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Solving roots of the characteristic equation. Except for very simple boundary
conditions, one has to go for numerical solution.
In determining the normal modes of the system
Determination of steady state response
So for quick determination of the natural frequencies of a system, when a very accurate
result is not of much importance one should go for an approximate method.
Modeling
Approximation
.
Series solution
Approximate method where approximation error should be within acceptable limits one may
assume a series solution as
u ( x, t ) f n (t ) n ( x )
(1)
n 1
where n ( x ) is the normal modes and f n (t ) is the time function which depends upon initial
conditions and forcing function. There are certain difficulties that limit the application of
classical analysis of continua to a very simple geometry only.
The infinite series sometimes converge very slowly and it is difficult to estimate how
many terms are needed for engineering accuracy.
The formulation and computation efforts are prohibitive for systems of engineering
complexity.
The special methods (as approximate methods) treat the continuous systems, for vibration
analysis purpose, as discrete systems. This can be done with one of the following methods.
conditions of the system and then computing the functions f n(t) to best fit the
differential equation, the remaining boundary conditions, and the initial
conditions of the forcing functions.
Taking the physical coordinates of n number of points of the system q, (q1, L qn)
as the generalized coordinates, considering them as functions of time, and
computing them to fit the differential equation; and the initial and boundary
conditions.
The main advantage of all theses methods is that instead of dealing with one or more
partial differential equations, one deals with a larger number of ordinary differential
equations usually liner with constant coefficients, which are particularly suitable for
solution in fast computing machines.
Rayleighs Method
-Rayleigh method gives a fast and rather accurate computation of the fundamental frequency
of the system.
-It applies for both discrete and continuous systems.
Consider a discrete, conservative system described by the matrix equation
Mx Kx 0
(2)
2
The equation above is satisfied by a set of n eigenvalues i and normalized eigenvectors i ,
i =1, 2----n
(3)
Multiplying both sides of (3) by i and dividing by a scalar i M i , which is a quadratic form,
we have
i2
i K i
i M i
(4)
2
If we know the eigenvector i , we can obtain the corresponding eigenvalue i by eqn(4).
However in general, the eigenvectors are not known and one has to find it for the particular
system. Suppose that we consider an arbitrary vector Z in eqn (4). So eqn(4) can be written as
2 R ( z )
z Kz
.
zMz
(5)
Here R(z) depends on the vector z and is called Rayleighs quotient . When the vector z
coincides with an eigenvector i , Rayleighs quotient coincides with the corresponding
eigenvalues.
From vector algebra it is known that vector z can be expressed as a linear combination of
independent vectors.
n
z c1 z1 c2 z2 L cn zn ci zi Zc
(6)
i 1
where Z is a square modal matrix [ z1 z2 L zn ] and c [c1c2 L cn ] . If the vector zi have been
normalized so that
Z T MZ I , then Z T KZ diag [1 , 2 ........n ] P
2
(7)
R( z )
cZ KZc cPc
cZ MZc cIc
c
i 1
n
2
i
c
i 1
(8)
Equation (6) is similar to the free vibration response of a system which contains all the normal
modes. In the assumed function let the r th mode deviates from the actual mode. So the cr will
be larger in comparison to the other ci s. Now taking
written as
ci
i , i = 1 , equation (8) can be
cr
Rr ( z )
c
i i2
i 1 cr
n
2
r
ci
i 1 cr
n
2r i 2 i2
i 1
n
i 1
ir
(9)
2
i
For r =1,
n
R1 ( z ) 12
1 i 2 i2
i 2
n
1 i
(10)
i 1
2
From equation (9) it is apparent that the Rayleigh quotient differs from the eigenvalues r by
second order terms of the error of the eigenvector. In other words, if the error in selecting the
nonexact eigenvector is , then the error in the eigenvalues is . So a 20% error in the form of
eigen vector will yield a 4% error in the eigenvalues and a corresponding 10 % error in eigen
value will result in 1% error in eigenvector. From eqn(10), it may also be concluded that
R1 ( z ) 12
(11)
Hence the Rayleighs quotient is never lower than the smallest eigenvalues. Hence this method
gives the upper bound approximation of the fundamental frequency of the system.
Rayleighs principle can be stated as in a conservative system the frequency of vibration has a
stationary value in neighbourhood of a natural mode.
Example: Using Rayleigh quotient method, find the fundamental frequency for a cantilever
beam assuming the approximate function as the static deflection curve.
Static deflection of a cantilever beam can be found using bending equation as follows.
M wx.
or, EI
x
d2y
EI
2
dx 2
dy 1 wx 3
C1
dx 2 3
EIy
1 wx 4
C1 x C 2
6 4
BCs x l
y0
dy
0
dx
C1
1 3
wl
6
1 wx 4
C 2
C1 x x l
6 4
wl 4 4
wl 4
wl
8
24 6
w
x 4 4l 3 x 3l 4
24 EI
w
(l x ' ) 4 4l 3 (l x ' ) 3l 4
24 ET
w
l 3 x 3 3l 2 x 3lx 2 4l 3
24 EI
w
3l 4 x 3 l 3l 3 x 3l 2 x 2 3l 3 x x 4 3l 2 x 2 3lx 3 3l 4
24 EI
w
x 4 4lx 3 6l 2 x 2
24 EI
replacing x by x
( 4 x 3 12lx 2 12l 2 x)
dx
24 EI
d 2 ( x )
w
w
x 4 4 x 3l 6l 2 x 2
24 EI
w = weight/unit length
w
( x 2 2lx l 2 )
2 EI
1 l 2 y
Potential energy EI
dx
2 0 x 2
Kinetic energy T
1 2 l
m( x) y 2 dx
o
2
1 l
w
EI .
( x l ) 4 dx
0
2
2 EI
1 l
w dx
m( x 4 4lx 3 6l 2 x 2 ) 2 2 2 2
2 o
24 E I
I2
1 w t5
E
2
2 5
1 mw 2
2 (24 EI ) 2
(x
0
I1
I2
t x t dt dx
x 0, t l
1
EIw 4
t dt
I1
2 l 2 EI
xl
to
1 w
wl 5
o l5
2 10
20
1 x 9 16 2 7 36 4 5 8 lx 8 8 4 8 l 3 x 6 12l 2 x 7
m
l x
l x
2 9
7
5
8
6
7
w2
(24 EI ) 2
1 l 9 16l 9 36l 9 8 l 9
12
w2
m
8l 9 l 9
2 9
7
5
8
7 (24 EI ) 2
1
12
1 16 36
ml9
1 8
2
7
9 17 5
w2
2
(24 EI )
0.96657 ml 9 w 2
2
(24 EI ) 2
I1
l 5 2 (24 EI ) 2
I 2 20 mw2 0.96657t 9
59.591963( EI ) 2
Ans
ml 5
Rayleigh method can be used to determine the fundamental frequency of a beam or shaft
represented by a series of lumped masses. Let y1, y2 L yn are the maximum static deflection
under the concentrated load m1 g , m2 g L mn g as shown in figure 2.Here, the mass of the beam
is neglected.
Fig2
Max Kinetic Energy.
g
(m1 y1 m1 y1 ......)
2
g
my
2
1
1
1
m1v12 m2v2 2 m3v32 ......
2
2
2
1
1
1
m1 ( y1 ) 2 m2 ( y2 ) 2 m3 ( y3 ) 2 ......
2
2
2
1
2 my 2
2
Now equating the maximum kinetic energy to the maximum potential energy
g
1
my 2 my 2
2
2
n 2
g my
my
Unlike Dunkerleys formula, which is valid for lateral vibration of shafts only, Rayleighs
method is valid for a system performing oscillatory motion in any manner i.e., bending,
torsional or longitudinal motions.
Example2: Find the fundamental frequency of the simply supported beam of length l carrying
three discs of mass m, 2m and m equidistantly placed from the left end.
Figure 3.
Solution
Consider the shaft carrying three discs as shown in the figure. The influence coefficients are,
a11
3l 3
l3
3l 3
, a22
, a33
256 EI
48 EI
256 EI
,
,
12 256 EI 2 2 48 EI 32 256 EI
1
3ml 3
2ml 3
3ml 3
n 2 256 EI 48 EI 256 EI
=
(3+10.66+3)ml3
256EI
n 2
Influence Coefficients:
aij
deflection at station i due to
unit load at station j
EI
Dunkerly
ml 3
16.199EI
=
Exact
ml 3
n 2 15.36
256 EI
EI
15.36 3
3
16.66 ml
ml
n 3.9191
EI
ml 3
Rayleigh method:
9l 3
11l 3
7l 3
, a12
, a13
a11
768 EI
768EI
768 EI
16l 3
11l 3
9l 3
, a23
, a33
a22
768 EI
768 EI
768EI
By Maxwells reciprocal theorem the remaining influence coefficients can easily be
determined.
The static deflections are therefore given by,
X 1 m1 ga11 m2 ga12 m3 ga13
X 2 m1 ga21 m2 ga22 m3 ga23
X 3 m1 ga31 m2 ga32 m3 ga33
m1 m3 m and m2 2m
X1
38ml 3 g
54ml 3 g
38ml 3 g
, X2
, X3
768EI
768 EI
768 EI
n
n 2
g mi X i
i 1
n
m X
i
i 1
16.2055EI
ml 3
EI
)
ml3
Example:
A steam turbine blade of length l, can be considered as a uniform cantilever beam, mass
m per unit length with a tip mass M. The flexural rigidity of the blades is EI. Determine
fundamental bending frequency.(Use Rayleigh Method)
Sol:
Assuming Y(x,t)=Y(x)cos t
Y(x)=A(1-cos
n 2
x
)
2l
x
) sin t
2l
1 2
K .E. T m y dx
2
0
1
x
m 2 (1 cos )2 A2 dx
2
2l
0
l
mA2 2
x
(1 cos ) 2 dx
2 0
2l
l
mA2 2 l
x
2 0
x
2sin
2l
2l
l
x
l
sin 2( )
x
2l
20
2( )
2
0
g g .256 EI 256 EI
3mgl 3
3mgl 3
mA2 2
2
mA2 2 3 4l
2
2 2 3
l mA l ( )
2 2
3
2l
l
2 l .2(1 0) (0 0)
1
1
1
2
M ( y (l )) M A M 2 A2
2
2
2
1
3 2
M 2 A2
2
4
2 2
The K.E. of the system = mA l
2
l
d 2 y
1
4 EI 2
P.E. V= EI
dx
2 0 dx 2
64 l 3
Strain Energy
Equating max P.E. with max K.E.,
3.0382 EI
( M 0.232ml )l 3
Lecture 2
Dunkerleys Method (Semi empirical) approximate solution
Let W1, W2,.Wn be the concentrated loads on the shaft due to masses m1, m2, . mn and 1,
2, 3 are the static deflections of the shaft under each load. Also let the shaft carry a
uniformly distributed mass of m per unit length over its whole span and static deflection at the
mid span due to the load of this mass be s. Also
Let
n2 (n ) 2
n n 4
EI
L4
EI
L4
for simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load, maximum deflection occur at
midpoint.
5WL3
384 EI
W = total weight
5 gL4 / 384 EI
So,
EI
5g
4
L 384
Hence, n2 n 2 2
5g
384
Similarly for a fixed-fixed beam with loading the maximum deflection can be given by
=
gl 4
EI
g
4
384 EI
l
384
2
In this case for the first mode n 22.4
So, n2 22.4
EI
L4
g
g
1.143
384
384
gl 4
EI
g
4
8 EI
l
8
2
In this case for the first mode n 3.52
So, n2 3.52
EI
L4
g
g
1.2445
8
In case of concentrated loading the natural frequencies can be determined from the relation
g
, where is the deflection under that load. One may note for the commonly used
n2
cases.
b
Wa 2b 2
3EIl
b
=
Wa 3b3
3EIl 3
Wa 3
3EI
Example2: Find the fundamental frequency of the simply supported beam of length l carrying
three discs of mass m, 2m and m equidistantly placed from the left end.
Figure 3.
Solution
Consider the shaft carrying three discs as shown in the figure. The influence coefficients are,
a11
3l 3
l3
3l 3
, a22
, a33
256 EI
48 EI
256 EI
Influence Coefficients:
aij
deflection at station i due to
unit load at station j
,
,
12 256 EI 2 2 48 EI 32 256 EI
1
3ml 3
2ml 3
3ml 3
n 2 256 EI 48 EI 256 EI
=
EI
Dunkerly
ml 3
16.199EI
=
Exact
ml 3
n 2 15.36
(3+10.66+3)ml3
256EI
n 2
256 EI
EI
15.36 3
3
16.66 ml
ml
n 3.9191
EI
ml 3
Example 3:
Beam m1
M
L
The natural frequency of a cantilever beam of negligible mass with a concentrated mass M
attached is
1
2
11
= 3EI3
mL
And
the natural frequency of a cantilever beam of mass m1 is
1
EI
12.7
2 =
m1 L3
22
Therefore, fundamental frequency of the system, is
2
1
EI
3EI
mL3
12
.
7
0
.
412
+
m1 L3
EI
mL3
Example: Find the modal frequencies of a tapered cantilever beam of maximum height h,
length l with unity width.
Solution
Tapered cantilever beam
maximum height h, width =unity., length l
hx
Area of cross section A( x )
l
3
1 hx
Moment of inertia at any section I ( x)
12 l
Assuming the deflection function w1 ( x), w2 ( x) as
x
w1 ( x ) 1
l
w2 ( x )
x
x
1
l
l
---------1(a)
2
------------------1(b)
By using one term approximation, same result comes out as in case o f Rayleighs method
We here using two term approximation,
2
2
x
x
x
w( x ) c1 1 c2 1
l
l
l
Reyleigh quotient is given by
2
d 2 w( x)
0 EI ( x) dx 2 dx
l
R 2
-----------1(d)
A( x) w( x)
dx
X
--------------1(e)
Y
c1
2
and
X
Y
X
c1
c1
0 -------------1(h)
2
Y
X
Y
X
c 2
c 2
( )
--------------1(i)
0
2
c 2
Y
Substituting the equations 1(f,g) into the equations 1(h,i), can be written as
Y
1 1 1 2
2 15 5 105 c
0
1
--------------1(j)
1 2 1 1 c 2
0
5 105 5 140
Where
32l 4
Eh 2
0
8820
1400
50
Therefore, the natural frequencies of the tapered beam are
1/ 2
Eh 2
1 1.537
4
l
Eh 2
and 2 4.994
4
l
1/ 2
Exercise Problem : Find the first three mode frequencies of the tapered beamby using
Rayleigh-Ritz method considering the following approximate function.
x
w1 ( x ) 1
l
w2 ( x )
---------1(a)
x
x
1
l
l
w3 ( x)
------------------1(b)
2
--
Lecture 3
4. Galerkins method
In Galerkins method the residue obtained by using the assumed mode in the governing
differential equation is minimized. Let the assumed shape function of the system be written as
n
( x) ci i ( x) (a)
i 1
where i ( x) is the approximate solution of the differential equation. For example considering
the lateral vibration of a beam the differential equation of motion can be written as
d 4 ( x) m2
L( x)
( x) 0 .(b)
dx 4
EI
Similarly for torsional vibration of rod, longitudinal vibration of rod and lateral vibration of
taut string one use the following equation.
2
d 2 ( x)
L( x)
( x ) 0 (c)
dx 2
c
Here ( x) is the eigenfunction of the system. When an approximate function i ( x) is taken,
then it will not satisfy the above equation.
For each function, making the residual ( Ri ) equal to zero one may obtain the frequencies.
l
Ri ci i ( x)dx 0
(d)
X=0
X=L
2
2
Taking a function 1 ( x ) x (l x) which satisfy both the boundary conditions,
L( x)
d 4 ( x) m2
d 4 ( x) 4
(
x
)
( x)
dx 4
EI
dx 4
L( x) 4 x 4l 4 6 x 6l 2 4 x5l 3 x8 4 x 7l 48 x 3l 24 x 4 24 x 2l 2
l
1 49 4 5
l l 0
630
5
4l 4 504
l 4.738
Hence 1 l
EI
EI
22.45
4
ml
ml 4
2x
4x
and 2 ( x) 1 cos
, writing
L
L
2x
4
x
c11 ( x) c22 ( x ) c1 1 cos
c2 1 cos
L
L
Ri L( x)i ( x )dx 0
0
2x
)dx
L
4x
By integration
r4
R1
1.54 c1 4c2
2
4 3 4
8
L4 2
c 0 A
4
3 4
128 4 2
2
L
c1
0
c2
EI
and 2 124.1
, c1 0.69, c2 1 .
4
ml
The two modes are
2x
4x
1 ( x ) 23(1 cos
) 1 cos
l
l
2 ( x) 0.69(1 cos
2x
4x
) 1 cos
l
l
A X X
where A M
(1)
1
mode shape. From this equation it may be noted that any normal mode when multiplied
with the dynamic matrix will reproduce itself. In matrix iteration method, assumed
displacement of the masses are used to get the calculated displacement. This is repeated till
equation (1) is satisfied.
Steps used in the matrix iteration method.
Assume a value of the modal vector. (for example 3:2:1 for 3 dof system)
Substitute the assumed value in left hand side of equation (1) and simplify to obtain
a ratio (for example the obtained value is 4:3:1).
If the value obtained in step II is same as the assumed value, then it is accepted as
the correct modal value. Otherwise, the obtained value is substituted as the trial
value and the second step is repeated till the correct modal value is obtained.
After getting the modal values, from equation (1) the corresponding eigenvalue can
be obtained.
In general matrix iteration method would converge to the fundamental mode. If the
assumed system of displacements does not include the fundamental mode then the matrix
iteration will converge to the next higher mode contained in the assumed system of
displacements. Orthogonality principle is used to sweep out the unwanted modes from
assumed displacements.
In case of semi-definite systems, rigid body mode (zero frequency) is also present. For such
cases constraint matrices can be constructed to sweep out rigid body component of the
absolute motion.
(b)
(c)
Using this condition a sweeping matrix S can be generated to sweep out the lowest mode from
the assume displacement and the resulting iteration will lead to the higher mode.
In case of 3 dof system, expression (c)leads to
m1 0
X 1MX x1 , x2 , x3 0 m2
0 0
0
0
m2
x1
x 2 0
x
3
m1 x1 x1 m2 x2 x2 m3 x3 x3 0 .
So one may write the above equation as
x1
m2 x2
m 3 x3
x2 x3
m1 x1
m 1 x1
x2 x2
x3 x3
or in matrix form
x 1
x 2 0
x
0
3
m2 x2
m1 x1
1
0
x3
x1
m 3
m 1
x1
x2
x
3
or, X SX
m2 x2
m1 x1
1
0
m 3 x3
m 1 x1
0
where S 0
S is known as the sweeping matrix, which will eliminate the presence of the fundamental
mode. Similarly one should substitute c1 c2 0 to eliminate the first two normal modes
from the assumed vibration to determine the 3rd mode frequency.
Example
Consider a long beam with three masses as shown in figure 1. Determine the mode shapes
and natural frequencies of the system using matrix iteration method.
Solution
To Determine natural frequency and mode shape of multi degree of freedom system, the
influence coefficients are obtained as
1
a11 a21 a31
4k
x3
m
1
a11 a21 a31 a12 a13
k
4k
1
1
3
x2
a22
2m
4k 2k 4k
2k
3
a22 a23 a32
4k
x1
3m
1
1 1 7
a33
4k
4k 2k k 4k
The flexibility influence coefficient matrix can be written as
1 1 1
1
a
1 3 3 .
4k
3 3 7
3 0 0
&
&
&
&
&
x2 a21 3mx&
1 a22 2mx2 a23 mx3
&
&
&
&
&
x3 a31 3mx&
1 a32 2mx2 a33 mx3
2
Now substituting xi w xi
x 1
m2
x 2
4k
x
3
3 2 1 x1
3 6 3 x
2
3 6 7 x3
Now taking
x 1
m2
x 2
4k
x
3
3 2 1 x1
3 6 3 x
2
3 6 7 x3
m2
2.4893
4k
3.7735
3 2 1
3 6 3
3 6 7
2
2.4893
4k
3.7735
11.7521
29.2565
44.3503
1
1
11.7521m 2
2.4895
2.4893
4k
3.7735
3.7738
Hence, it may be noted that the assumed mode shape matches with the obtained mode
shape upto 3rd decimal. So one can take the first normal mode X 1 as
X 1 2.4895
3.7738
and
11.7521m2
1
4k
k
m
To find the second mode, using the sweeping matrix
2
or, 1 1 0.3404
m2 x2
m1 x1
1
0
m 3 x3
m 1 x1
0
0 1.659 1.2579
0
1
0
0
0
1
S 0
m2
x 2
4k
x
3
3 2 1
3 6 3
3 6 7
x 1
m2
or, x 2 4k
x
3
0 1.659 1.2579
x1
0
1
0 x2
x
0
0
3
1
0 2.98 2.7740
x1
0 1.02 0.7740 x
2
0 1.02
3.226
x3
1.0
1.0
2.7756m 2
0.8361
0.8367
4k
1.8996
1.8988
As the left hand side vector and right hand side vector are matching upto 3rd decimal we can
take the 2nd normal mode as
1.0
x 1
x 2 0.8361
1.8988
3
2.7756m2
1
4k
2
Hence the 2nd eigenvalues is 2 2
4
k
k
1.4411
2.7756 m
m
k
m
For the determination of third mode, one may impose the condition c1 c2 0 .
c1 mi xi 1 xi 0
i 1
3
c2 mi xi 2 xi 0
i 1
c1 m1 x1 1 x1 m2 x2 1 x2 m3 x3 1 x3
c2 m1 x1 2 x1 m2 x2 2 x2 m3 x3 2 x3
or
c1 3 x1 4.979 x2 3.7738 x3
c2 3 x1 1.6722 x2 1.8998 x3
x1 1.5896 x3
x2 1.7157 x3
x 1 0 0 1.5896
x1
x 2 0 0 1.7157 x2
x
1 x3
3 0 0
Hence one may use the following sweeping matrix to eliminate the first two modes
0 0 1.5896
S 2 0 0 1.7157
0 0
1
So for third mode the matrix iteration equation will be
x 1
3
m2
3
x 2
4k
x
3
3
x 1
m2
or, x 2
4k
x
3
2
6
6
0 0 1.5896
x1
0 0 1.7157
x2
x
0 0
3
1
0 0 2.3374
x1
0 0 2.5254 x
2
0 0
1 x3
1
3
7
It can immediately be observed that the third mode converges to the last column of the
sweeping matrix.
1.5896
1.5896
m 2
1.7157
1.7157 1.4746
4k
1
1
1.5896
X 3 1.7157
1.5896
m2
1.4746
1.7157 1
4k
1
4 k
k
3 32
2.7133
1.4742 m
m
So, 3 1.6472
k
.
m
1.0
X 1 2.4895
X 2 0.8361
3.7738
1.8988
k
m
1.5896
1.7157
1
3 1.6472
X3