable
MethodBPostEmulsifiable,Lipophilic
MethodCSolventRemovable
MethodDPostEmulsifiable,Hydrophilic

Waterwashable(MethodA)penetrantscanberemovedfromthepartbyrinsingwith
wateralone.Thesepenetrantscontainsomeemulsifyingagent(detergent)thatmakesit
possibletowashthepenetrantfromthepartsurfacewithwateralone.Waterwashable
penetrantsaresometimesreferredtoasselfemulsifyingsystems.
Post emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties, lipophilic and hydrophilic. In post
emulsifiers,lipophilicsystems(MethodB),thepenetrantisoilsolubleandinteractswith
the oilbased emulsifier to make removal possible. Post emulsifiable, hydrophilic
systems(MethodD),useanemulsifierthatisawatersolubledetergentwhichliftsthe
excess penetrant from the surface of the part with a water wash. Solvent removable
penetrantsrequiretheuseofasolventtoremovethepenetrantfromthepart.
PropertiesofgoodPenetrant
Toperformwell,apenetrantmustpossessfollowingimportantcharacteristics.

spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide
completeandevencoverage.
bedrawnintosurfacebreakingdefectsbycapillaryaction.
remaininthedefectbutremoveeasilyfromthesurfaceofthepart.
remainfluidsoitcanbedrawnbacktothesurfaceofthepartthroughthedrying
anddevelopingsteps.
behighlyvisibleorfluorescebrightlytoproduceeasytoseeindications.
mustnotbeharmfultothematerialbeingtestedortheinspector.

2Emulsifiers: Whenremovalofthepenetrantfromthedefectduetooverwashing
of the part is a concern, a post emulsifiable penetrant system can be used. Post
emulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to break thepenetrant down and
make it water washable. Most penetrant inspection specifications classify penetrant
systemsintofourmethodsofexcesspenetrantremoval.Thesearelistedbelow:
1. MethodA:WaterWashable
2. MethodB:PostEmulsifiable,Lipophilic
23

3. MethodC:SolventRemovable
4. MethodD:PostEmulsifiable,Hydrophilic
Method C relies on a solvent cleaner to remove the penetrant from the part being
inspected.MethodAhasemulsifiersbuiltintothepenetrantliquidthatmakesitpossible
toremovetheexcesspenetrantwithasimplewaterwash.MethodBandDpenetrants
require an additional processing step wherea separateemulsification agentis applied
to make the excess penetrant more removable with a water wash. Lipophilic
emulsification systems are oilbased materials that are supplied in readytouse form.
Hydrophilic systems are waterbased and supplied as a concentrate that must be
dilutedwithwaterpriortouse .Lipophilicemulsifiers(MethodB)wereintroducedinthe
late 1950's and work with both a chemical and mechanical action. After the emulsifier
has coated the surface of the object, mechanical action starts to remove some of the
excesspenetrantasthemixturedrainsfromthepart.Duringtheemulsificationtime,the
emulsifier diffuses into the remaining penetrant and the resulting mixture is easily
removedwithawaterspray.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers (Method D)also remove the excess penetrant with mechanical
and chemical action but the action is different because no diffusion takes place.
Hydrophilic emulsifiers are basically detergents that contain solvents and surfactants.
The hydrophilic emulsifier breaks up the penetrant into small quantities and prevents
thesepiecesfromrecombiningorreattachingtothesurfaceofthepart.Themechanical
action of the rinse water removes the displaced penetrant from the part and causes
freshremovertocontactandliftnewlyexposedpenetrantfromthesurface.
Thehydrophilicpostemulsifiablemethod(MethodD)wasintroducedinthemid1970's
and sinceitis more sensitive than thelipophilic post emulsifiable method it has made
the later method virtually obsolete. The major advantage of hydrophilic emulsifiers is
that they are less sensitive to variation in the contact and removal time. While
emulsificationtimeshouldbecontrolledascloselyaspossible,avariationofoneminute
ormoreinthecontacttimewillhavelittleeffectonflawdetectabilitywhenahydrophilic
emulsifier is used. However, a variation of as little as 15 to 30 seconds can have a
significanteffectwhenalipophilicsystemisused.

3Developers
Theroleofthedeveloperistopullthetrappedpenetrantmaterialoutofdefectsandto
spreadthedeveloperoutonthesurfaceofthepartsoitcanbeseenbyaninspector.
Thefinedeveloperparticlesbothreflectandrefracttheincidentultravioletlight,allowing
more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence. The
developer also allows more light to be emitted through the same mechanism. This is
why indications are brighter than the penetrant itself under UV light. Another function
that some developers performs is to create a white background so there is a greater
degreeofcontrastbetweentheindicationandthesurroundingbackground.
DeveloperForms
24

The AMS 2644 and MilI25135 classify developers into six standard forms. These
formsarelistedbelow:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

FormaDryPowder
FormbWaterSoluble
FormcWaterSuspendible
FormdNonaqueousType1Fluorescent(SolventBased)
FormeNonaqueousType2VisibleDye(SolventBased)

The developer classifications are based on the method that the developer is applied.
The developer can be applied as a dry powder, or dissolved or suspended in a liquid
carrier.Eachofthedeveloperformshasadvantagesanddisadvantages.
A)DryPowder
Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is
inexpensivetouseandeasytoapply.Drydevelopersarewhite,fluffypowdersthatcan
be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways. The developer can be
applied by dipping parts in a container of developer, or byusinga puffer to dust parts
with the developer. Parts can also be placed ina dust cabinet where the developeris
blown around and allowed to settle on the part. Electrostatic powder spray guns are
also available to apply the developer. The goal is to allow the developer to come in
contactwiththewholeinspectionarea.
Unlessthepartiselectrostaticallycharged,thepowderwillonlyadheretoareaswhere
trapped penetrant has wet the surface of the part. The penetrant will try to wet the
surface of the penetrant particle and fill the voids between the particles, which brings
more penetrant to the surface of the part where it can be seen. Since dry powder
developersonlysticktothepartwherepenetrantispresent,thedrydeveloperdoesnot
provide a uniform white background as the other forms of developers do. Having a
uniform light background is very important for a visible inspection to be effective and
sincedrydevelopersdonotprovideone,theyareseldomusedforvisibleinspections.
When a dry developer is used, indications tend to stay bright and sharp since the
penetranthasalimitedamountofroomtospread.
B) - Water Soluble
Asthenameimplies,watersolubledevelopersconsistofagroupofchemicalsthatare
dissolvedinwaterandformadeveloperlayerwhenthewaterisevaporatedaway.The
bestmethodforapplyingwatersolubledevelopersisbysprayingitonthepart.Thepart
can be wet or dry. Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is
sometimes used but these methods are less desirable. Aqueous developers contain
wettingagentsthatcausethesolutiontofunctionmuchlikedilutehydrophilicemulsifier
and can lead to additional removal of entrapped penetrant. Drying is achieved by
placingthewetbutwelldrained

partinarecalculatingwarmairdryerwiththetemperatureheldbetween70and75F.If
thepartsarenotdriedquickly,theindicationswillwillbeblurredandindistinct.Properly
developedpartswillhaveaneven,palewhitecoatingovertheentiresurface.
25

C)WaterSuspendible
Water suspendible developers consist of insoluble developer particles suspended in
water. Water suspendible developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the
particles from settling out of suspension.Water suspendible developers are applied to
parts in the same manner as water soluble developers. Parts coated with a water
suspendible developer must be forced dried just as parts coated with a water soluble
developer are forced dried. The surface of a part coated with a water suspendible
developerwillhaveaslightlytranslucentwhitecoating.
B)Nonaqueous
Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are typically
appliedwithaspraygun.Nonaqueousdevelopersarecommonlydistributedinaerosol
spray cans for portability. The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by
solvent action. Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required. A
nonaqueous developer should be applied to a thoroughly dried part to form a slightly
translucentwhitecoating.
PreparationofPart
Oneofthemostcriticalstepsinthepenetrantinspectionprocessispreparingthepart
for inspection. All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating, and heavy oxides must
be removed to ensure that defects are open the surface of the part. If the parts have
beenmachined,sanded,orblastedpriortothepenetrantinspection,itispossiblethata
thin layer of metal may have smeared across the surface and closed off defects. It is
evenpossibleformetalsmearingtooccurasaresultofcleaningoperationssuchasgrit
orvaporblasting.Thislayerofmetalsmearingmustberemovedbeforeinspection.

Contaminants
Coatings, such as paint, are much more elastic than metal and will not fracture even
though a large defect may be present just below the coating. The part must be
thoroughlycleanedassurfacecontaminatescanpreventthepenetrantfromenteringa
defect.Surfacecontaminantscanalsoleadtoahigherlevelofbackgroundnoisesince
theexcesspenetrantmaybemoredifficulttoremove.
Common coatings and contaminates that must be removed include: paint, dirt, flux,
scale, varnish, oil, etchant, smut, plating, grease, oxide, wax, decals, machining fluid,
rust,andresiduefrompreviouspenetrantinspections.
Some of these contaminants would obviously prevent penetrant from entering defects
and it is, therefore, clear that they must be removed. However, the impact of other
contaminantssuchastheresiduefrompreviouspenetrantinspectionsislessclear,but
theycanhaveadisastrousaffectontheinspection.Takethelinkbelowtoreviewsome
26

of the research that has been done to evaluate the effects of contaminants on LPI
sensitivity.
A good cleaning procedure will remove all contamination from the part and not leave
anyresiduethatmayinterferewiththeinspectionprocess.Ithasbeenfoundthatsome
alkaline cleaners can be detrimental to the penetrant inspection process if they have
silicatesinconcentrationsabove0.5percent.Sodiummetasilicate,sodiumsilicate,and
relatedcompoundscanadheretothesurfaceofpartsandformacoatingthatprevents
penetrantentryintocracks.ResearchersinRussiahavealsofoundthatsomedomestic
soaps and commercial detergents can clog flaw cavities and reduce the wettability of
the metal surface, thus, reducing the sensitivity of the penetrant. Conrad and Caudill
found that media from plastic media blasting was partially responsible for loss of LPI
indication strength. Microphotographs of cracks after plastic media blasting showed
mediaentrapmentinadditiontometalsmearing.
It is veryimportant that the material beinginspected has notbeen smeared acrossits
own surface during machining or cleaning operations. It is well recognized that
machining, honing, lapping, hand sanding, hand scraping, shot peening, grit blasting,
tumbledeburring,andpeeningoperationscancauseasmallamountofthematerialto
smear on the surface of some materials. It is perhaps less recognized that some
cleaning operations, such as steam cleaning, can also cause metal smearing in the
softermaterials.Takethelinkbelowtolearnmoreaboutmetalsmearinganditsaffects
onLPI.

CommonUsesofLiquidPenetrantInspection
Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely used nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors, which
are its relative ease of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to inspect almost any
material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are
commonlyinspectedusingLPIincludethefollowing:

Metals(aluminum,copper,steel,titanium,etc.)
Glass
Manyceramicmaterials
Rubber
Plastics

LPIoffersflexibilityinperforminginspectionsbecauseitcanbeappliedinalargevariety
of applications ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical aircraft components.
27

Penetrantmaterialcanbeappliedwithaspraycanoracottonswabtoinspectforflaws
knowntooccurinaspecificareaoritcanbeappliedbydippingorsprayingtoquickly
inspect large areas. At right, visible dye penetrant being locally applied to a highly
loadedconnectingpointtocheckforfatiguecracking.
Penetrant inspection systems have been developed to inspect some very large
components. In this picture, DC10 banjo fittings are being moved into a penetrant
inspection system at what used to be the Douglas Aircraft Company's Long Beach,
California facility. These large machined aluminum forgings are used to support the
number3engineinthetailofaDC10aircraft.
Liquid penetrant inspection is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of the
sample.Someoftheseflawsarelistedbelow:

Fatiguecracks
Quenchcracks
Grindingcracks
Overloadandimpactfractures
Porosity
Laps
Seams
Pinholesinwelds
Lackoffusionorbraisingalongtheedgeofthebondline

Asmentionedabove,oneofthemajorlimitationsofapenetrantinspectionisthatflaws
mustbeopentothesurface.

AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofPenetrantTesting
Likeallnondestructiveinspectionmethods,liquidpenetrantinspectionhasboth
advantagesanddisadvantages.Theprimaryadvantagesanddisadvantageswhen
comparedtootherNDEmethodsaresummarizedbelow.
PrimaryAdvantages
Themethodhashighsensitivetosmallsurfacediscontinuities.
The method has few materiallimitations, i.e.metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic
and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be
inspected.
Largeareasandlargevolumesofparts/materialscanbeinspectedrapidlyandat
lowcost.
Partswithcomplexgeometricshapesareroutinelyinspected.
Indicationsareproduceddirectlyonthesurfaceofthepartandconstituteavisual
representationoftheflaw.
Penetrantmaterialsandassociatedequipmentarerelativelyinexpensive.
28

PrimaryDisadvantages

Onlysurfacebreakingdefectscanbedetected.
Onlymaterialswitharelativenonporoussurfacecanbeinspected.
Precleaningiscriticalascontaminantscanmaskdefects.
Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be
removedpriortoLPI.
Theinspectormusthavedirectaccesstothesurfacebeinginspected.
Surfacefinishandroughnesscanaffectinspectionsensitivity.
Multipleprocessoperationsmustbeperformedandcontrolled.
Postcleaningofacceptablepartsormaterialsisrequired.
Chemicalhandlingandproperdisposalisrequire

ChapterIV

MagneticParticleInspection
Introduction:
Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive testing method used for surface and
near surface defect detection. MPI is a fast and relatively easy to apply and surface
preparationisnotascriticalasitisforsomeotherNDTmethods.Thesecharacteristics
makeMPIoneofthemostwidelyutilizednondestructivetestingmethods.
29

MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect
flawsincomponents.Theonlyrequirementisthatthecomponentbeinginspectedmust
bemadeofaferromagneticmaterialsuchiron,nickel,cobalt,orsomeoftheiralloys.
Ferromagneticmaterialsarematerialsthatcanbemagnetizedtoalevelthatwillallow
theinspectiontobeeffective.
Themethodisusedtoinspectavarietyofproductformssuchascastings,forgings,and
weldments.Manydifferentindustriesusemagneticparticleinspectionfordetermininga
component's fitnessforuse. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle
inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and
aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle
inspection may be used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater
pipelines.
BasicPrinciples
Intheory,magneticparticleinspection(MPI) isarelativelysimpleconcept.Considera
bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any place that a
magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a
magneticlineofforceexitsthemagnetiscalledanorthpoleandapolewherealineof
forceentersthemagnetiscalledasouthpole.

Whenabarmagnetisbrokeninthecenterofitslength,twocompletebarmagnetswith
magneticpolesoneachendofeachpiecewillresult.Ifthemagnetisjustcrackedbut
notbrokencompletelyintwo,anorthandsouthpolewillformateachedgeofthecrack.
Themagneticfieldexitsthenorthpoleandreenterstheatthesouthpole.Themagnetic
fieldspreadsoutwhenitencounterthesmallairgapcreatedbythecrackbecausethe
aircannotsupportasmuchmagneticfieldperunitvolumeasthemagnetcan.Whenthe
field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flux
leakagefield.

30

Ifironparticlesaresprinkledonacrackedmagnet,theparticleswillbeattractedtoand
clusternotonlyatthepolesattheendsofthemagnetbutalsoatthepolesattheedges
ofthecrack.Thisclusterofparticlesismucheasiertoseethantheactualcrackandthis
isthebasisformagneticparticleinspection.

Thefirststepinamagneticparticleinspectionistomagnetizethecomponentthatisto
beinspected.Ifanydefectsonornearthesurfacearepresent,thedefectswillcreatea
leakagefield.Afterthecomponenthasbeenmagnetized,ironparticles,eitherinadry
orwetsuspendedform,areappliedtothesurfaceofthemagnetizedpart.Theparticles
will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visibleindication
thattheinspectorcandetect.

HistoryofMagneticParticleInspection
Magnetismistheabilityofmattertoattractothermatter.TheancientGreekswerethe
first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. Later on
Bergmann, Becquerel, and Faraday discovered that all matter including liquids and
gasseswereaffectedbymagnetism,butonlyafewrespondedtoanoticeableextent.
Theearliestknownmagneticinspectionanobjecttookplaceasearlyas1868.Cannon
barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then sliding a magnetic
compassalongthebarrel'slength.Theseearlyinspectorswereabletolocateflawsin
thebarrelsbymonitoringtheneedleofthecompass.
In the early 1920s, William Hoke realized that magnetic particles could be used with
magnetism as a means of locating defects. Hoke discovered that a surface or
subsurface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort and
extend beyond the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the machine
shop. He noticed that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts, which were being
heldbyamagneticchuckwhilebeingground,formedpatternsonthefaceoftheparts
31

whichcorrespondedtothecracksinthesurface.Applyingafineferromagneticpowder
tothepartscausedabuildupofpowderoverflawsandformedavisibleindication.
Today, the MPI inspection method is used extensively to check for flaws in a large
varietyofmanufacturedmaterialsandcomponents.MPIisusedtocheckmaterialssuch
assteelbarstockforseamsandotherflawspriortoinvestingmachiningtimeduringthe
manufacturingofacomponent.Criticalautomotivecomponentsareinspectedforflaws
afterfabricationtoensurethatdefectivepartsarenotplacedintoservice.MPIisusedto
inspectsomehighlyloadedcomponentsthathavebeeninserviceforaperiodoftime.
Forexample,manycomponentsofhighperformanceracecarsareinspectedwhenever
theengine,drivetrainandothersystemsareoverhauled.MPIisalsousedtoevaluate
the integrity of structural welds on bridges, storage tanks, pipelines and other critical
structures.
Magnetism
Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. Uses of magnets
rangefromholdingpicturesontherefrigeratortocausingtorqueinelectricmotors.The
term"magneticfield"simplydescribesavolumeofspace wherethereisachangein
energywithinthatvolume.Thischangeinenergycanbedetectedandmeasured.The
locationwhereamagneticfieldcanbedetectedexitingorenteringamaterialiscalleda
magneticpole.Magneticpoleshaveneverbeendetectedinisolationbutalwaysoccur
inpairsand,thus,thenamedipole.

AbarmagnetcanbeconsideredadipolewithanorthpoleatoneendandSouthPole
attheother.AmagneticfieldcanbemeasuredleavingthedipoleattheNorthPoleand
returning the magnet at the South Pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or
dipolesarecreatedoutofone.Thissectioningandcreationofdipolescancontinueto
theatomiclevel.Therefore,thesourceofmagnetismliesinthebasicbuildingblockof
allmatter...theatom.
TheSourceofMagnetism
All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and
electrons.Theprotonsandneutronsarelocatedintheatom'snucleusandtheelectrons
areinconstantmotionaroundthenucleus.Electronscarryanegativeelectricalcharge
andproduceamagneticfieldastheymovethroughspace.Amagneticfieldisproduced
whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the
magneticmoment.
consider electric current flowing through a conductor. When the electrons (electric
current)areflowingthroughtheconductor,amagneticfieldformsaroundtheconductor.

32

The magnetic field can be detected using a compass. The magnetic field will place a
forceonthecompassneedle.
Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a
magneticfield.However,notallmaterialsreactthesameway.
Diamagnetic,Paramagnetic,andFerromagneticMaterials
In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Each electron in a pair spins in the opposite
direction. So when electrons are paired together, there opposite spins cause their
magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists.
Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field and
will react more to an external field. Most materials can be classified as ferromagnetic,
diamagneticorparamagnetic.
Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Diamagneticmaterialsareslightlyrepelledbyamagneticfieldandthematerialdoesnot
retainthemagneticpropertieswhentheexternalfieldisremoved.Mostelementsinthe
periodictable,includingcopper,silver,andgold,arediamagnetic.

Paramagneticmetalshaveasmallandpositivesusceptibilitytomagneticfields.These
materialsareslightlyattractedbyamagneticfieldandthematerialdoesnotretainthe
magneticpropertieswhentheexternalfieldisremoved.Paramagneticmaterialsinclude
magnesium,molybdenum,lithium,andtantalum.

Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external

magneticfield.Theyexhibitastrongattractiontomagneticfieldsandareabletoretain
their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. They get their
strongmagneticpropertiesduetothepresenceofmagneticdomains.Inthesedomains,
largenumbersofatomsmoments(1012 to1015)arealignedparallelsothatthemagnetic
forcewithinthedomainisstrong.Whenaferromagneticmaterialisintheunmagnitized
state,thedomainsarenearlyrandomlyorganizedandthenetmagneticfieldforthepart
asawholeiszero.Whenamagnetizingforceisapplied,thedomainsbecomealigned
toproduceastrongmagneticfieldwithinthepart.Iron,nickel,andcobaltareexamples
offerromagneticmaterials.
MagneticDomains
Ferromagneticmaterialsgettheirmagneticpropertiesbecausethematerialismadeup
ofsmallregionsknownasmagneticdomains.Ineachdomain,alloftheatomicdipoles
arecoupledtogetherinapreferentialdirection.Thisalignmentdevelopsasthematerial
developsitscrystallinestructureduringsolidificationfromthemoltenstate.

33

During solidification a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the
magnetic force within the domain is strongin one direction. Even though the domains
are magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not show any signs of magnetism
becausethedomainsdevelopthemselvesarerandomlyorientedrelativetoeachother.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the
material are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external
magnetic fieldor by passing electrical current through the material. Some or allof the
domains can become aligned. The more domains are aligned, the stronger the
magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are aligned, the material is
magnetically saturated and additional amount of external magnetization force will not
causeanyincreaseinitsinternallevelofmagnetization.

UnmagnetizedMaterial

MagnetizedMaterial

MagneticFieldCharacteristics
Magneticlinesofforcehaveanumberofimportantproperties,whichinclude:

Theyseekthepathofleastresistancebetweenoppositemagneticpoles.Ina
singlebarmagnetasshowntotheright,theyattempttoformclosedloopfrom
poletopole.
Theynevercrossoneanother.
Theyallhavethesamestrength.
Theirdensitydecreases(theyspreadout)whentheymovefromanareaof
higherpermeabilitytoanareaoflowerpermeability.
Theirdensitydecreaseswithincreasingdistancefromthepoles.
Theyareconsideredtohavedirectionasifflowing,thoughnoactualmovement
occurs.Theyflowfromthesouthpoletothenorthpolewithinthematerialand
northpoletosouthpoleinair.

ElectromagneticFields

34

Inmostconductors,themagneticfieldexistsonlyaslongasthecurrentisflowing

thedirectionofthemagneticfieldisdependentonthedirectionoftheelectricalcurrent
in the wire. A threedimensional representation of the magnetic field is shown above.
There is a simple rule for remembering the direction of the magnetic field around a
conductor.Itiscalledtherighthandrule.Ifapersongraspsaconductorinonesright
hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will circle the
conductorinthedirectionofthemagneticfield.

MagneticFieldProducedbyaCoil
Whenacurrentcarryingconductorisformedintoalooporseveralloopstoformacoil,
a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along
longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil.The magnetic
fieldcirclingeachloopofwirecombineswiththefieldsfromtheotherloopstoproducea
concentratedfielddownthecenterofthecoil.Alooselywoundcoilisillustratedbelow
to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform
downthelengthofthecoilwhenitiswoundtighter.

35

Thestrengthofacoil'smagneticfieldincreasesnotonlywithincreasingcurrentbutalso
witheachloopthatisaddedtothecoil.Alongstraightcoilofwireiscalledasolenoid
and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar
magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing
ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the magnetic particle testing method.
Pleasebeawarethatthefieldoutsidethecoilisweakandisnotsuitableformagnetize
ferromagneticmaterials.

TheHysteresisLoopandMagneticProperties
Agreatdealofinformationcanbelearnedaboutthemagneticpropertiesofamaterial
by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the
inducedmagneticfluxdensityBandthemagnetizingforceH.Itisoftenreferredtoas
theBHloop.Anexamplehysteresisloopisshownbelow.

36

Plotting the change in magnetic flux B induced a ferromagnetic material while the
magnetizingforceHischangedgeneratesthehysteresisloop.Aferromagneticmaterial
that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will
follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the
amountofcurrentapplied(H+),thestrongerthemagneticfieldinthecomponent(B+).
Atpoint"a"almostallofthemagneticdomainsarealignedandanadditionalincreasein
themagnetizingforcewillproduceverylittleincreaseinmagneticflux.Thematerialhas
reachedthepointofmagneticsaturation.

WhenHisreducedbackdowntozero,thecurvewillmovefrompoint"a"topoint"b."At
thispoint,itcanbeseenthatsome magneticfluxremainsinthematerialeventhough
themagnetizingforceiszero,thisisreferredtoasthepointofretentivityonthegraph
and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of
the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost there alignment.) As the
magnetizingforceisreversed,thecurve

movestopoint"c",wherethefluxhasbeenreduced to zero.Thisiscalledthepointof
coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the
domains so that the net flux within the materialis zero.)The force required toremove
theresidualmagnetismfromthematerial,iscalledthecoerciveforceorcoercivityofthe
material.
As the magnetizing forceis increasedin thenegative direction, the material will again
become magneticallysaturatedbutintheoppositedirection(point"d").ReducingHto
37

zerobringsthecurvetopoint"e."Itwillhavealevelofresidualmagnetismequaltothat
achievedintheotherdirection.IncreasingHbackinthepositivedirectionwillreturnB
to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some
forceisrequiredtoremovetheresidualmagnetism.Thecurvewilltakeadifferentpath
frompoint"f"backthesaturationpointwhereitwithcompletetheloop.
From thehysteresisloop,anumberofprimarymagneticpropertiesofamaterialcanbe
determined.
Retentivity A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation
induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a
certainamountofresidualmagneticfieldwhenthe magnetizingforceisremovedafter
achievingsaturation.(ThevalueofBatpointBonthehysteresiscurve.)
Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux the magnetic flux density that remains in a
material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and
retentivityarethesamewhenthematerialhasbeenmagnetizedtothesaturationpoint.
However,thelevelofresidualmagnetismmaybelowerthantheretentivityvaluewhen
themagnetizingforcedidnotreachthesaturationlevel.
Coercive Force The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a
magneticmaterialtomakethemagneticfluxreturntozero.(ThevalueofHatpointC
onthehysteresiscurve.)
Permeability Apropertyofamaterialthatdescribestheeasewithwhichamagnetic
fluxisestablishedinthecomponent.
ReluctanceIstheoppositionthataferromagneticmaterialshowstotheestablishment
ofamagneticfield.Reluctanceisanalogoustotheresistanceinanelectricalcircuit.
Theshapeofthehysteresislooptellsagreatdealaboutthematerialbeingmagnetized.
Thehysteresiscurvesoftwodifferentmaterialsareshowninthegraph.

MagneticFieldOrientationandFlawDetectability
To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to
understand that orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very
important.Therearetwogeneraltypesofmagneticfieldsthatcanbeestablishedwithin
acomponent.

38

A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force

that run parallel to the long axis of the part. Longitudinal
magnetizationofacomponentcanbeaccomplishedusing
thelongitudinalfieldsetupbyacoilorsolenoid.Itcanalso
beaccomplishedusingpermanentorelectromagnets.
A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that
run circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. A
circular magnetic field is induced in an article by either
passing current through the component or by passing
currentthroughaconductorsurroundedbythecomponent.
To magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best detection of
defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to the
longest dimension of the defect,if the magnetic fieldis parallel to the defect, the field
willseelittledisruptionandnofluxleakagefieldwillbeproduced.

Anorientationof45to90degreesbetweenthemagneticfieldandthedefectis
necessarytoformanindication.Sincedefectsmayoccurinvariousdirections,each
partisnormallymagnetizedintwodirectionsatrightanglestoeachother.Todetermine
mostofthedefects.

39

Demagnetization
Afterconductingamagneticparticleinspection,itisusuallynecessarytodemagnetize
thecomponent
Remanentmagneticfieldscan:

Affectmachiningbycausingcuttingstoclingtoacomponent.
Interferewithelectronicequipmentsuchasacompass.
Createaconditionknownas"arkblow"intheweldingprocess.Arcblowmay
causetheweldarctowonderorfillermetaltoberepelledfromtheweld.
Causeabrasiveparticletoclingtobearingorfayingsurfacesandincreasewear.

MagnetizingEquipmentforMagneticParticleInspection
Toproperlyinspectapartforcracksorotherdefects,itisimportanttobecomefamiliar
withthedifferenttypesofmagneticfieldsandtheequipmentusedtogeneratethem.As
discussed previously, one of the primary requirements for detection of a defect in a
ferromagnetic materialis that the magnetic field inducedin the part must interceptthe
defectata45to90degreesangle.Flawsthatarenormal(90degrees)tothemagnetic
field will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of the magnet
flux.
AvarietyofequipmentexisttoestablishthemagneticfieldforMPI.Someequipmentis
designed to be portable so that inspections can be made in the field and some is
designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing
facility.

Permanentmagnets
40

Permanentmagnetsaresometimesusedformagneticparticleinspectionasthesource
of magnetism. The two primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets and
horseshoe(yoke)magnets.Theseindustrialmagnetsareusuallyverystrongandmay
require significant strength to remove them from a piece of metal. Some permanent
magnetsrequireover50poundsofforcetoremovethemfromthesurface.Becauseitis
difficult to remove the magnets from the component being inspected, and sometimes
difficult and dangerous to place the magnets, their use is not particularly popular.
However,adiverforinspectioninanunderwaterenvironmentorotherareassometimes
usespermanentmagnets,suchasinanexplosiveenvironment,whereelectromagnets
cannot be used. Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight
areaswhereelectromagnetsmightnotfit

Electromagnets
Today,mostoftheequipmentusedtocreatethemagneticfieldusedinMPIisbasedon
electromagnetism.Thatis,usinganelectricalcurrenttoproducethemagneticfield.An
electromagneticyokeisaverycommonpieceofequipmentthatisusedtoestablisha
magneticfield.Itisbasicallymadebywrappinganelectricalcoilaroundapieceofsoft
ferromagneticsteel.Aswitchisincludedintheelectricalcircuitsothatthecurrentand,
therefore, also the magnetic field can be turn on and off. They can be powered with
alternatingcurrentfromawallsocketorbydirectcurrentfromabatterypack.Thistype
ofmagnetgeneratesa

verystrongmagneticfieldinalocalareawherethepolesofmagnettouchtheparttobe
inspected.Someyokescanliftweightsinexcessof40pounds.

41

Portableyokewithbatterypack

Portablemagneticparticlekit

Prods
Prods are handheldelectrodes that are pressed against the surface of the component
being inspected to make contact for passing electrical current through the metal. The
current passing between the prods creates a circular magnetic field around the prods
that is can be used in magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically made from
copperandhaveaninsulatedhandletohelpprotecttheoperator.Oneoftheprodshas
a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly and easily turned on and off.
Sometimesthethetwoprodsareconnectedbyanyinsulatorasshownintheimageto
facilitateonehandoperation.Thisisreferredtoasadualprodandiscommonlyused
forweldinspections.
If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface,
electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. For this reason, the
useofprodsarenotallowedwheninspectingaerospaceandothercriticalcomponents.
Tohelptopreventarcing,theprodtipsshouldbe
inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with scale or other
contaminant,ordamaged.

42

Portable Coils and Conductive Cables

Coilsandconductivecablesareusedtoestablishalongitudinalmagneticfieldwithina
component.Whenapreformedcoilisused,thecomponentisplacedagainsttheinside
surfaceonthecoil.Coilstypicallyhavethreeorfiveturnsofacoppercablewithinthe
moldedframe.Afootswitchisoftenusedtoenergizethecoil.Conductivecablesare
wrappedaroundthecomponent.Thecableusedistypically00extraflexibleor0000
extraflexible.Thenumberofwrapsisdeterminedbythemagnetizingforceneededand,
ofcourse,thelengthofthecable.Normallythewrapsarekeptasclosetogetheras
possible.Whenusingacoilorcablewrappedintoacoil,amperageisusuallyexpressed
inampereturns.Ampereturnsistheamperageshownontheampmetertimesthe
numberofturnsinthecoil.

Portablecoil

ConductiveCable

43

central conductor.
Thistypeofasetupisusedtoinspectpartsthatarehollowsuchasgears,tubes,and
other ringshaped objects. A central conductor is an electrically conductive bar that is
usually made of copper or aluminum. The bar is inserted through the center of the
hollow part and the bar is then clamped between the contact pads. When current is
passedthroughthecentralconductor,acircularmagneticfieldflowsaroundthebarand
entersintothepartorpartsbeinginspected.

LightsforMagneticParticleInspection
Magnetic particle inspection can be performed using particles that are highly visible
under white lighting conditions or particles that are highly visible under ultraviolet
lighting conditions. When an inspection is being performed using the visible color
contrastparticles,nospeciallightingisrequiredaslongastheareaofinspectioniswell
lit.Alightintensityofatleast1000lux(100fc)isrecommendedwhenavisibleparticles
areused,butavarietyoflightsourcescanbeused.
When fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must be used.
Fluorescenceis defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and during
exposure to radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are
coatedwithamaterialthatproduceslightinthevisiblespectrum whenexposedtothe
nearultraviolet light. This "particle glow" provides high contrast indications on the
component anywhere particles collect. Particles that fluoresce yellowgreen are most
commonbecausethiscolormatchesthepeaksensitivityofthehumaneyeunderdark
conditions. However, particles that fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are
available.

44

UltravioletLight
Ultravioletlightor"blacklight"islightinthe1,000to4,000Angstroms(100to400nm)
wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light
that is invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000 Angstroms fall into the
visible light spectrum and are seen as the color violet. UV is separated according to
wavelength into three classes: A, B, and C. The shorter the wavelength, the more
energythatiscarriedinthelightandthemoredangerousitistothehumancells.
Class
UVA
UVB
UVC

WavelengthRange
3,2004,000Angstroms
2,8003,200Angstroms
2,8001,000Angstroms

The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500 and
3,800 Angstroms with a peak wavelength at about 3,650 A. This wavelength range is
usedbecauseitisintheUVArange,whichisthesafesttoworkwith.UVBwilldoan
effective job of causing substances to fluoresce, however, it should not be used
because harmful effects such as skin burns, and eye damage can occur. This
wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding process. UVC
(1,000 to 2,800) is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill bacteria in
industrialandmedicalsettings.
ThedesiredwavelengthrangeforuseinNDTisobtainedbyfilteringtheultravioletlight
generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of
wavelengths.Theshortwavelengthsof3,120Ato3,340Aareproducedinlowlevels.
Apeakwavelengthof3650Aisproducedataveryhighintensity.Wavelengthsinthe
visible violet range (4050 A to 4350 A), greenyellow (5460 A), yellow (6220 A) and
orange(6770A)arealsousuallyproduced.Thefilterallowsonlyradiationintherange
of3200to4000angstromsandalittlevisibledarkpurpletopass.
MagneticParticles
Asmentionedpreviously,theparticlesthatareusedformagneticparticleinspectionare
akeyingredientastheyformtheindicationsthatalerttheinspectortodefects.Particles
start out as tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment
(somewhatlikepaint)isbondedtotheirsurfacestogivetheparticlescolor.Themetal
usedfortheparticleshashighmagneticpermeabilityandlowretentivity.Highmagnetic
permeabilityisimportantbecauseitmakestheparticlesattracteasilytosmallmagnetic
leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivityisimportant because
theparticlesthemselvesneverbecomestronglymagnetizedsotheydonotsticktoeach
otherorthesurfaceofthepart.Particlesareavailableinadrymixorawetsolution.

Dry Magnetic Particles

45

Drymagneticparticlescantypicallybepurchasedinred,black,gray,yellowandseveral
other colors so that a high level of contrast between the particles and the part being
inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important.
Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The
fine particles are around 50 m (0.002 inch) in size are about three times smaller in
diameter and more than 20 times lighter than the coarse particles (150 m or 0.006
inch), which make them more sensitive to the leakage fields from very small
discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the fine
particles.Coarserparticlesareneededtobridgelargediscontinuitiesandtoreducethe
powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface
contamination,suchasremanentdirtormoisture,andgettrappedinsurfaceroughness
features producing a high level of background. It should also be recognized that finer
particles will be more easily blown away by the wind and, therefore, windy conditions
can reduce the sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not
recommendedbecausethesmallparticlearelesslikelytoberecapturedandthe"once
used"mixwillresultinlesssensitiveinspections.

The particle shape is also important. Long, slender particles tend align themselves
along the lines of magnetic force. However, research has shown that if dry powder
consists only of long, slender particles, the application process would be less than
desirable.Elongatedparticlescomefromthedispenserinclumpsandlacktheabilityto
flow freely and form the desired "cloud" of particles floating on the component.
Therefore, globular particles are added that are shorter. The mix of globular and
elongatedparticlesresultinadrypowderthatflowswellandmaintaingoodsensitivity.
MostdryparticlemixeshaveparticlewithL/Dratiosbetweenoneandtwo.

WetMagneticParticles
Magneticparticlesarealsosuppliedinawetsuspensionsuchaswateroroil.Thewet
magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the
suspensionprovidestheparticleswithmore mobilityandmakesitpossibleforsmaller
particles to be used since dust and adherence to surface contaminationis reduced or
46

eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a
relativelylargearea.
Wetmethodmagneticparticlesproductsdifferfromdrypowderproductsinanumberof
ways. One way is that both visible and fluorescent particle are available. Most
nonfluorescentparticlesareferromagneticironoxides,whichareeitherblackorbrown
incolor.Fluorescentparticlesarecoatedwithpigmentsthatfluorescewhenexposedto
ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce greenyellow are most common to take
advantageofthepeakcolorsensitivityoftheeyebutotherfluorescentcolorsarealso
available. (For more information on the color sensitivity of the eye, see the penetrant
inspectionmaterial.)

Theparticlesusedwiththewetmethodaresmallerinsizethanthoseusedinthedry
methodforthereasonsmentionedabove.Theparticlesaretypically10 m(0.0004
inch)andsmallerandthesyntheticironoxideshaveparticlediametersaround0.1 m
(0.000004inch).Thisverysmallsizeisaresultoftheprocessusedtoformtheparticles
andisnotparticularlydesirable,astheparticlesarealmosttoofinetosettleoutof
suspension.However,duetotheirslightresidualmagnetism,theoxideparticlesare
presentmostlyinclustersthatsettleoutofsuspensionmuchfasterthantheindividual
particles.Thismakesitpossibletoseeandmeasuretheconcentrationoftheparticles
forprocesscontrolpurposes.Wetparticlesarealsoamixoflongslenderandglobular
particles.Thecarriersolutionscanbewater oroilbased.Waterbasedcarriersform
quickerindications,aregenerallylessexpensive,presentlittleornofirehazard,giveoff
nopetrochemicalfumes,andareeasiertocleanfromthepart.Waterbasedsolutions
areusuallyformulatedwithacorrosioninhibitortooffersomecorrosionprotection.
However,oilbasedcarriersolutionsoffersuperiorcorrosionandhydrogen
embrittlementprotectiontothosematerialsthatarepronetoattackbythese
mechanisms.

ChapterIV
47

UltrasonicTesting
BasicPrinciplesofUltrasonicTesting
UltrasonicTesting(UT)useshighfrequencysoundenergytoconductexaminationsand
make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation,
dimensionalmeasurements,materialcharacterization,andmore.
The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of
waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is
transformedintoelectricalsignalbythetransducerandisdisplayedonascreen.

Probe

Initial
pulse

Crack
echo

Backsurface
echo

Plate
0

Crack

10

SCREEN

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method for detecting both
surface and subsurface volumetric defects and is widely used in pipeline, oil and gas
andprocessingindustry.

Oscilloscope,orflaw
detectorscreen

48

SoundSpectrum

Audible
range
Ultrasonictestingrange

20kHz

16Hz

256Hz

200kHz

15MHz

15MHz

70kHz

Usualsteeltesting
range
AdvantagesofUltrasonicInspection
Someoftheadvantagesofultrasonicinspectionthatareoftencitedinclude:

Itissensitivetobothsurfaceandsubsurfacediscontinuities.
Thedepthofpenetrationforflawdetectionormeasurementissuperiorto
otherNDTmethods.
Only singlesided access is needed when the pulseecho technique is
used.
Itishighaccuracyindeterminingreflectorpositionandestimatingsizeand
shape.
Minimalpartpreparationrequired.
Electronicequipmentprovidesinstantaneousresults.
Detailedimagescanbeproducedwithautomatedsystems.
It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw
detection.

DisadvantagesofUltrasonicInspection
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which
include:
49

Surfacemustbeaccessibletotransmitultrasound.
Skillandtrainingismoreextensivethanwithsomeothermethods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound
energyintotestspecimen.
Materialsthatarerough,irregularinshape,verysmall,exceptionallythin
ornothomogeneousaredifficulttoinspect.
Castironandothercoarsegrainedmaterialsaredifficulttoinspectdueto
lowsoundtransmissionandhighsignalnoise.
Lineardefectsorientedparalleltothesoundbeammaygoundetected.
Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and
characterizationofflaws.

Propertiesofsoundwave
WavePropagation
Ultrasonic testing is based on timevarying deformations or vibrations in
materials,whichisgenerallyreferredtoasacoustics.Allmaterialsubstancesare
comprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their
equilibrium positions.
Insolids,soundwavescanpropagateinfourprinciplemodesthatarebasedon
thewaytheparticlesoscillate.Soundcanpropagateaslongitudinalwaves,shear
waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and
shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic
testing. The particle movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal
andshearwavesisillustratedbelow.

Longitudinalwaves:
In longitudinal waves the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction of the
direction of wave propagation. Since compressional forces are active in these
waves, they are also called compressional waves. Compression waves can be

50

generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the
atomic structure by a series of comparison and expansion (rarefaction)
movements.
Transverseorshearwave:
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or
transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear wavesrequireanacoustically
solid material for effective propagation and, therefore, are not effectively
propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves are relatively
weakwhencomparedtolongitudinalwaves
SurfaceorRayleighwaves:
SurfaceorRayleighwavestravelonthesurfaceofarelativethicksolidmaterial
penetratingtoadepthofonewavelength.Theparticlemovementhasanelliptical
orbit. Raleigh waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface
defects and since they will follow the surface around curves, therefore can be
usedtoinspectareasthatotherwavesmighthavedifficultyinreaching.
Platewaves:
Plate waves can be propagated only in very thin metals. Lamb waves are the
mostcommonlyusedplatewavesinNDT.Lambwavesareacomplexvibrational
wavethattravelsthroughtheentirethicknessofamaterial.PropagationofLamb
wavesdependsondensity,elastic,andmaterialpropertiesofacomponent,and
theyareinfluencedbyagreatdealbyselectedfrequencyandmaterialthickness.
Velocity:Howquicklyasoundwavewilltravel
Frequency:Howmanyvibrationspersecond
Wavelength:
How far a sound wave will advanceincompletingonecycleThewavelengthis
directlyproportionaltothevelocityofthewaveandinverselyproportionaltothe
frequencyofthewave.Thisrelationshipisshownbythefollowingequation.

51
1Second

1Second

Achangeinfrequencywillresultinachangeinwavelength.Inultrasonictesting,
the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in frequency will help in the
detectionofsmallerdiscontinuities.
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally
increaseswithhigherfrequency(shorterwavelengths).
Resolution:
Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are close
together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also
generallyincreasesasthefrequencyincreases.
Velocityofsoundtravelingthroughmaterials:
Velocityofsoundvarieswiththematerialinwhichitistraveling.
Material

Compression

Shear Velocity

Velocity m\sec

m\sec

Steel

5960

3245

Water

1490

NA

Air

344

NA

Copper

4700

2330

AttenuationofSoundWaves
When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance.
This weakening results from two basic causes, which are scattering and
absorption. The combined effect of scattering and absorption is called
attenuation.

52

RefractionandSnell'sLaw
Whenanultrasoundwavepassesthroughaninterfacebetweentwomaterials,it
produces both reflected and refracted waves. Refraction takes place at an
interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic waves within the two
materials. The velocity of sound in each material is determined by the material
properties(elasticmodulesanddensity)forthatmaterial.
Snell's Law describes the relationshipbetweentheanglesandthevelocitiesof
the waves. Snell's law equates the ratio of material velocities v1 and v2 to the
ratio of the sine's of incident ( ) and refraction ( ) angles, as shown in the
followingequation.

Where:
VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.

UltrasonicProbes
Theconversionofelectricalpulsestomechanicalvibrationsandtheconversion
of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for

53

ultrasonic testing. The active element is the Probe. It converts the electrical
energytoacousticenergy,andviceversa.
CharacteristicsofProbes
Theprobeisaveryimportantpartoftheultrasonicinstrumentationsystem.The
probeconvertselectricalsignalsintomechanicalvibrations(transmitmode)and
mechanical vibrations into electrical signals (receive mode). Many factors,
including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the external
mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior a transducer.
Mechanical construction includes parameters such as radiation surface area,
mechanicaldamping,housing,connectortype

TypesofProbes

54

Ultrasonictransducersaremanufacturedforavarietyofapplicationandcanbe
custom fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to selecting
the proper transducer for the application It is important to choose transducers
thathavethedesiredfrequency,bandwidth,andfocusingtooptimizeinspection
capability. Most often the transducer is chosen either to enhance sensitivity or
resolutionofthesystem.

Transducersareclassifiedintogroupsaccordingtotheapplication.

Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are
generally hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged
casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These
transducersaredesignedsothattheyareeasytogripandmovealonga
surface. They also often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their
useful life. Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial
materialsareusedtoremovetheairgapbetweenthetransducerandthe
componentinspected.Contactprobesareclassifiedas.

Singlecrystalprobe
Twincrystalprobe
Normalbeamorzerodegreeprobe
Anglebeamprobe

55

Contacttransducersareavailableinavarietyofconfigurationstoimprovetheir
usefulnessforavarietyofapplications.
Singlecrystalprobenormalprobe:
The flat contact transducer shown above is used normal beam inspections of
relatively flat surfaces, and where near surface resolution is not critical. If the
surfaceiscurved,ashoethatmatchesthecurvatureofthepartmayneedtobe
addedtothefaceofthetransducer.

Twincrystalnormalprobe:
contain two independently operating elements in a single housing. One of the
elements transmits and the other receives. Active elements can be chosen for
their sending and receiving capabilities providing a transducer with a cleaner
signal, and transducers for special applications, such as inspection of course
grain material. Dual element transducers are especially well suited for making
measurements in applications where reflectors are very near the transducer
sincethisdesigneliminatestheringdowneffectthatsingleelementtransducers
experience. (When singleelement transducers are operating in pulse echo
mode,theelementcannotstartreceivingreflectedsignalsuntiltheelementhas
stopped ringing from it transmit function.) Dual element transducers are very
useful when making thickness measurements of thin materials and when
inspectingfornearsurfacedefects.Thetwoelementsareangledtowardseach
othertocreateacrossedbeamsoundpathinthetestmaterial.
Anglebeamtransducers:
Anglebeamsaretypicallyusedtointroducearefractedshearwaveintothetest
material.Inthefixedangleversions,theangleofrefractionthatismarkedonthe
transducer is only accurateforaparticularmaterial,whichisusuallysteel.The
angledsoundpathallowsthesoundbeamtobereflectedfromthebackwallto
improvedetectabilityofflawsinandaroundweldedareas.Theyarealsousedto
generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a
component.

56

Couplant
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of
ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is
generallynecessarybecausetheacousticimpedancemismatchbetweenairand
solids

CalibrationBlocks
Standard blocks are used to calibrate the instrument and to calculate different
features ofprobeandtheinstrument.Theseblocksconsistsaccuratelycutand
finepolishedsurfaces,holes,anglesetc.

57

InspectionofWeldedJoints
The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag
inclusions, lack of sidewall fusion, lack of interrun fusion, lack of root
penetration,undercutting,andlongitudinalortransversecracks.
Ultrasonicweldinspectionsaretypicallyperformedusingastraightbeamprobe
in conjunction with an angle beam probe A straight beam probe, producing a
longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test piece, is first used to locate
anylaminationsinorneartheheataffectedzone.Thisisimportantbecausean
anglebeamtransducermaynotbeabletoprovideareturnsignalfromalaminar
flaw.

58

ChapterVI

RADIORGAPHICTESTING

59

Introduction:
In this method of Nondestructive testing the penetration property of Xray and
Gamma rays to detect the discontinuities. The object to be inspected is placed
between the radiation source and a piece of film. Xrays or gamma rays pass
throughtheobject.Theobjectwillstopsomeoftheradiation.Thickeranddenser
area will stop more of the radiation and show on the film lighter than thinner or
less dense area. Most weld defects will show on the film darker than the
surroundingarea.
NatureofPenetratingRadiation
Xrays and gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are
waveformsasarelightrays,microwaves,andradiowave,butxraysandgamma
rayscannotbeenseen,felt,orheard.Theypossessnochargeandnomassand,
therefore, are not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will always
travelinstraightlines.Theycanbecharacterizedbyfrequency,wavelength,and
velocity

TheElectromagneticSpectrum

60

TheInternationalSystem(SI)unitforactivityistheBecquerel(Bq),w

WavelengthsofElectroMagneticSpectrum

ElectroMagneticRadiationType

Wavelengthinnm

VisibleLight

700-400

Ultraviolet light

400-100

X-Rays
Gamma -Rays

1nm=109Meters

AdvantageofRadiography

1.Givesapermanentrecord
2.DetectsinternalFlaws
3.Detectsvolumetricflawsreadily
4.Canbeusedonmostmaterials
5.Cancheckforcorrectassembly

61

6.GivesdirectImages
7.RealtimeImageispossible
DisadvantagesofRadiography
1RadiationHealth
2Canbesensitivetodefectorientationandcouldmissplanarflaws
3Haslimitedabilitytodetectfinecracks
4Accessisrequiredtobothsidesoftheobject
5Limitedthicknessofthematerialcanbepenetrated
6Skilledradiographicinterpretationisrequired
7Requirehighcapitalcost
8Relativelyslowprocess
9Requirehighcapitalcost
10Requirehighrunningcost
PropertiesofXraysandgammarays
1.Theyhavenoeffectonthehumansenses
2.Theyhaveadverseeffectonthebodytissuesandblood
3.Theypenetratematter
4.Theymoveinstraightline
5.Theyarepartofelectromagneticspectrum
6.Theytravelatthespeedoflight
7.Theyobeytheinversesquarelaw
8.Theyionizegases
9.Theymaybescattered
10.Theymakecertainmaterialsfluoresce
11.Theymayberefracted,diffractedandpolarized

XrayTube
HighElectricalPotential
Electrons

XrayGeneratororRadioactiveSource
CreatesRadiation

62
ExposureRecordingDevice

Radiation
Penetrate
theSample

PropertiesofXrays
1.Potentialdifferenceofaround300kvisused
2.Approximatelyaround9799%heat&13%ofxraysare
generated
3.Anodeismadeupofcuppertocarryouttheheat.Additional
coolingusingoil,airorwaterisalsoused
4Targetismadeupoftungsten
5.Areaofthetargetstruckbytheelectronsiscalledasfocalspot
6. Focalspotsizeshouldbebigtoabsorbmoreheatbuttoproduce
goodqualityradiographthissizeshouldbethesmallest
7.Importantcontrolpointsofthexraymachinearetimer,Amperage
controlandVoltagecontrol
8.Moretimemoreradiationmoreexposure
9.AmperagecontrolstheintensityorqualityofXray,612Ampareusuallyused
10.Morevoltagegeneratestheshorterwavelengthorqualityofx
raysmorepenetratingpower
11.Increaseinvoltageincreasesthespeedoftheelectrons,therefore
highkineticenergyandhighpenetration

Gammarays:
Gammarays are electromagnetic radiation emitted by the disintegration of a
radioactiveisotopeandhaveenergyfromabout100keVtowellover1MeV.The
most useful gammaemitting radioactive isotopes for radiological purposes are
foundtobecobalt(Co60),iridium(Ir192),cesium(Cs137),ytterbium(Yb169),and
thulium(Tm170).

63

PropertiesofGammarays
1.Gammaraysareemittedfromartificialradioactiveisotope
2.Radioactiveisotopeisanunstablestateofelementwhichhasdifferentnumber
ofneutronstothenormalstateofthesameelement
3.ThemassnumberofRadioactiveIsotopewillbedifferentfromsameelement
4.Theradioactiveisotopedisintegratecontinuouslyreleasingelectromagnetic
energy(gammarays)
5Gammaraysourcesareusuallydisc,cylindricalorsphericalshape
6Thediscs:3.0mmdiameterand1mmthick,stackedtogether
7Cylindrical:Typicallyupto4mminlength
8Spherical:0.63.0mmdiameter
9Sourcesareencapsulatedinthecapsulesof316\S12gradeStainlesssteel
IsotopeDecayRate(DecayoftheGammaSource)
LossofactivityofaradioactivenucleaseduetoDisintegration

HalfLifeofGammasource:
TimetakenforaradioactiveIsotopetoreduceitsoutputbyhalf
Source

Halflife

60Cobalt

26Years

192Iridium

74days

Ytterbium169

31days

Penetrationrange
steel
75150mm
2045mm
64

115mm

AdvantagesofGammaraysoverXrays
1.Noelectricalorwatersupplyareneeded
2.Gammaequipmentisusuallysmallerandlighterandthereforemoreportable
3.Theequipmentismoresimple
4.Placesinaccessibletoxrayequipmentareaccessibletogammaequipment
5.Becauseofhighenergythereislessscatter
6.Gammaequipmentislessexpensivethanxrayequipment
7.Greaterpenetratingpowerthanxrays
Disadvantagesofgammaraysoverxrays
1.Duetothehigherenergy,poorercontrastanddefinition
2.Exposuretimesarelonger
3.Sourcesneedreplacingatregularintervals
4.Theradiationcannotbeswitchedoff
5.SFDisshorter,resultinginpoorergeometricunsharpness
6.Remotehandlingisnecessary

RadiographicTechniques
1)
2)
3)
4)

SWSI:(FilmInsideSourceOutside)
SWSI:(FilmOutsideSourceInside)
DWSI:(FilmOutsideSourceOutside)
DWDI:(FilmOutsideSourceOutside

65

RadiographicContrast

Radiographic contrast describes the differences in photographic density in a

radiograph.Thecontrastbetweendifferentpartsoftheimageiswhatformsthe
image and the greater the contrast, the more visible features become.
Radiographiccontrasthastwomaincontributors:subjectcontrastanddetectoror
filmcontrast.
Subjectcontrastisdeterminedbythefollowingvariables:
Absorptiondifferencesinthespecimen
Wavelengthoftheprimaryradiation
Scatterorsecondaryradiation
Filmcontrastisdeterminedbythefollowing:
Grainsizeortypeoffilm
Chemistryoffilmprocessingchemicals
Concentrationsoffilmprocessingchemicals
Timeofdevelopment
Temperatureofdevelopment
Degreeofmechanicalagitation(physicalmotion)

Exposingthefilmtoproducehigherfilmdensitieswillgenerallyincreasecontrast.
In other words, darker areas will increase in density faster than lighter areas
becauseinanygivenperiodoftimemorexraysarereachingthedarkerareas.
Reasonsforlowcontrast
Radiationwavelengthtooshort
Overexposure
Prolongeddevelopment
Toocolddeveloper

66

Insufficientfixing
Fogonthefilm
ReasonsforHighcontrast
Radiationwavelengthtoolong
Incorrectdeveloper
Underexposure
Definition

Radiographicdefinitionistheabruptnessofchangeingoingfromonedensityto
another.ThereareanumberofgeometricfactorsoftheXrayequipmentandthe
radiographic setup that have an effect on definition. These geometric factors
include:
Focalspotsize,whichistheareaoforiginoftheradiation.Thefocalspotsize
shouldbeasclosetoapointsourceaspossibletoproducethemostdefinition.
Source to film distance, which is the distance from the source to the part.
Definition increases as the source to film distance increase.
Specimen to detector (film) distance, which is the distance between the
specimen and the detector. For optimal definition, the specimen and detector
should
be
as
close
together
as
possible.
.
Abruptchangesinspecimenthicknessmaycausedistortionontheradiograph.
Movement of the specimen during the exposure will produce distortion on the
radiograph.
Filmgraininess,andscreenmottlingwilldecreasedefinition.

Thegrainsizeofthefilm willaffectthedefinitionoftheradiograph.Wavelength
of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the wavelength shortens
andpenetrationincreases,theapparentgraininessofthefilmwillincrease.Also,
increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the
radiograph.
RadiographicDensity

67

Degree of blackening of a radiograph. Density is measured by a

densitometer.High density area is a dark area and low density area is a light
area.Ahighdensityareaabsorbsmorelightthanthelowdensityarea
Densityisthelogoftheintensityoflightincidentonthefilmtotheintensityof
lighttransmittedthroughthefilm.Adensityreadingof2.0istheresultofonly1
percentofthetransmittedlightreachingthesensor.
Densityrequiredintheareaofinterestshouldbebetween1.5and
2.5.Radiographswithverylowdensityandwithveryhighdensityarenot
acceptable.
Reasonsforlowdensity
Underexposuretoradiation
Insufficientdevelopmenttime
Developmenttemperaturetoolow
Incorrectdeveloper
ReasonsforExcessivedensity
.OverexposuretoRadiation
Excessivedevelopmenttime
Developmenttemperaturetoohigh
IncorrectDeveloper
sensitivity
Theabilityoftheradiographictechniquetodetectthesmallestpossible
defect.SensitivityismeasuredbyusingImageQualityIndicators(IQI),also
calledasPenetrameters.SensitivitydependsonRadiographiccontrastand
Density.
ControllingRadiographicQuality
Oneofthemethodsofcontrollingthequalityofaradiographisthroughtheuseof
imagequalityindicators(IQI).IQIsprovideameansofvisuallyinformingthefilm
interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition of the radiograph. The IQI
indicatesthataspecifiedamountofmaterialthicknesschangewillbedetectable

intheradiograph,andthattheradiographhasacertainlevelofdefinitionsothat
thedensitychangesarenotlostduetounsharpness.Withoutsuchareference
point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and defects could go
undetected.
Imagequalityindicatorstakemanyshapesandformsduetothevariouscodesor
standardsthatinvoketheiruse.IntheUnitedStatestwoIQIstylesareprevalent
the placard, or holetype and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material

68

typessothatonewithradiationabsorptioncharacteristicssimilartothematerial
beingradiographedcanbeused.

HoleTypeIQIs
ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material
groupclassificationofholetypeimagequalityindicators.E1025designateseight
groups of shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A notching
systemisincorporatedintotherequirementsallowingtheradiographertoeasily
determine if the penetrameter is the correct material type for the product. The
thicknessinthousandsofaninchisnotedoneachpentameterbyaleadnumber
0.250 to 0.375 inch wide depending on the thickness of the shim. Military or
Government standards require a similar penetrameter but use lead letters to
indicatethematerialtyperatherthannotchingsystemasshownontheleftinthe
imageabove.
Imagequalitylevelsaretypicallydesignatedusingatwopartexpressionsuchas
22T.ThefirsttermreferstotheIQIthicknessexpressedasapercentageofthe
regionofinterestofthepartbeinginspected.Thesecondtermintheexpression
referstothediameteroftheholethatmustberevealedanditisexpressedasa
multipleoftheIQIthickness.Therefore,a22Tcalloutwouldmeanthattheshim
thickness should be two percent of material thickness and that a hole that is
twicetheIQIthicknessmustbedetectableontheradiograph.Thispresentation
ofa22TIQIintheradiographverifiesthattheradiographictechniqueiscapable
ofshowingamateriallossof2%intheareaofinterest.

It should be noted that even if 22T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a

defect of the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holesin
the penetrameter represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change.
Discontinues within the part may contain gradual changes, and are often less
visible.Thepenetrameterisusedtoindicatequalityoftheradiographictechnique
andnotintendedtobeusedasameasureofsizeofcavitythatcanbelocatedon
theradiograph.

69

WireTypeIQIs

ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using

wire penetrameters (IQIs) to controlimage quality.Wire IQIs consist of a setof
sixwiresarrangedinorderofincreasingdiameterandencapsulatedbetweentwo
sheetsofclearplastic.E747specifiesfourwireIQIssets,whichcontrolthewire
diameters.Thesetletter(A,B,CorD)isshowninthelowerrightcornerofthe
IQI.Thenumberinthelowerleftcornerindicatesthematerialgroup.Thesame
image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 22T) used for holetype IQIs are
typicallyalsousedforwireIQIs.Thewiresizesthatcorrespondtovarioushole
typequalitylevelscanbefoundinatableinE747F=0.79(constantformfactor
forwire)
PlacementofIQIs
IQIsshouldbeplacedonthesourcesideofthepartoverasectionwitha
materialthicknessequivalenttotheregionofinterest.Ifthisisnotpossible,the
IQImaybeplacedonablockofsimilarmaterialandthicknesstotheregionof
interest.Whenablockisused,theIQIshouldthesamedistancefromthefilmas
itwouldbeifplaceddirectlyonthepartintheregionofinterest.TheIQIshould
alsobeplacedslightlyawayfromtheedgeofthepartsothatatleastthreeofits
edgesarevisibleintheradiograph.

Secondary(Scatter)Radiation
Secondaryorscatterradiationmustoftenbetakenintoconsiderationwhen
producingaradiograph.Thescatteredradiationcreatealossofcontrastand
definition.Oftensecondaryradiationisthoughtofasradiationstrikingthefilm
70

reflectedfromanobjectintheimmediatearea,suchasawall,orfromthetable
orfloorwherethepartisresting.Sidescatteroriginatesfromwalls,orobjectson
thesourcesideofthefilm.Controlofsidescattercanbeachievedbymoving
objectsintheroomawayfromthefilm,movingthexraytubetothecenterofthe
vault,orplacingacollimatorattheexitportthusreducingthedivergingradiation
surroundingthecentralbeam.
Itisoftencalledbackscatterwhenitcomesfromobjectsbehindthefilm.Industry
codesandstandardsoftenrequirethataleadletter"B"beplacedonthebackof
thecassettetoverifythecontrolofbackscatter.Iftheletter"B"showsasa
"ghost"imageonthefilmtheletterhasabsorbedthebackscatterradiation
indicatingasignificantamountofradiationreachingthefilm.Controlofback
scatterradiationisachievedbybackingthefilminthecassettewithsheetsof
leadtypically0.010inchthick.Itisacommonpracticeinindustrytoplace0.005
leadscreeninfrontand0.010backingthefilm.

Leadscreensinthethicknessrangeof0.004to0.015inchtypicallyreduce
scatterradiationatenergylevelsbelow150,000volts.Abovethispointtheywill
emitelectronstoprovidemoreexposureofthefilmtoionizingradiationthus
increasingthedensityoftheradiograph.
Undercut
Anotherconditionthatmustoftenbecontrolledwhenproducingaradiographis
calledundercut.Partswithholes,hollowareas,orabruptthicknesschangesare

71

likelytosufferfromundercutifcontrolsarenotputinplace.Undercutappearsas
lighteningoftheradiographintheareaofthethicknesstransition.Thisresultsin
alossofresolutionorblurringatthetransitionarea.

Undercutoccursduetoscatteringwithinthefilm.Attheedgesofapartorareas
wheretheparttransitionsfromthicktothin,theintensityoftheradiationreaching
thefilmismuchgreaterthaninthethickerareasofthepart.Thehighlevelof
radiationintensityreachingthefilmresultsinahighlevelofscatteringwithinthe
film.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthefasterthefilmspeed,themoreundercutthat
islikelytooccur.Scatteringfromwithinthewallsofthepartalsocontributed
sometoundercutbutresearchhasshownthatscatteringwithinthefilmisthe
primarycause.Masksareusedtocontrolundercut.Sheetsofleadcuttofill
holesorsurroundthepartandmetallicshotandliquidabsorbersareoftenused
asmasks.
FiltersinRadiography
Atxrayenergies,filtersconsistofmaterialplacedintheusefulbeamtoabsorb,
preferentially,radiationsbasedonenergylevelortomodifythespatial
distributionofthebeam.Filtrationisrequiredtoabsorbthelowerenergyxray
photonsemittedbythetubebeforetheyreachthetarget.Theuseoffilters
produceacleanerimagebyabsorbingthelowerenergyxrayphotonsthattend
toscattermore.

RadiographicFilm

72

Xray films for general radiography consist of an emulsiongelatin containing a

radiation sensitive silver halide and a flexible, transparent, bluetinted base.
Usually,theemulsioniscoatedonbothsidesofthebaseinlayersabout0.0005
inch thick. Putting emulsion on both sides of the base doubles the amount of
radiationsensitivesilverhalide,andthusincreasesthefilmspeed.Theemulsion
layersarethinenoughsodeveloping,fixing,anddryingcanbeaccomplishedin
areasonabletime.
FilmSelection
Theselectionofafilmwhenradiographinganyparticularcomponentdependson
anumberofdifferentfactors.Listedbelowaresomeofthefactorsthatmustbe
consideredwhenselectedafilmanddevelopingaradiographictechnique.
1. thecomposition,shape,andsizeofthepartbeingexaminedand,insome
cases,itsweightandlocation.
2. thetypeofradiationused,whetherxraysfromanxraygeneratoror
gammaraysfromaradioactivesource.
3. thekilovoltagesavailablewiththexrayequipmentortheintensityofthe
gammaradiation.
4. therelativeimportanceofhighradiographicdetailorquickandeconomical
results.

FilmProcessing
Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical
concentration,temperature,time,andphysicalmovement.Whetherprocessingis
done by hand or automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require the
highestpossibledegreeofconsistencyandqualitycontrol.

73

ManualProcessing&Darkrooms
Manualprocessing begins with the darkroom. An area dry andfree of dust and
dirtshouldbeusedtoloadandunloadthefilm.Whileanotherarea,thewetside,
will be used to process the film. Thus protecting the film from any water or
chemicalsthatmaybelocatedonthesurfaceofthewetside.
Each of step in film processing must be excited properly to develop theimage,
washoutresidualprocessingchemicals,andtoprovideadequateshelflifeofthe
radiograph.Aradiographmayberetrievedafter5oreven20yearsinstorage.
ViewingRadiographs
Radiographs(developedfilmexposedtoxrayorgammaradiation)aregenerally
viewed on a lightbox. Proper viewing conditions are very important when
interpreting a radiograph. The viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the
subtledetailsofradiographs.
Beforebeginningtheevaluationofaradiograph,theviewingequipmentandarea
shouldbeconsidered.Theareashouldbecleanandfreeofdistractingmaterials.
Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be close at hand. Thin
cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent fingerprints on the
radiograph.Ambientlightlevelsshouldbelow.Ambientlightlevelsoflessthan2
fc are often recommended, but subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is
preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings should be
aboutthesameastheareaofinterestintheradiograph.Roomilluminationmust
be arranged so that there are no reflections from the surface of the film under
examination.
Filmviewersshouldbecleanandingoodworkingcondition.Filmviewersshould
provide a source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from
viewerscancausedistortionoftheradiograph.Afilmhavingameasureddensity
of2.0willallowonly1.0percentoftheincidentlighttopass.Afilmcontaininga
densityof4.0willallowonly0.01percentoftheincidentlighttopass.Withsuch
low levels of light passing through the radiograph the delivery of a good light
sourceisimportant.

Radiographicfilmqualityandacceptability,asrequiredbytheprocedure,should
firstbedetermined.Itshouldbeverifiedthattheradiographwasproducedtothe
correct density on the required film type, and that it contains the correct
identificationinformation.Itshouldalsobeverifiedthattheproperimagequality
indicatorwasusedandthattherequiredsensitivitylevelwasmet.Next,the

74

radiographshouldbecheckedtoensurethatitdoesnotcontainprocessingand
handlingartifactsthatcouldmaskdiscontinuitiesorotherdetailsofinterest.
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks it is ready for interpretation.
Radiographicfilminterpretationisanacquiredskillcombining,visualacuitywith
knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated
discontinues.Ifthecomponentisinspectedwhileinservice,anunderstandingof
appliedloadsandhistoryofthecomponentishelpful.
Aprocessforviewingradiographs,lefttorighttoptobottometc.,ishelpfuland
willpreventoverlookinganareaontheradiograph.Onepartoftheinterpretation
process,sometimesoverlooked,isrest.Themindas wellastheeyesneedsto
occasionallyrestwheninterpretingradiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small
lightsourceandmovingtheradiographoverthesmalllightsource,orchanging
the intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant
indications. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help
identifyandevaluateindications.Viewingtheactualcomponentbeinginspected
is very often helpful in developing an understanding of the details seen in a
radiograph.
Interpretationofradiographsisanacquiredskillthatisperfectedovertime.By
usingtheproperequipmentanddevelopingconsistentevaluationprocesses,the
interpreterwillincreasehisorherprobabilityofdetectingdefects.
SpuriousIndicationsonthefilmsor(Artefacts)
SpuriousIndicationsarecausedbyincorrectprocessingorcarelesshandlingof
thefilm
Thecommonartefactsare
1 RadiationFogging:Thisoccurswhenthefilmisstoredtooclosetoasource
ofradiationorwhenthefilmisaccidentallyleftintheexposureareaduring
theexposureofanotherfilm

2 LightFog:Duetothestorageofthefilminafaultystoragestoragebox
wherewhitelightisleaksintothefilmORduetothewrongtypeofsafelight
in thedarkroom

75

3PressureMarkings:Duetocarelesshandlingofthefilmduringloadingand
unloadingofthefilm
4StaticMarks:Thishastheappearanceofthedarkbranchedandjaggedfine
lines.Itisduetorapidremovalofthefilmfromthewrapper
5ScratchMarks:Usuallycausedbyafingernailorabrasivematerialonthe
screensorduringhandling
6HighorLowDensityMarks:Causedwhenhandlingthefilmswithgreasyor
chemicallystainedfingers
7LowdensityPatchesorsmears:Duetosplashesofwaterorfixingsolutionon
thefilm
8HighdensityPatchesorsmears:DuetosplashesofDeveloperonthefilm
9FilmMottle:Duetotheuseofoldfilms
10LightSpots:Causedbydustparticlesbetweenthefilmandtheintensifying
Screen
11ScreenMarks:Duetocontaminationoftheintensifyingscreenswith
chemicalsORduetothedefectsonthescreensuchascrackingor
buckling
12Airbells:Theseareshowndiscsoflowerdensitycausedbyairtrapedonthe
surfaceoftheemulsion,duetoinsufficientagitation
13PatchesorStreaks:Duetoinsufficientagitationduringdeveloperorinthe
rinsebath
14Reticulation:Thisistheappearanceofleathergrainandduetoruptureofthe
emulsioncausedbygreatdifferencesbetweensuccesiveprocessing
solutions
15DryingMarks:Duetodropsofwaterremainingonthesurfaceofthefilm,
oftenoccurduetorapid dryingthefilminthehightemperaturecabinet.

ChapterVII

EddyCurrentTesting
Introduction
76

A varying electric current flowing in a coil gives rise to a varying magnetic field. A
nearbyconductorresiststhismagneticfieldandthisproducesaneddycurrentflowingin
thesurfacelayeroftheconductorandflowinginthedirectionoppositetothecurrentin
thecoil.
An induced eddy current in a conductor produces a magnetic field that opposes the
magnetic field produced by the coil, resulting in a change of impedance. It is this
impedancechangethatistobedetectedwithahighdegreeofaccuracybythemeasuring
equipment.
Cracksandothersurfaceconditionsmodifytheeddycurrentsgeneratedintheconductor
and give rise to a local brief change in the impedance. This change is accurately
monitored.
Eddycurrentsalwaysflowparalleltotheplaneofthewindingofthetestcoilproducing
them,Adiscontinuityparalleltotheeddycurrentcanbemissedbythismethod
BasicPrinciple

Coil's
Coil

magneticfield

Eddycurrent's
magneticfield
Eddy
currents
Conductive
Material

Eddycurrenttestingmethodcanbesuccessfullyusedtodetectssurfacebreakingand
nearsurfacediscontinuitiessuchas
Cracks

77

Inclusions
Dents
Holes
Scratches

Eddycurrenttestingmethodcanalsoidentifythematerialpropertiessuchas
Alloycomposition
Heattreatment
Hardness
Grainsize
MagneticPermeability
Eddycurrenttestingmethodcanalsobeusedtomonitorthesurfaceconditionsuchas
Surfacecoating
Corrosion
SpecimenTemperature

EddyCurrentTestingDependson
Electricalconductivityofthematerial

78

Natureofdiscontinuitiesinthematerial
Magneticpermeabilityofthematerial
Dimensionsandshapeofthespecimen
Currentfrequency
Coilsize
Numberofturnsinthecoil
Metalcondition

AdvantagesofEddyCurrentTestingMethod

Instantaneousresults
Sensitivetoarangeofphysicalproperties
Firmcontactbetweeninspectioncoilandspecimennotrequired
Equipmentissmallandselfcontained
Candetectverysmalldiscontinuities
Defectsintubesandothercircularpartscanbedetectedusingspecialprobes
Internalsurfaceofcylinderscanbeusingspecialprobes

DisadvantagesofEddyCurrentTestingMethod

Thismethodcanbeusedonelectricalconductorsonly
Depthofpenetrationisrestricted
Interpretationneedsskill
Defectsparalleltocoilsurfacecanbemissed
Endsofthepartscannotbetested

79

ChapterVIII

SelectionofNDTMethods
Defecttobedetected
SurfaceCracks
(i)Grindingcracks
(ii)Heattreatcracks
(iii)SolidificationCracks
(iv)CraterCracks
(v)ColdCracks
Inclusions

MostSuitable
Method
PT,MPI&
EddyCurrent

Comments
PTforallmetals
MPIforFerrousMetals
ETforconductivematerials

Whiskers

UT&RTfordeepdefects
MPIfornearsurfacedefects
RT,UT,MPI,DPI& RT&PTforallmetals
ET
MPIforFerrousMetals
ETforconductivematerials
UTiftherearsideoftheweld
isnotvisible
RT&UT
RT is sensitive for vertical or
inclineddefects
UT is sensitive for horizontal or
inclineddefects
UT
UTisverysensitive
VT,MPI,PT
PTismostsensitive
RT,UT
RTismostsensitive
VT,MPI,PT,RT
RTforrootundercut,ifnotvisible
VT,RT
RTifothersideisnotvisible
VT,RT
RTifweldfaceisnotvisible
VT,RT
RTifweldrootisnotvisible
UT,RT
RTgivesclearimage

Underfill, Underflush

VT,UT,RT

VT&RTarebetter

Root concavity

VT,RT

RTifweldrootisnotvisible

Convexity

VT

WelderGaugeisusedtomeasure

Lackofpenetration
Lackofrootfusion
Concavity

(i)Lackofsidewallfusion
(ii)Lackofinterrunfusion

Laminations
SurfacePorosity
InternalPorosity
Undercut
Mismatch
Inadequateweldreinforcement
BurnThrough

UT,RT&MPI

80