1

FOCAL MECHANISM STUDIES OF

EARTHQUAKES ALONG MAIN MANTLE THRUST
(MMT) IN PART OF THE HINTERLAND ZONE OF
HIMALAYAN FOLD BELT. PAKISTAN
2

Azam A. Khwaja, 3 MonaLisa, & 4 Syed Kazim Mehdi

ABSTRACT
Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) marks the northern collisional boundary
of Indo-Pakistan plate with Kohistan Island Arc. It has been the
source of moderate to large earthquakes. An attempt has been made
to study the seismological characteristics of MMT in relation to the
tectonics of the area. For this purpose the earthquakes with
magnitude 4.0 M w from both international seismological networks
as well as the local seismic observatories have been used to
prepare seismicity map of the area for the period of 1904-2002. The
epicentral distribution shows that the area is active. A total of
fourteen focal mechanism solutions (FMS) of earthquakes that
occurred in the vicinity of MMT have been investigated. Out of these
fourteen, eight are reverse/thrust and the remaining 6 are strike slip
solutions. Based upon the FMS, it is believed that the events (focal
depths ranging from 47 to 68 km) located near MMT and having their
P-axis orientations in the NE direction are related to the intraplate
activity due to steep bending of the Indo-Pakistan plate. Probable
cause is imbricate thrusting, breaking and thickening of the crust.
The 6 strike slip solutions are inferred to be a result of uplift of the
Nanga Parbat-Haramosh massif and the Besham dome.

Islamabad Journal of Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan

ISSN 0304-5218, Vol. 15, No.1 (2005-2006).

Vice Chancellor, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad. Pakistan. azam_khwaja@yahoo.com

Assistant Professor, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. lisa_qau@yahoo.com

Deputy Director, Seismic Studies Program, WAPDA Seismic Observatory, Mangla, Pakistan.
sspkazim@hotmail.com

1.

INTRODUCTION

A large number of workers have contributed towards the understanding of the

geology/tectonics and seismological characteristics of the MMT [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
However, in the discussion to follow the focal mechanism solutions (FMS) have
been incorporated along with the tectonics of the area to highlight the active
nature of the area. It is hoped that that this study would be helpful to understand
the ongoing collisional process of the Indo-Pakistan plate with the Kohistan
Island Arc.

2.

GEOLOGY/TECTONICS OF THE AREA

The Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) forms the northern boundary of NW Himalayan
Fold-and-Thrust Belt Pakistan [6]. This fold and thrust belt is seismically one of
the active regions of the world and forms an area between the MMT and Salt
Range Thrust (SRT) with its westward extensions (Surghar, Marwat, Bhittani and
Manzai ranges). According to [7] and later workers, the southern sides of these
ranges are also marked by thrusts. The tectonic domains of Hazara-Kashmir
Syntaxis and the Nanga Parbat Haramosh Massif comprise its eastern boundary.
The western limit is not clearly defined. Besides the Kurram Fault in the
southwestern portion, series of thrusts beyond the borders of Pakistan (like the
Sarobi Fault in Afghanistan) are considered to be delineating this boundary. In
this nearly 250 km wide and 560 km long fold and thrust belt, the PanjalKhairabad fault (Fig.1) divides it into a northern hinterland zone and the southern
foreland zone. The hinterland zone is also referred to as the Hazara Crystalline
Zone [8] and Himalayan Crystalline Zone [9]. In the hinterland zone, mostly
crystalline rocks represented by Proterozoic to Mesozoic metamorphic and
igneous rocks occur. Shearing and imbrication has resulted in a complex
deformation pattern. Basement is also involved in thrusting. [10] identified six
nappe zones (Mohmand-Swat nappe, Besham nappe, Hazara nappe, Banna
nappe, Kaghan nappe and Nanga Parbat-Haramosh massif) separated from
each other by prominent shears and thrust faults. The stratigraphy and degree of
metamorphism varies in them. All show inverted metamorphism (i.e. higher grade
rocks in hanging walls instead of the footwalls). According to [6], uplift rates in
different blocks of the nappe zones also vary, and in the area between Mansehra
Thrust and MMT, crustal shortening of more than 470km has taken place. Recent
work of [11] suggests that in the nappe zone of [10], named the Nanga-Parbat
Haramosh Massif, an area of oblique convergent margin, the most recent
structural changes is the east-west alignment of the antiformal (domal)
structures. Prior to that the sequence of folding recognized consists of isoclinal
structures followed by large E-W kink folds and formation of large N-S anticlines
[9]. It is an active tectonic feature, characterized by uplift rates of 7mm/year [12],
high seismicity, this study and active faulting [1, 10, 13].

Main Mantle Thrust (MMT): The name proposed by [14] marks the northern
boundary of the NW Himalayan Fold and Thrust Belt (and the Hinterland Zone)
which here is mostly represented by a metamorphic and magmatic terrain
characterized by thick stacks of nappes, thrust sheets and mylonitised shear
zones [6]. It also marks the northern collisional boundary of the Indo-Pak plate
with the Kohistan Island Arc and following [15] is also known as the Indus Suture.
Seismicity map (Figs.2a and 2b) shows different segments of this major fault to
be active. It is a complex fault zone with width varying upto several tens of
kilometers [14] and comprising of a number of thrust sheets [6] that dip between
350 and 500 towards the north [16]. Mostly it separates the mafic and ultramafic
rocks of the Kohistan Island Arc from the sialic rocks of the Indo-Pakistani plate.
Metamorphism has affected the rocks to variable degree with high-pressure

metamorphic rocks (blueschists) locally found associated with the MMT.

According to [17] different structures related to obduction-subduction can be
observed at different sites along the MMT. Deformation phases are still being
unraveled. In the east, the MMT forms a loop around the Nanga Parbat
Haramosh Massif. The structure is more complex here. According to [13], on the
western side of the massif the MMT is offset by the right lateral Raikot Fault [10],
has recognized a complex system of faults and shears in this part between
Raikot and Sassi. Two recent focal mechanism solutions [1] and discussed in this
study also indicate right lateral strike slip faulting in this part. At the same time, a
complex system of faults referred to as the Stak Fault Zone occur in a 3-5km
wide zone along the northeastern margin of the massif.

3.

FOCAL MECHANISM STUDIES

The focal mechanism solutions (FMS) of fourteen earthquakes have been

selected amongst the earthquakes reported by USGS, ISC and the local network
with magnitudes 5.0 Mw in the area during the period of 1965-2004. These FMS
are shown in Fig.2 and their football diagrams are represented in the Fig.3 while
the parameters for the epicenters and the focal mechanism solutions are listed in
Table-1& Table-2. With the help of a computer program PMAN [18] that required
input of geographic coordinates, magnitude, focal depth and P wave polarity the
focal mechanism solutions have been drawn and interpreted and the parameters
like azimuthal angle and take-off angle are determined by the software AZMTAK
[18]. It should be noted that the P wave polarity data has been taken from all the
maximum possible sources i.e. both the local and international seismological
observatories. The events considered to be suitable for the determination of FMS
with the condition that is they must have first motion data recorded at least 8
stations. Events have been numbered 1-14 considering their date of occurrence
with number 1 being the oldest and number 14 the last event to have occurred in
this time period. Starting from east to west, these FMS are discussed according
to their location within MMT.

FMS 11 and 12: Both of these events are situated in the Nanga Parbat
Haramosh massif (the north-eastern most part of MMT) as shown in Fig.2a.
Focal depth is 23 and 45 km respectively (Table.1). The fault-bounded massif
has a complex geology. According to [19], the tectonic history (plutonism,
metamorphism and deformation) of the Indo-Pakistan plate in the massif is
markedly different from other parts. On the western side of the massif, near the
epicentral locations, a nearly N-S trending MMT/Raikot-Sassi fault zone occurs.
Both thrusting and dextral strike slip faulting has been documented from this part
with the latter more prominent in the northern portion. It is considered to be part
of an ongoing later phase of deformation.
FMS 11 (Fig.3) obtained is of strike slip faulting with some normal component.
From the two nodal planes, the one trending in the NNE-SSW direction (Table-2)
is considered to be the rupture plane. This inference has been made due to the
reason that it is similar to the dominant trend of faults in the area including that of
the major suture (MMT). Further, a number of fault splays parallel to the MMT
occur in the vicinity. Probably one of the splays was activated. The trend (NNESSW) of the rupture plane indicates right lateral sense of motion that is in
agreement with such type of movement in the area.

Table 1: Source parameters of fourteen earthquakes whose FMS has been determined in the
present study
FMS Nos.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Date
D/M/Y
08-11-65
06-04-66
27-12-71
27-09-72
28-12-74
28-12-74
07-04-75
28-12-84
16-03-91
17-07-00
01-11-02
20-11-02
14-02-04
14-02-04

Time
H: M: S
21:23:09
1:51:53
20:59:39
20:24:56
12:11:46
22:38:53
6:41:02
16:28:01
3:57:42
5:26:00
22:09:29
21:32:00
11:56:58
10:30:22

Latitude (N)
34.6
34.91
34.98
35.07
35.06
34.99
34.91
34.61
34.52
3459
35.62
35.51
34.81
34.828

Longitude
(E)
73.3
73.06
73.02
72.91
72.91
73.1
72.97
73.61
72.66
72.89
74.66
74.68
73.19
73.255

Depth
(Km)
65
54
55
49
15
68
53
47
33
10
23
45
10
10

Magnitude
(Mw)
5.1
5.6
5.7
5.3
6.4
5.3
5.5
5
5
5.5
5.8
6.7
5.4
5.5

Table 2: Parameters obtained from the fourteen focal mechanism solutions FMS)
FMS
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Nature of
FMS
THRUST
THRUST
THRUST
THRUST
REVERSE
THRUST
THRUST
THRUST
LLSS
RLSS
RLSS
RLSS
RLSS
RLSS

Fault Plane (FP)

Strike
142O
308 O
331 O
320 O
348 O
329 O
7O
284 O
42 O
312 O
209 O
211 O
256 O
356 O

Dip
33 ONE
7 ONE
12 ONE
13 ONE
52 ONE
21 OE
11 ONE
34 ONE
88 ONE
85 ONE
87 ONW
58 ONW
84 ONE
84 ONE

Auxiliary Plane
(AP)
Strike
Dip
289 O
62 O
O
40
90 O SE
O
87
85 O S
O
154
78 OSW
O
105
60 OSW
O
135
70 OS
O
175
79 ONW
O
162
70 O
O
312
85 ONW
O
42
88 ONW
O
113
27 OSW
O
121
90 ONE
O
88
71 OSW
O
88
71 OSW

P-Axis
Strike
31 O
136 O
186 O
242 O
225 O
-131 O
-93 O
-129 O
177 O
177 O
93 O
71 O
43 O
43 O

Plunge
15 O
44 O
39 O
33 O
5O
24 O
34 O
21 O
2O
2O
42 O
22 O
9O
9O

T-Axis
Strike
164 O
303 O
345 O
68 O
321 O
37 O
82 O
108 O
267 O
-267 O
-38 O
171 O
310 O
310 O

Plunge
69 O
45 O
49 O
57 O
53 O
65 O
56 O
56 O
4O
4O
37 O
22 O
18 O
18 O

FMS 12 is for an event having magnitude of 6.7Mw (Table.1) and is the strongest
of the earthquakes to have affected the area. This event occurred after about 19
days of event number 11, in the southerly part of the same fault zone. According
to [6], the gneisses of the Indo-Pakistan plate have been thrusted on the recent
alluvium in the vicinity of the epicentre and the southeast dipping thrust is named
as the Liachar Thrust (Raikot Fault). The MMT is also situated nearby. A number
of right lateral strike slip faults trending in the NNE-SSW direction have also been
recognized in this area of thrusting. As such, in the focal mechanism solution
(Fig. 3), the NNE-SSW trending nodal plane that indicates right lateral sense of
motion is inferred to be the rupture plane.
8

[1] has obtained similar solutions for both the events. Most likely, complex
convergence of movement of the plate, differential but rapid rates of uplift that
are being accommodated along the fault zone, structural alignment of domes in
an E-W direction within the massif singly or in combination may be contributing
towards this type of activity. It may be mentioned that for both these events
Harvard CMT Catalogue shows normal faulting and did not incorporate local
data. Similarly [20] also determined the FMS of these two events and obtained
normal faulting. However they themselves committed that although the strike of
both the solutions is similar to the Raikot fault but nature of solutions i.e. normal
is not appropriate to the local structure.
FMS 13 and 14: These events are situated near the MMT (Fig.2b) that forms the
northern boundary of the study area and is also the collisional boundary where
the Indo-Pakistan plate underthrusts the Kohistan Island Arc. Another important
thrust of the area lying immediately south of the MMT is the Banna Thrust.
In this part of the study area, on the basis of seismicity, a wedge shaped NW
trending structure has been recognized. [21] named it as the Indus Kohistan
Seismic Zone (IKSZ). Later workers [22, 23] have also confirmed the presence of
this NW trending 100 km long feature between the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis and
the MMT. This nearly 50km wide zone of seismicity has a nearly horizontal upper
surface and a lower NE dipping surface.
[23], on the basis of relocated hypocentres, have identified two seismic zones
within the IKSZ i.e. a shallow zone extending from the surface to a depth of 8km
and a more pronounced midcrustal zone lying at depths of 12 to 25km. The
upper boundary at a depth of about 12km is considered to be representing a
decollement surface that decouples the sediments and metasediments from the
basement.
Focal depth of these events i.e. 10km (Table. 1) suggests that the cover rocks
within the Banna nappe zone were affected by the earthquake activity. These
rocks comprising of schists, slates, phyllites and marbles have undergone both
ductile and brittle deformation and have been emplaced on the mylonites,
gneisses and schists of the Precambrian Tanawal Formation. In both the
solutions (Fig.3), the nodal planes trending in the NW-SE direction are
considered to be the rupture planes. Their dip direction towards the NE (Table.2)
is in agreement with the general dip direction of the area. A right lateral sense of
motion indicated may be due to their location in a shear zone. The FMS in
Harvard CMT Catalogue also show strike slip solutions with some thrust
component. The ongoing basement uplift of the Besham domal structure [24, 10]
may be the reason for generating right lateral strike slip faults in this part of the
study area.

FMS 5: This event like the previous two events is also located near the MMT
(Fig.2b) and with a magnitude of 6.4 Mw (Table.1) is the second largest
earthquake to have affected the study area. Another important fault located near
the epicentre is the left lateral Puran Fault. As compared to the earlier two
events, the focal depth for this event is 15km.
From the earlier description, it is known that the IKSZ occurs at depths ranging
from 12 to 25km. According to [23] most IKSZ events are deeper than 12 km in
which the shallow events are associated with the reactivated parts of MMT, while
the deeper earthquakes may be related to the underthrusting of the IndoPakistan plate beneath the IKSZ. Lower IKSZ (12-25 km) represents a major
thrust zone [21, 23].
Various workers named this event as the Pattan earthquake of 1974, due to its
location near Pattan village, and determined its FMS. Different workers [24, 25]
have inferred thrust faulting with the rupture plane trending in the NW direction
and dipping towards NE except the solution of [5] that shows dip in the NW
direction.
Composite fault plane solutions obtained from the IKSZ show reverse faulting
along NW striking planes dipping towards the NE or more steeply towards the
SW [21,23], or strike slip solutions or a mixture of both [21]. Solution obtained in
the present study (Fig.3) is of reverse faulting. A similar NW trend dipping
towards the NE is obtained. Dip is 520NE (Table.2). However, like [24], there is a
right lateral strike slip component. Finally the solution supports the contention
that a major active thrust fault zone (IKSZ) underlies the decollement.
FMS 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8: All of these events are situated near or along the
MMT (Fig.2b) that forms the northern boundary of the study area. The other
important active faults in this area are the right-lateral Thakot and left-lateral
Puran faults except in the case of event number 8. This has its epicentral location
on the northeastern side of HKS (Fig.2) between the MBT and Batal Thrust. The
latter fault is also considered to be representing the Main Central Thrust [19], a
major suture that separates the Lesser Himalayas from the Higher Himalayas.
Focal depth for these events varies from 47 to 68 km (Table.1) thereby indicating
seismic activity below the earlier described IKSZ. Publications of [21, 22] have
documented seismic activity from these deeper levels. According to [20], a zone
of diffuse seismicity occurs below the IKSZ till a depth of 50km and indicates
intraplate activity in the Indo-Pakistani plate. [21] recognized seismic activity till a
depth of 70km. Earthquake activity is inferred to be within the basement of the
plate or in the uppermost mantle due to the steep bending of the plate. Most
workers including those basing their interpretation on gravity data [27] agree on
the presence of the Indo-Pakistan plate and its underthrusting beneath the
Himalayas.

10

Most agree that thrusting is the major deformational process operating at these
levels. Focal mechanism solutions of these events support this contention as all
solutions show thrusting (Fig.3). All trends in the NW-SE direction and have dips
ranging from 70 to 340 in the NE direction (Table.2). P-axis orientations of these
events are NE-SW directed. Following [21], it is believed that imbricate thrusting,
breaking and thickening of the crust to a depth of 60 to 70 km is producing
thrusts with mostly shallow dips in an overall steeply dipping seismic pattern.
Thus, they are considered to be intraplate events affecting the lower crust.
In the case of event number 8, it supports the contention of [28] that a similar
style of deformation prevails in this part of the area also.
FMS 10: This event is located on the nearly N-S trending, right-lateral strike slip
fault (Fig.2b). It is considered to be the surface expression of the Tarbela Seismic
zone.
This zone lying between depths of 8-18km and 8 to 15km according to [23]
comprises of faults with strikes in both the NW and NE directions [22 23].
According to [23], the strike of faults is in the E-W direction and can be correlated
to the surface mapped thrusts and strike slip faults.
Composite fault plane solutions of microseismic data indicate steeply dipping
faults with reverse or strike slip motions [21]. In the present case, the nodal plane
trending in the NW-SE direction with nearly vertical dip (Table.2) is considered to
be the rupture plane (Fig.3). The sense of motion indicated is of right lateral slip.
Thus, the FMS although having a slightly different trend, but with similar sense of
motion as the Thakot Fault is considered to be representing it. It also supports
the contention of [24] that it is a basement fault.
FMS 9: This event is located in the Mohmand-Swat crystalline nappe zone of [6]
about 10 kms west of the Puran Fault (Fig.2b). It is high angle, left lateral shear
that marks the western boundary of the Besham nappe zone. No other mapped
fault is situated at the epicentral location. Focal depth given by ISC is 33km
(Table.1) and according to them this number should be treated with caution.
From amongst the two nodal planes in this strike slip solution (Fig.3), the one
trending in the NE direction is considered to be the rupture plane. This trend is
not only similar to the trend of the Puran Fault, but also gives steeper dip (880)
and indicates left lateral sense of motion (Table.2). It is believed that the
continued uplift of the Besham antiformal structure is responsible for left lateral
strike slip faulting on its western side. Thus the shear zone accommodating the
uplift may be broader than previously envisaged and is most likely extending at
least upto this part of the study area.

11

4.

DISCUSSION

Based upon the present work the MMT can be considered as the source of
moderate to large earthquakes. Most recently, Pattan (1974), Bunji (2002) and
Batgram (2004) earthquakes badly affected the areas surrounding MMT. The
maximum magnitude event that occurred within the NW Himalayan fold-andthrust belt is of 6.7 Mw in the Raikot-Sassi Fault Zone (FMS 12 discussed in the
present work), which is the maximum magnitude earthquake ever recorded in the
area.
Looking at the study area in the regional perspective, a number of interpretations
by different workers are available to explain the collisional tectonics between the
northward moving Indo-Pakistan and the Eurasian plates. All agree that the IndoPakistan plate is being underthrusted at the suture referred to in this study as the
MMT.
In the present work, prevalence of a compressional regime is reflected by the
thrust (8 out of the 14 FMS). All of these events (focal depths ranging from 47 to
68 km) are located near this convergent boundary (maximum epicentral distance
is about 40 km away from the MMT) and have their P-axis orientations in the NE
direction. In the earlier discussion they have been interpreted as indicative of
intraplate activity due to steep bending of the Indo-Pakistan plate. Thus, following
[21], it is believed that imbricate thrusting; breaking and thickening of the crust
are taking place.
Similarly two tectonic features, namely the Nanga Parbat-Haramosh massif and
the Besham dome are believed to be influencing the development of strike slip
faulting in the hinterland zone. Some of the world's most rapid rates of uplift have
been recorded from this fault bounded massif. This uplifting could explain the
formation of right lateral and left lateral strike slip faulting on its eastern and
western sides. Thus, FMS 11 and 12 (Fig.2a) have been related to the stresses
being generated by the massif. Similarly the uplift documented in the Besham
dome [1] is most likely generating left (FMS 9) and right lateral (FMS 10, 13, 14)
strike slip on its western and eastern sides respectively.
Acknowledgments
We wish to acknowledge the anonymous reviewers from their useful criticism and
suggestions. Also the work is partially financed from the Quaid-i-Azam University
Research Fund.

12

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