Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2 What is strategy?
Strategy is about:
delivering value to the people who depend on the firm various stakeholders.
Whatever interpretation is put on strategy, the strategic actions of an organisation will have
widespread and long-term consequences for the position of the organisation in the
marketplace, its relationship with different stakeholders, and overall performance.
Henry Mintzberg suggests various definitions of strategy covering the five Ps.
3 Strategic management
The strategic management process is essentially concerned with the decisions organisations make
about their future direction and the development and implementation of strategies which will enhance
the competitiveness of organisations. There are many different approaches to strategic management but
they all have the aim of establishing the purpose of the organisation and guiding managers on how to
implement strategies to achieve organisational goals.
There are many questions that you could ask about the organisations that surround us:
How did they reach the situation they are in today?
Why are they producing particular products or services?
How did they end up with their particular set of senior managers?
Why are they organised in the way they are?
All of these questions address different but interrelated aspects of an organisation and all these aspects
come together to influence how effective the organisation will be in achieving its objectives. How
these major or strategic decisions are made and how they are implemented is the process of
strategic management.
This is something that is applicable to all organisations whether large or small, public or private, profit
or non-profit making.
Illustration 1 The strategy of Tesco plc
Many companies publish the details of their strategy on their websites. Tesco plc has published a clear
seven part strategy which aims to broaden the scope of the business to enable it to deliver strong
sustainable long-term growth. Their seven key areas are:
To grow the UK core
To be an outstanding international retailer in stores and online
To be as strong in everything we sell as we are in food
To grow retail services in all our markets
To put our responsibilities to the communities we serve at the heart of what we do
To be a creator of highly valued brands
To build our team so that we create more value
Taken from Tesco plc website, April 2013
It is a useful exercise for students to look at the websites of some well known organisations, or the
organisations they work for, and read their strategies.
4 Levels of strategy
Strategy occurs at different levels in the organisation. For large organisations, the top of the hierarchy
is where corporate strategy is made. This provides the framework for the development of business
strategy, which looks at the strategy for each Strategic Business Unit (SBU). The business strategy in
turn provides the framework for functional or operational strategies. The different levels of strategy
formulation are therefore interdependent in that strategy at one level should be consistent with the
strategies at the next level.
Smaller organisations may not have all three levels.
A strategic business unit (SBU) is defined by CIMA as: a section, usually a division, within a
larger organisation, that has a significant degree of autonomy, typically being responsible for
developing and marketing its own products or services.
A strategic business unit (SBU) is defined by CIMA as: a section, usually a division, within a
larger organisation, that has a significant degree of autonomy, typically being responsible for
developing and marketing its own products or services.
Corporate strategy
The corporate centre is at the apex of the organisation. It is the head office of the firm and will contain
the corporate board. Corporate strategy is typically concerned with determining the overall purpose
and scope of the organisation, in other words what type of business or businesses should the
relations with key external stakeholders such as investors, the government and regulatory
bodies;
decisions to enter new markets or embrace new technologies (sometimes termed diversification
strategies);
Decisions at this level tend to be complex and non routine in nature because they often involve a high
degree of uncertainty based on what might happen in the future.
Business strategy
This level of strategy is concerned with how an operating or strategic business unit approaches a
particular market. Management of the SBU will be responsible for winning customers and beating
rivals in its particular market. Consequently, it is at this level that competitive strategy is usually
formulated. The considerations at this level will include:
marketing issues such as product development, pricing, promotion and distribution.
how should it segment the market should it specialise in particular profitable segments?
Business strategy should be formulated within the broad framework of the overall objectives laid down
by the corporate centre to ensure that each SBU plays its part. The extent to which the management of
the SBU is free to make competitive strategy decisions varies from organisation to organisation and
reflects the degree of centralisation versus decentralisation in the management structure of the firm.
Functional strategies
The functional (sometimes called operational) level of the organisation refers to main business
functions such as sales, production, purchasing, human resources and finance. Functional strategies are
the long-term management policies of these functional areas. They are intended to ensure that the
functional area plays its part in helping the SBU achieve the goals of its corporate strategy.
5 The rational approach to strategy formulation
The rational approach is also referred to as the traditional, formal or top-down approach.
The rational strategic planning process model is based on rational behaviour, whereby planners,
management and organisations are expected to behave logically. First defining the mission and
objectives of the organisation and then selecting the means to achieve this. Cause and effect are viewed
as naturally linked and a strong element of predictability is expected.
The rational approach is seen as having four main steps:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Implementation of strategies
(4)
The model below shows a framework of the rational approach and clearly shows the various stages
which management may take to develop a strategy for their organisation.
Identifying and evaluating strategic options select strategies to achieve competitive advantage
by exploiting strengths and opportunities or minimising threats and weaknesses.
Evaluate each option in detail for its fit with the mission and circumstances of the business and
choose the most appropriate option.
Business consultants acting as advisers and facilitators to the process by suggesting models
(c and techniques to assist managers in understanding their business environments and the
) strategic possibilities open to them. You will be reading about many of these models and
techniques later.
Formal collection of information for strategy purposes. The management team will call upon
data from within and outside the firm to understand the challenges they face and the resources
(2 at their disposal. This information can include:
)
Environmental scanning reports compiled by the business intelligence functions within the
(a
firm, including such matters as competitor behaviour, market trends and potential changes
)
to laws.
(d) Research reports from external consultancies on market opportunities and threats.
Collective decision-taking by the senior management team. This involves the senior
management team working together to develop and agree business strategies. Techniques such
(3 as brainstorming ideas on flip charts and using visual graphical models to summarise complex
) ideas will assist this process. Also, arriving at a decision will involve considerable conflict as
particular managers are reluctant to see their favoured proposal rejected and a different
strategy adopted.
(4 A process of communicating and implementing the business strategy. This can be
) accomplished using a combination of the following methods:
Writing a formal document summarising the main elements of the plan. This will be
distributed on a confidential basis to other managers and key investors, and also perhaps to
(a)
other key stakeholders such as labour representatives, regulatory bodies, major customers
and key suppliers.
Briefing meetings and presentations to the stakeholders mentioned above. Frequently,
(b
reporters from the business press will be invited to ensure that the information reaches a
)
broader public. Naturally, the fine detail will remain confidential.
(c)The development of detailed policies, programmes and budgets based on achieving the
goals laid out in the business strategy.
The development of performance targets for managers and staff. These ensure that
(d
everyone plays their part in the strategy (and perhaps receive financial rewards for doing
)
so).
Regular review and control of the strategy. Management will monitor the success of the
strategy by receiving regular reports on performance and on environmental changes. Today,
the sophisticated competitive strategies of many firms have necessitated the development of
(5
more complex performance measurement systems to supplement traditional budgetary control
)
information. These are variously termed enterprise resource management systems and
balanced scorecards. There has also been an increased emphasis on competitor and other
environmental information to assist managers in steering their businesses.
Companies within the same industry may have different reasons for existing.
Manufacturing
Rolls Royce exists to make a small number of high quality luxury cars with a distinctive image.
Ford exists to sell a large volume of different types of car to a global market.
Travel
Ryanair and EasyJet exist to provide low-cost, no frills flights from the UK to destinations in
Europe.
British Airways exists to provide a quality service to economy, business and first class
passengers to destinations around the world.
Financial services
First Direct exists to provide low-cost telephone-based financial services to a wide range of
customers.
Mission statement
The mission statement is a statement in writing that describes the basic purpose of an organisation, that
is, what it is trying to accomplish. It is possible to have a strong sense of purpose or mission without a
formal mission statement.
There is no one best mission statement for an organisation as the contents of mission statements will
vary in terms of length, format and level of detail from one organisation to another.
Mission statements are normally brief and address three main questions:
Why do we exist?
What are we providing?
For whom do we exist?
For example:
British Airways seeks to be 'the worlds favourite airline'
Starbucks mission is to 'inspire and nurture the human spirit one person, one cup and one
neighbourhood at a time.'
Purposes of mission statements (Hooley et al.):
To provide a basis for consistent planning decisions.
To assist in translating purposes and direction into objectives suitable for assessment and
control.
Strategic evaluation. When deciding between alternative strategic options, management can
(3 use the mission as a touchstone or benchmark against which to judge their suitability. The
) crucial question will be, Does the strategy help us along the road to being the kind of
business we want to be?
(4 Review and control. The key targets of the divisions and functions should be related to the
) mission, otherwise the mission will not be accomplished.
David provides a useful list of what areas should be included in a mission statement:
Customers. A statement making reference to who the organisation's customers are.
Markets. A statement of where the firm competes.
Products or services. A description of the firm's major products or services.
Concern for survival, growth and profitability. The broad economic objectives of the firm.
Philosophy. A statement of the organisation's basic values and standards of behaviour.
Concern for employees. A statement of the firm's attitude to its employees.
Concern for public image. A statement as to how much concern the organisation has of its
public image and all its stakeholders.
While a mission statement gives the overall purpose of the organisation, a vision statement describes a
picture of the "preferred future."
A vision statement describes how the future will look if the organisation achieves its mission.
Illustration 2 Mission and vision of the BBC
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) has a clear mission and vision.
Mission to enrich people's lives with programmes and services that inform, educate and
entertain.
Vision to be the most creative organisation in the world.
It is also becoming popular for companies to state their values.
Values:
Trust is the foundation of the BBC: we are independent, impartial and honest.
Audiences are at the heart of everything we do.
We take pride in delivering quality and value for money.
You can see from this that the company's mission is translated into goals and then objectives:
Strategic objectives reached by following strategies communicated to management as numerous......
Tactical objectives which in turn are implemented and reviewed through setting a large number of......
Operational objectives which may be communicated to managers and staff responsible through
their......
Critical Success Factors, Key Performance Indicators and individual performance targets. Whilst the
mission is normally an open-ended statement of the firms purposes and strategies, strategic objectives
and goals translate the mission into strategic milestones for the business strategy to reach. In other
words the outcomes that the organisation wants to achieve.
Building tracking progress of the 'programmes for change' initiated by the executive, e.g.
decentralise the organisation.
Each CSF must have a Key Performance Indicator (KPI) attached to it so as to allow measurement of
progress towards the CSF. Performance indicators are low-level and detailed. They are measures of
performance which indicate whether the CSFs have been achieved or not.
Key performance indicators (KPIs)
CIMA defines KPIs as quantitative but not necessarily financial metrics that can indicate progress
towards a strategic objective. Key performance indicators are integral to the balanced scorecard ideas
developed in the 1990s.
The process is a participative one at management level and the management accountant would be
involved in mapping the above process, developing the KPIs and monitoring them.
Individual performance targets
In is important to note that target setting motivates staff and enables the entity to control its
performance and that the objectives set will apply to the entity as a whole, to each business unit, and
also to each individual manager or employee.
If the goals of the individual are derived from the goals of the business unit, and these are in turn
derived from the goals of the entity, 'goal congruence' is said to exist. Attainment by individuals or
units of their objectives will directly contribute towards the fulfilment of corporate objectives.
Critical success factors
'Critical success factors (CSFs) are those things that must go right for the organisation to
achieve its mission.'
The advantages of identifying CSFs are that they are simple to understand; they help focus
attention on major concerns; they are easy to communicate to co-workers; they are easy to
monitor; and they can be used in concert with strategic planning methodologies.
Using critical success factors as an isolated event does not represent critical strategic
thinking, but when used in conjunction with a planning process, identifying CSFs is extremely
important because it keeps people focused. Clarifying the priority order of CSFs, measuring
results, and rewarding superior performance will improve the odds for long-term success as
well.
There are four basic types of CSFs according to Rockart. They are:
Strategy CSFs resulting from the chosen competitive strategy of the business.
Source of
Primary measures
and targets
CSF
(1) Increase number of customers.
Industry
Strategy
Strategy
Temporal
Things that are measured get done more often than things that are not measured. Each CSF
should be measurable and associated with a target goal. You don't need exact measures to
manage. Primary measures that should be listed include critical success levels (such as
number of transactions per month) or, in cases where specific measurements are more
difficult, general goals should be specified (such as moving up in an industry customer
service survey).
When setting standards, raising standards often raises results (and the reverse is also true).
Test your understanding 1
NSG has recently accepted a contract to be the sole supplier of sandwiches for the
Superior Food Group (SFG) which owns the largest chain of supermarkets in Padmay. This
is a significant contract for NSG and would make up 35% of its business.
NSG has had to recruit a significant number of staff in order to undertake the contract, but
as Padmay has very high unemployment this proved straightforward. However most of the
new recruits have no experience in a food manufacturing environment.
SFG has supplied NSG with the agreed sandwich recipes. The average selling price of all
sandwiches sold by SFG is $2.50. 90% of all sandwiches sold by SFG are sold before 2 pm
each day. The majority of the remaining 10% are sold after 8 pm. It is the intention that all
sandwiches are sold on the day that they are delivered into SFGs supermarkets.
The finance director of NSG has stated that he believes a target sales margin of 25% can
be achieved, although he is concerned about the effect that an increase in the cost of
ingredients would have on the forecast profits.
Required:
Explain FIVE critical success factors which the directors must focus on if NSG is to achieve
success in the SFG contract.
(10 marks
Public sector organisations and charities often have difficulty in using traditional private sector based
approaches to objective setting since they do not make a profit by which their success or failure can be
measured. One way to address this problem is to use the following approach:
The 'three Es approach' of the Audit Commission:
Effectiveness looks at the outputs (the goal approach); the 'goal approach' looks at the ultimate
objectives of the organisation, i.e. it looks at output measures. For example, for an NHS
hospital, have the waiting lists been reduced? Have mortality rates gone down? How many
patients have been treated?
Efficiency looks at the link between outputs and inputs (the internal processes approach); The
'internal processes approach' looks at how well inputs have been used to achieve outputs it is
a measure of efficiency. For example, what was the average cost per patient treated? What was
the average spend per bed over the period, and what was the bed occupancy rate that this
achieved?
Economy looks solely at the level of inputs, e.g. did the hospital spend more or less on drugs
this year, or on nurses' wages?
The best picture of the success of an organisation is obtained by using all of the above approaches and
by examining both financial and non-financial issues. Think about effectiveness meaning 'doing the
right things' and efficiency 'about doing things right'.
Most of the organisations in exam questions will be profit-seeking companies. However some may
involve charities, councils, schools, hospitals and other organisations where profit is not the main
objective. With such an 'NFP' a discussion of objectives is likely to be problematic for the following
reasons:
It is more likely to have multiple objectives. A large teaching hospital may want to give the best
quality care and treat as many patients as possible and train new doctors and research new
techniques. Conflict is inevitable.
It will be more difficult to measure objectives. How can one measure whether a school is
educating pupils well? Performance in exams? Percentage going on to university? Percentage
getting jobs? Percentage staying out of prison once they leave?
There may be a more equal balance of power between stakeholders. In a company, the
shareholders hold ultimate power. If they do not use it, the directors generally get their way. In
a school, the balance of power may be more even (or even undefined) between parents,
governors, the headmaster and the local education authority.
The people receiving the service are not necessarily those paying for it. The government and
local NHS trusts determine a hospital's funding, not the patients. Consequently, there may be
pressure to perform well in national league tables at the expense of other objectives.
What are the alternative directions available and which products/markets should the
organisation enter or leave?
sustainable, organisations must seek to identify the activities that competitors cannot easily copy and
imitate (We will return to this in a later chapter when the resource-based view to strategy is
introduced).
According to Porter, there are three generic strategies' through which an organisation can generate
superior competitive performance (known as generic because they are widely applicable to firms of all
sizes and in all industries):
(1) Cost leadership same quality but low price
(2) Differentiation innovative, enabling differentiation
(3) Focus concentrating on a small part of the market
The adoption of one or other of these strategies by a business unit is made on the basis of:
an analysis of the threats and opportunities posed by forces operating in the specific industry of
which the business is a part;
Strategic direction
The organisation also has to decide how it might develop in the future to exploit strengths and
opportunities or minimise threats and weaknesses. There are various options that could be followed.
Ansoff Matrix can be used to show the alternatives:
Market penetration. This is where the organisation seeks to maintain or increase its share of existing
markets with existing products.
Product development. Strategies are based on launching new products or making product
enhancement which are offered to its existing markets.
Market development. Strategies are based on finding new markets for existing products. This could
involve identifying new markets geographically or new market segments.
Diversification. Strategies are based on launching new products into new markets and is the most
risky strategic option.
Strategic methods
Not only must the organisation consider on what basis to compete and the direction of strategic
development, it must also decide what methods it could use. The options are:
Internal development. This is where the organisation uses it own internal resources to pursue its
chosen strategy. It may involve the building up a business from scratch.
product/market area. This might be to obtain a new product range or market presence or as a
means of eliminating competition.
Strategic alliances. This route often has the aim of increasing exposure to potential customers
or gaining access to technology. There are a variety of arrangements for strategic alliances,
some of which are very formalised and some which are much looser arrangements. We will
staff or investing in new production capacity. Project appraisal and project management
techniques are valuable at this level.
Operational programmes and decisions cover routine day-to-day matters such as meeting
particular production, cost and revenue targets. Conventional budgetary control is an important
factor in controlling these matters.
Johnson, Scholes and Whittington
The Johnson, Scholes and Whittington (JSW) model of strategic planning is a modern development of
the rational planning model. It consists of three elements (analysis, choice, implementation) but instead
of presenting these linearly, it recognises interdependencies. For example, it might only be at the
strategy into action (implementation) stage that an organisation discovers something that sheds light on
its strategic position. The other key difference is that Johnson, Scholes and Whittington argue that
strategic planning can begin at any point. For example, firms might decide that they will launch an
internet sales division without first carrying out any strategic analysis or choosing how the new
strategy might compete.
Question 1
V plc operates in the leisure and entertainment industry. It has a range of different ventures worldwide
including fitness centres, casinos, cinemas and sports bars, each of which operates as a separate
business.
Required:
Distinguish between the different levels at which strategy should exist in V plc and explain what would
be involved at each level.
Answer
As there will be various different levels within V plc, each will have its own strategies. They
are usually classified into:
Corporate the purpose and scope of V plc
This will encompass V Plcs mission statement leading to its goals and objectives that feed
down to lower levels of strategy. Decisions will be made about the longer term direction of V
plc.
The corporate strategy involves the scope of V plcs activities and the matching of these to its
environment, its resource capabilities and values and the expectations of different
stakeholders, e.g. Should V plc expand into operating theme parks?
Business how each of V plcs strategic business units (SBU) attempts to achieve its
mission.
Within V plc the fitness centres, casinos, cinemas and sports bars operate as a separate
business units.
The business level strategy of each SBU will relate to the strategic decisions such as being
customer focused, the choice of products, exploring new opportunities and gaining
competitive advantage, etc, e.g. Should fitness centres compete on the basis of low cost,
value for money or high quality? Which new fitness products/services will be developed and
how they will be released to the markets.
Functional how the various functions within the organisation contribute to the achievement
of V plcs overall objectives.
This strategy focuses on the issues such as resources, processes and people.
The activities of the functions within V plc such as finance, marketing and human resources
need to focus on assisting in the achievement of V plcs overall strategies, e.g. How should V
plc seek to recruit, train and retain croupiers for its casinos?
Question 2
Required:
(a)
(b)
Identify the potential problems arising from using a Mission Statement to manage
performance.
(5 marks)
Answer
A Mission Statement describes the organisations basic function in society. Typically, the
elements of a Mission Statement will include:
Purpose: Why does the organisation exist? A company exists primarily to create wealth for
its shareholders whereas a hospital exists to care for the sick.
Strategy: It may specify the business that the organisation is in, the product and service areas
it is going to operate and the necessary competences that need to be present.
Values and culture: It may state the beliefs, ethical standpoints and principles under which
activity is to be carried out.
(a)
The statement can range from short snappy sentences (Absolutely, Positively, Overnight for a parcel
courier service) to a page long description of business intentions (for, example, for public sector
organisations). Whatever the length, it should guide all employees at all levels to work collectively
towards the achievement of the corporate mission a guiding light.
It may attempt to incorporate several of the stakeholders (for example, shareholders, customers,
employees), and increasingly, the environment.
(b)
The wording of the statement may be rather vague and abstract and therefore provide limited
assistance in developing strategies
The content of the statement may provide the management with non-congruent goals. For
example, maximising shareholder wealth may conflict with any ethical statements made in the
The potential for inconsistent goal setting can occur between departments, differing managerial
levels and over time
The statement does not normally stipulate a time horizon for the achievement of the mission so
problems can arise in assessing how well the organisation is doing.
Question 3
The choice of organisational objectives is one of the more difficult parts of the strategic planning
process. It is often stated that a companys objective should always be profit maximisation. Although
this is an important assumption of economic analysis, it is not usually appropriate in the management
of business organisations.
Required:
Suggest three alternative organisational objectives that could be used instead of profit maximisation.
For each, briefly explain the importance of adopting your objective for strategic level managers, and
suggest a key performance indicator that could be used as a measure.
(15 marks)
Answer
Note: You are free to suggest ANY THREE OBJECTIVES. Use your imagination here and bear in
mind, the following is merely a suggestion as to how this question could be answered.
Although it is possible to establish many different strategic objectives, the most common in most
private sector companies might be:
(1) Achieve a satisfactory long-term level of profitability.
(2) Achieve a satisfactory level of growth in terms of either turnover or total assets.
(3) Achieve an acceptable market share.
Adopting any of these three objectives means management will not simply seek to exploit every
possible means of increasing the profits of the company. Managers will need to take a longer-term
perspective in adopting strategies to lead to sustainable benefits.
For profitability, there is obviously a trade-off between providing a level of dividend that is acceptable
to shareholders whilst maintaining sufficient profits within the company to finance future growth. Such
a level of dividend is difficult for tactical or operational level managers to fit, and should be set by the
board of directors with regard to the expectation shareholders have for dividends. Suitable KPIs for
this might include net profit margin, return on capital employed etc., and dividend cover ratio.
Growth is an essential objective for most firms. It is accepted that other firms in the industry will grow
and so it is essential for the organisation of the strategic managers to grow if it is to keep up with its
rivals. The management will need to consider different means of achieving growth and, particularly in
a mature market, will need to consider diversification, either in terms of product lines or acquisition of
competitors. Many KPIs might exist for this, for example sales turnover growth year-on-year, or
growth in units of product sold or services provided.
Many firms specify objectives in terms of market share. There is of course a link between market share
and profitability, but it is possible that the increased market share can only be achieved by spending
large amounts on promotional activities. In these cases the goal of an acceptable market share may be
achieved but profitability might be adversely affected. It is therefore important that both market share
and profitability should be included in the aims of a firm. An obvious KPI for this would be percentage
market share.