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Figure 18-1 Wye showing transition flow from a mainline (inflow) pipe to two branch (outflow) pipes.
(In fact, flow could be in either direction.) Unit length of cone is x(cos ).
Do
t
R
=
=
=
L
LT
=
=
=
=
=
P
r
=
=
. . . . . (18.1)
217
Figure 18-2 Development of the crotch cut and the crotch plate which, together with the stiffener rings, supports the hoop tension at the cuts (all cuts
are elliptical).
Figure 18-3 Free-body-diagrams of cone corss sections showing where the crotch is cut, the hoop forces PrA
at section A-A-A and PrB at section B-B.
Figure 18-4 Free-body-diagram of one limb of the crotch plate showing an approximate procedure for
analyzing the forces on the limb assuming it to be a cantilever beam (bottom sketch) loaded at the free end
of the statically indeterminate restraint Q of the stiffener rings.
Li
Hydrodynamic Guidelines
In pressure lines of high velocity water flow, such as
penstocks for hydroelectric power plants, it is
prudent to avoid sudden changes in velocity or
sudden changes in direction of flow because of
turbulence and loss of energy. Guidelines used by
fluid dynamicists for minimizing energy loss are as
follows. See Figures 18-5 to 7.
1. Keep the cross-sectional areas of the mainline
pipe nearly equal to the areas of the branch pipes.
For a wye (bifurcation), Do2 = Di2/2.
Figure 18-5 Wye with inside offset angles limited to 7.5o. Note that branches do not clear each other at the
lower end.
Figure 18-6 Same wye, but mitered; i.e., cut near midlength of the cone, rotated 180o, and welded. Note that
the branches now clear each other.
Figure 18-8 Second trial configuration of mitered wye showing the crotch plate and stiffener rings; and a full
circle stiffener ring at A.
Figure 18-9 Mitered wye showing cross-hatched areas which, when multiplied by pressure P, are the loads
at the mitered cuts where stiffener rings and crotch plate are required.
109.5-inc h length of the limb as a single free-bodydiagram with a straight line distribution of the wforce on the cantilever. The radius of the cones at
the vertex of the crotch cut is about 33.5 inches.
Consequently w = 2Pr(cos 15o) = 14.6 kips per inch.
With this information, forces on the crotch plate can
be found.
The above simplifications are justified by noting that
Equation 18.1, for finding w, applies not only to the
crotch plate, but to the stiffener rings as well. In
fact, each stiffener ring is simply two crotch plates
with the ends of the limbs welded together. All
mitered cuts result in a w-force in the plane of
intersection of the two contiguous sections. Any
part of the mitered section that is not part of a full
ring (tension hoop), when pressure P is applied, must
be supported by a crotch plate or stiffener ring. This
is shown in Figure 18-9. Areas shown crosshatched, when multiplied by pressure P, represent
the w-force distribution diagrams on each of the cuts
where crotch plate or stiffener rings are located.
The areas are shown in the plane of the page, but
represent the vertical w-force. The proof is evident
in the column of values at the right margin, all of
which, when multiplied by constant pressure P, are
simply Equation 18.1 for w. Clearly, rings at A and
B must resist w-forces from the mitered joints as
well as interaction from the crotch plate. However,
the areas at the A-cut and B-cut are small
compared with the areas at the crotch cut and are
usually ignored. Moreover, almost any reasonable
stiffener ring at the A-cut can resist the w-force
acting on it. The w-force at B is insignificant. The
B ring only needs to help support the crotch plate.
Moreover, the reduced radius rB at the B-cut, where
the wall thickness is still 0.375 inch, results in a
much stronger cone at the B-cut than at the A-cut.
. . . . . (18.3)
where
Q
= diametral load on the ring
Figure 18-10 Forces on a cantilever beam which is used as an approximation of the upper limb of the crotch
plate and showing (below) the general shape of the stiffener rings at A and B.
Figure 18-11 Upper limb of crotch plate showing how the spring constant for the load Q can be analyzed
approximately by means of an equivalent ring with a load of 2Q.
. . . . . (18.4)
Figure 18-13 Graphical construction of the crotch cut based on the fact that it is an ellipse (constructed here
by one of various methods).
Figure 18-14 Dimensions of the proposed crotch plate and loads on the upper limb shown (above) for the
entire limb, and (below) for the section BA between stiffener rings.
where
M
=
Q
r
=
=
Crotch Plate
I/c
Ao
Qo
r
M
= 571 in 3
= 75 in 2
= 506 kips
= 57.8 mean
= 20,333 kip inches
= 2Q o /2Ao + M/(I/c)
= 6.75 + 35.61 = 42.36 ksi
Ring B
229 in 3
38 in 2
235 kips
59 mean
70 inches
5231 kip inches
I/c
AB
QB
r
rmax
M
=
=
=
=
=
=
= Q B /2AB + M/(I/c)
= 3.09 + 22.84 = 25.94 ksi
where
I/c
=
A
=
QA =
r
=
M
=
104.24 in 3
24 in 2
59 kips
56 mean
0.318QA /(I/c) = 1056 kip inches.
Figure 18-16 Layout of a cluster trifurcation from a 126-inch diameter intake to three 72-inch diameter outlets showing the top crotch plate on the left
and the bottom transition cone on the right.
Figure 18-17 Cross section of a hexagonal reinforced concrete encasement for the trifurcation of 126-D to
three 72-D pipes.
Figure 18-18 Branch in a steel penstock, showing a pair of crotch plates in pipes of equal diameter (left) and
a stiffener ring that is a curved plate (right). For high pressure, it is possible to add a flat plate as shown
dotted. It may be advisable to contruct a small scale model to check dimensions, to note any fabrication
or assembly problems, and to test the special section to rupture.
BRANCH SECTIONS
Branch sections also require reinforcing by crotch
plates or stiffener rings. Figure 18-18 is a sketch of
two common branches which are explained in
"Buried Steel Penstocks; Steel Plate Engineering
Data Volume 4," published by the American Iron
and Steel Institute.
Design procedures are
explained, and graphs are presented for detailing.
PROBLEMS
OTHER SPECIAL SECTIONS
Wyes and branches are not the only special sections.
However, most special sections are variations of the
wye. For example, a tee (T) is a junction of three
pipes just as a bifurcation (wye) is a junction of three
pipes. The junction can be reinforced with ring
stiffeners and crotch plates in the same way as the
wye.
The development of special sections has been mostly
empirical. Because specials are costly, the attitude
of manufacturers has been, "Make it stout. Our
product must not fail." For example, instead of
stiffening mitered sections with rings, the thickness
of the steel is increased. Competition is forcing
reconsideration of this policy.
For costly specials, or specials for which failure is
costly, physical tests are performed. Small scale
model tests are often adequate. The conditions for
similitude discussed in Appendix C are not sufficient
for hydrodynamic model studies.
However,
hydrodynamic similitude is described in most texts on
hydrodynamics. Hydrodynamicists have led the
world in physical model studies.
SAFETY FACTORS
Safety factors are based on monetary equivalents.
Analysis of the cost of risk is outside the scope of