Hydrodynamics, general

When an object is immersed in a fluid stream, there is the phenomena of friction and
turbulence.

when the fluid is air, the study of these phenomena is the aerodynamics.

when the fluid is water, the study of these phenomena is the Hydrodynamics .

The study of hydrodynamic resistance ( Rh ) does not currently have comprehensive theory
which would apply an equation to meet the different cases accurately. We therefore divided
the phenomena following parameters:

If the object is completely immersed (Drag force)[1] its coefficient

will be studied by hydrodynamic cumulation its frictional resistance to its
strength of form. The combination of these two-forces is named viscous
resistance ( Rv (Newtons) ) or drag force, whose coefficient of viscous
resistance ( Cv or Cd if drag has been measured in wind tunnel ) is related to
Reynolds number [2]( Re ) and roughness [3] ( K ) on the length of the hull (
L)
o Rv= Cv . (Re . K/L)
o Drag force = Cd .s.(v/2) the Cd is given for
Reynolds numbers
Total coefficient of hydrodynamic resistance ( Ch = Rh / Displacement) For
an object moving in deep water without surface effect is defined as:
o Ch = Rv= Cv.(Re.K/L)

If the object moving near the surface Hydrodynamics of ships viscous

resistance or drag be accompanied by a resistance due to the
formation of surface waves, wave resistance ( Rw ), Whose
coefficient of resistance to the wave ( Cw) is bound to Froude
number [4]( Fr )
o Rw= Cw.(Fr)
o Cw =Rw/(1/2)s.v(Water density, S surface in
contact with water, V velocity.
Total coefficient of hydrodynamic resistance ( Ch = Rh / Displacement) For
an object moving near the surface is defined as:
o Ch= Cw.(Fr) + Cv.(Re.K/L)

If this object is shaped to "Fly" (hydro foils) in water ,the

study off drag force and lift force [5] is like Aerodynamics
classic.

If this object is a type hovercraft forces of hydrodynamic resistance

will be significantly diminished .The force and power of the
propellers used to create the lift must be evaluate( propeller
calculation software ) .

Different types of approaches to assess the hydrodynamic coefficient (Ch):

Despite advances in computer modeling, testing models are still essential. The
effects of friction measured experimentally in basin are themselves subject to
problems of scaling resolved through laws of similarity . (see Froude )

scale model tests in basin

Another technique for evaluating hydrodynamic behavior is to

compare data measured on a series of standard forms and
extrapolate the consequences of changing forms. .
la srie de Taileur

la srie de NPL

la srie de Nordstrom

les 63 sries

les 64 sries
la srie de SSPA

The naval hydrodynamics is studying the hydrodynamic resistance force of ships

Learn more about naval hydrodynamics

The hydrofoils

propeller calculation software

simple caculation Foils

[1] DRAG FORCE

The drag is the strength (paralell to fluid velocity) of resistance, fluid exerts on an object
when the fluid or the object is moving one relative to another
The drag force can be calculated from:

The coefficient called Cd , ( The Cd is the drag coefficient, is determined

experimentally Wind tunnels)

The fluid velocity,

The fluid density,

the surface reference depending on the subject studied:

o

The front surface (projection perpendicular to the flow) if the object is not
profiled.

The maximum area projected on the ground if the object is shaped

with this formula:

p is the density fluid Kg/m3
The S surface Reference m
v the relative velocity of the fluid * m / s

* whether the fluid, the object or both moving, we take into account the speed of one
relative to another .
Cd(drag cofficient) and Cl (lift coefficient) are measured experimentally are accessible to
all in databases or The value of Cd an cl is always given as a function of Reynolds
number which includes the kinematic viscosity of fluid.
Methods of mathematical determinations or Cd Cl exist and achieve accuracies
interesting . The coefficients of drag and lift are often represented by graphs called Polar
The force drag expressed in Newtons is the one that opposes or slows the parachute
movement.
The Cd allows us to extrapolate resistance to progress to a series of geometrically similar
profiles.
When the drag is studied in water we talk about viscous resistance Rv and the formula
for calculating the drag coefficient is related to Reynolds number Re and take the name
of coefficient of viscous resistance Cv
Rv = Cv. (Re. K / L) .
roughness (K)
In hydrodynamics Naval sometimes used a method the method of dual models to
determine the viscous resistance.

[2] REYNOLD NUMBER

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number linking viscosity The density , and
reference length .
The reference length can be : The pipe diameter (ducts)
To study the drag of non-geometric body shapes, this reference surface is the width of
the front surface (perpendicular to flow)
To study the lift and drag of body sections, this reference surface is the maximum
projected area, this length is taken along a flow .
To study the frictional drag of flat plates, this reference surface is the length of the
wetted surface, this length is taken along a flow .
Re = V L / u
Re = (( average speed ) x ( reference length )) / ( kinematic viscosity of the fluid
)
or
Re = (( density ) x ( average speed ) x ( reference length )) / ( dynamic viscosity
of the fluid )
The Reynolds number determines the flow regime, Laminar , Transitional or Turbulent and
equations to use.

[3] ROUGHNESS

of ducts and pipes

The roughness is a parameter essential in fluid mechanics. It gives information on the

surface of the walls in contact with the fluid. The Roughness ducts is a factor in the
selection of pipe materials when studying a hydraulic system or air handling
Tthe unit varies depending on the application:

for the study of pressure losses in pipes and flat plates we use the average depth
of roughness mm ( R ) . This is the average distance projection-hollow surface
defect consisting of striations, grooves, slots or tearing.

Les formules d'valuation du rgime d'coulement (voir Colebrook)utilisent un rapport de

la rugosit moyenne(R) sur le diamtre(D) des conduits appel rugosit relative(D et R
dans la mme unit):R/D
On utilise parfois un rapport de rugosit constitu de grains de sables dont le diamtre est
compar l'paisseur de la couche laminaire d'coulement sur une plaque plane. Il est
constat que lorsque ce rapport dpasse 0.5 la rugosit commence jouer un rle
dterminant dans la rsistance de frottement sur plaque plane
En hydrodynamique navale on utilise aussi une rugosit moyenne de carne, utilisant la
rugosit de grains de sables quivalents(K), divis par la longueur de carne(L):K/L(K et L
dans la mme unit)
La rugosit des conduits d'une matire donne volue dans le temps suivant le fluide
transport(agressif, oxydant, acide, charg de matire abrasives..) et les conditions
d'exploitation(constamment en eau ou avec des temps d'exposition a l'air oxydant..)Une
conduite peut devenir ainsi d'une rugosit couteuse en nergie d'exploitation et voir son
prix rel dcupler au cours du temps. Le temps d'exploitation est donc appliquer
l'volution de la rugosit lors de l'tude du prix d'achat.
l'diteur de rugosit:

The pressure loss formulas (see Colebrook )are using a ratio of the
average roughness (R) / diameter ( D ) :relative roughness ( D and R in
the same unit): R / D
Sometimes used a ratio of roughness consisting of sand grains whose diameter is
compared to the thickness of the laminar flow on a flat plate . It is found that
when this ratio exceeds 0.5 the roughness begins to play a role in the resistance
of friction flat plate

In naval hydrodynamics it also uses an average hull roughness using the

roughness of grains of sand equivalent ( K ) Divided by the length of keel ( L ): K /
L ( K and L in the same unit)
The roughness of the material given to the purchase evolves in time according to
the transported fluid (aggressive, oxidizing, acidic, charged with abrasive material
..) and operating conditions (constant water or with exposure time seems
oxidative ..) The roughness of pipes and ducts is costly in energy use. the real
operating price can increase tenfold over time. The operating lifetime and the
evolution of roughness(operating cost) during this time , must be compared with
the purchase price.
Mecaflux Editor roughness :

Choice of roughness following material and condition of water pipes or air flow in the
software MECAFLUX
Examples of roughness of pipe or water pipe networks: ( + 140 roughness data can cover
all cases encountered in the study network of air or water in the software MECAFLUX)
steel welded
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes
Welded Steel Pipes

New
New, coated with bitumen
For a long time in service, bitumen partially disappeared,
corroded s
For a long time in service, uniform corrosion
Without significant inequalities joints; internally coated
(thick ur layer about 10 mm); ill
Mains gas, after many years of achievement ation
With riveting transverse single or double; coated internally
Or without coating, but not corroded
Coated internally, but not free of oxidation was fouled
uring service with water, but not corroded
Mains gas, after 20 years of service, stratified deposits s
With double riveted cross, not corroded, clogged during
service with water
Deposits low

Table of roughness of a few led by their state or number of years of service

[4] FROUDE NUMBER

0.04
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.3 to
0.4
0.5
0.6 to
0.7
0.95
to 1
1.1
1.2 to
1.5
1.5

William Froude ( 1810 - 1878 ) English Engineer and naval architect

creator of the first basin for testing models
Featured in studying hydrodynamics, Froude number ( F r ) Is a dimensionless number
linking gravity (g) , velocity (v) and length (L) of vessel:
Fr = V / v (g.L)

While the architects of the time agreed to say that only the real experimentation results
could provide applicable, and considered experiments on the models as "nice little fun
experiences," William Froude was developing laws similarity and practiced the work on
friction.
William Froude to put forth the basic assumption which states that resistance to the
progress of vessels is the sum of:

resistance mainly due to direct wave

This resistance is a function of Froude number

frictional resistance
This resistance is a function of Reynolds number and roughness coefficient of
buoyancy
Although this resistance separation into distinct parts , is theoretically questionable, thus
separating the two components and by assuming independent, it is possible to identify
rules similarity between displacement resistance of scale models and prototypes of
actual size.
similarity
Predictions he made on models, verified by the towing of an offshore ship, (Greyhound)
were successful in providing resistance to movement of the ship with only 10% below
actual observations.
The method models now entering the era of practical applications.

Sketch of W. Froude representing the train of waves due to the bow

Despite advances in theory and methods of computer calculation method remains valid
and is practiced today for the design of modern ships

[5] LIFT FORCE

coefficient of lift
8

The lift is a force perpendicular to the displacement of fluid. It is created by aspiration in

a low pressure area formed on top of profile designed for this purpose. It depends on the
mass of fluid displaced.
The lift is calculated versus:
coefficient measured in wind tunnel known as Cl or lift coefficient
the projected wing area on the ground
speed
the fluid density .
The Cl or lift coefficient, is measured in wind tunnels and there are databases available
for many profiles , velocity and different incidences
lift force is usually the strength necessary to fly.The ratio lift/ drag is the efficiency of the
wing
In the case of Profiles measured in wind tunnel, the lift is calculated by the the projected
surface ground .

Lift force in Newtons

The Cz(or cl) is the coefficient of lift, it is determined experimentally in wind tunnels or
basin.Note tha the wind tunnels test are available for hydrodynamics because de Cl(Cz)
value is versus the Reynolds number.
p is the fluid density Kg/m3
S projected wing area on the ground m
v the velocity of the fluid m / s

SHIP OR NAVAL HYDRODYNAMICS

The ship Hydrodynamics is studying the hydrodynamic resistance force on ships. This
resistance is composed of forces from several phenomena that are distinguished in the study
but whose interactions are intimately intertwined. The results of calculations or
measurements are most often given as hydrodynamic coefficients Ch, by relating the
hydrodynamic resistance Rh, the weight and volume of water displaced (Ch = Rh /
displacement)
* the displacement of a vessel is the weight of water it displaces, so the immersed
volume X density of water. .
We assume that the environment is calm (no waves or current or wind) and we limit our
discussion by neglecting the resistance of superstructure (about 3% of Rh).
The resistance of ship is study into two parts: resistance viscous and resistance to the wave.
(see Froude)

viscous resistance (Rv), the viscous resistance

coefficient (Cv) is related to Reynolds number (Re) and
roughness (K) on the hull length (L)

Rv= Cv . (Re . K/L)

If the object is near the surface, the viscous resistance or drag is accompanied by a resistance
due to the formation of surface waves:

the wave resistance (Rw), whose coefficient of

resistance to the wave (Cw) is related to Froude
number (Fr)
There are different types and causes of waves ( resistance of waves more..)

Rw= Cw.(Fr)

Cw =Rw/(1/2)s.v(density, S surface in contact with

water, V velocity.

Total coefficient of hydrodynamic resistance (Ch=Rh/Displacement) for a ship

hull moving near the surface is defined as:

Rv= Cv . (Re . K/L)

Rw= Cw.(Fr)

Ch= Cw.(Fr) + Cv.(Re.K/L)

Different types of approaches to assess the hydrodynamic coefficient (Ch):

Method of testing models in basin :

Despite advances in computer modeling, testing models are still essential. The effects of
friction measured experimentally in basin are themselves subject to problems of scaling
resolved through laws of similarity . (see Froude )

Method of testing models in basin

Method series: Another technique for evaluating hydrodynamic behavior is to compare data
measured on a series of standard forms and extrapolate the consequences of changing forms.
The specific hydrodynamic resistance (Rh / Move *) is given as a function of Froude number
in series:
10

srieTaileur

srie NPL

srie Nordstrom

63 sries

64 sries
srie SSPA

the series of tailor, by Admiral Taylor Model Basin Experimental in Ashington

The series of tailor is still required for the most comprehensive research in the effects on
power efficient

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.
In naval hydrodynamics, to evaluate independently the viscous resistance
of the surface resistance , the method of dual models is sometimes used .
It involves deep immersion in tow a geometric shape composed of model
hull of a ship and its symmetry to the waterline . The measured drag force
is then divided by two . The experiment at sea is costly and complex , so it
is achieved in wind tunnel. The profiles that drag (Cd) is already set in
Mecaflux thus serve to evaluate the hydrodynamic viscous resistance.

This resistance is composed of viscous frictional resistance and resistance form. The
frictional resistance can be calculated with the detailed study of flat plate in Mecaflux

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Wave resistance (Rw), whose coefficient of resistance to the wave

(Cw) is linked to the Froude number (Fr)
o Rw= Cw.(Fr)
o Cw =Rw/(1/2)s.v(density, S surface in contact with water,
V velocity.

A body that moves on the calm surface of water produces a wave systm.
This system is produced by the pressure field around the body and wave
energy is given by the body . This transfer of energy from the body to the
surrounding system, product our wave resistance . ( the boat made pretty
waves for water skiing but it cost him in energy and that's why water
skiing is expensive ...)

There are two types of wave systems produced by the hull:

a system of diverging waves inclined from the axis of

the boat

a system of transverse waves perpendicular to the axis

of the boat .

This system of waves, divergent and transverse, is produced by the stern

(stern) and stem (bow). The interference between these systems of
waves, and generates peak along the wall of the hull. .
Simplifying, one can say that resistance of the wave is generated by the
difference between the pressure on the bow and stern , if the surface of
bow generating low pressure decreases because of the bottoming ,
resistance to the wave decreases ... In this curve wave resistance based
on speed and length of the hull ( Froude) shows that the wave resistance
evolves by highlighting the peak or trough at the stern .

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Graphs of the evolution of resistance coefficient Cw wave, depending on the ratio

Speed / length
In total, the coefficient of hydrodynamic resistance (Ch) is defined as :
Ch= Cw.(Fr) + Cv.(Re.K/L)
(Ch=Rh/Displacement)

Acceleration
14

unit Acceleration
meters per seconds per second (m / s )
For an stoped object a increase of speed (acceleration) of 1 meter seconds per second means
that after 2 seconds, object will have a speed of (1m/s x 2) = 2 m / s

Acceleration calculation
the Newton's second law: Force = mass x acceleration
A force (F) in Newtons applied to an object of mass (m) in Kg causes an acceleration "a" m/s
of this object as F / m = a
This equation is implemented with some representative examples of acceleration and
deceleration (accident, elevator ..) tab mass and acceleration converter included in
MECAFLUX .

Acceleration gravity g
According to the hypothesis: "Any force acting alone is proportional to acceleration" and
considering that "the weight of an object (the force applied to it) is that force is determined as
the gravity acceleration the mass of an object that gives the weight of the object.
on Earth this acceleration is 9.81m / s at the poles and 9.78m / s at the equator (the effect of
centrifugal force)
on the moon this acceleration is de1.62m / s
Representative examples of the effects of gravity (accident, elevator ..) tab mass and
acceleration of converter included in MECAFLUX.

Acceleration centripetal
Consider an object whose trajectory is a curve
the force as to be away from the center is the centrifugal force (memotechnique: center-flee)
the force holding the object close to the center are the centripetal force (memotechnique: near
center)
These two forces are equal and opposite because they are action and reaction. One can not
exist without the other
with m = mass of the object, R = radius of the circular path of the object, a = centripetal
acceleration, and V = velocity of the object was:
m V / R = Strength
a=V/R

Acceleration fluid
In a tube tapering l 'Acceleration fluid is related to a loss of pressure. It is effect Venturi or
effect Bernoulli
If the tube is narrowed between point A and point B is to:
The equation of continuity gives us a speed increase due to shrinkage as Section:
(In Section A) x (speed in A) = (in Section B) x (Speed B) = volume flow rate constant we
deduce the speed at point B
(Speed B) = (in Section A) / (in Section B) x (speed in A)

15

Bernoulli equation links the pressure to speed:.

(pressure at point A) + (1/2 density) x (velocity at point A) = (pressure at point B) + (1/2 density) x
(speed B)
replacing (speed B) by [(in Section A) / (in Section B) x (Speed A)] we have:
(pressure A) + (1/2 density) x (speed A) = (pressure B) + (1/2 ) x ([(Section A) / (Section B) x (speed
A)])
if we know the pressure drop and sections of the tubes we can deduce the velocity in A:
= pressure drop (pressure A) - (pressure B) = x 1/2masse volume (speed) x [(Section A ) / (Section
B ) -1]
By knowing the speed at A we can infer the speed at B by the continuity equation already cited.
if we know the speed and sections of the tubes we can deduce the pressure drop.
Applications of these equations: flow venturi water pump systems, vacuum using compressed
air stream, spray ...
copyright MECAFLUX
mis jour le 10 /2009

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