Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit 2 - Syllabus
Analyses the rational behavior of household and firms in the market
Demand function
o Individual demand function
o Market demand function
3 Analyses the relationship between the prices and the quantity demanded
The law of demand
Methods of presenting the law of demand
o Demand schedule
o Demand curve
o Demand equation
Reasons for the slope of demand
o Income effect
o Substitution effect
o Diminishing marginal utility
Exceptions to the law of demand
o Geffen goods
o Demonstrative goods
o Speculation
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YED
Definition
Formula and calculation
Classification of goods according to the elasticity coefficient
Substitute goods
Complementary goods
Practical importance of cross price elasticity of demand
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YED
Definition
Formula and calculation
Calculation of goods according to the elasticity coefficient]
o Normal goods
o Inferior goods
o Practical importance of YED
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16 investigates the distribution tax incidence according demand and supply elasticity
Consumer surplus
Producer surplus
Government revenue
Social welfare
Tax incidence of taxation on
Consumers
Producers
Tax incidence according to demand and supply elasticity
17 investigates the effects of subsidies on market operations
Producer subsidies
Unit subsidy
Ad valorem subsidy
Methods of presenting impact of subsidies
Demand and supply schedule
Graphical method
Equations
Impact of producers subsidies on
Equilibrium
Total outlay
Total revenue
Consumers surplus
18 investigates the effect of price controls on market operations
Producer surplus
Government expenditure
Social welfare
Distribution benefits of subsidies on
Consumers
Producers
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Demand function
At any point of time, the quantity of a given product
(good/service) that will be purchased by the consumers
depends on a number of key variables/determinants.
The most important variables are listed below:
The own price of the product (P)
The price of the substitute and complementary
goods(Ps or Pc)
The level of disposable income(Yd) with the
buyers(ie; income left after direct taxes)
Change in the buyers taste and preferences(T)
The advertisement effect measured through the level of advertising expenditure(A)
Changes in the population number or number of buyers(N)
o Individual demand function
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Speculation : when people speculate about prices on the commodity in the future they
may not act according to the laws of demand. Speculating the prices of the commodity
will further increase they will demand more of the commodity for hoarding etc. In the
stock market, people tend to buy more shares when prices are rising in the hope of bull
runs in anticipation of future profits.
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Article of snob appeal : Certain commodities are demanded because they happen to be
expensive or prestige goods or snob value having a status symbol. So increase in price will
lead to increase in demand for such goods. E.g. Diamonds, exclusive cars etc.
Types of demand
The demand behavior of the consumer differs with different types of demand in the study of
managerial economics it is important to distinguish these types of demand
Demand for consumers goods and producers goods
Goods /services that are demanded by the consumer for direct satisfaction of their
wants ie; for consumption purpose- food, clothes, services of doctors ,maids, teachers
Goods that demanded by producers in the process of production are called
production goods eg; tools and equipment, machinery, raw material, factory
building, offices
Demand for consumer goods is direct /autonomous ,whereas demand for producer
goods is derived ie; based on demand for output
Dean (1976) explained this distinctive demand behavior for producer goods in the
economy.
o Buyers of producers goods are professionals /experts, so they are less likely to
be influenced by sales promotion.
o Producer buyers are more sensitive to factor price differences and substitutes.
The motive of the producers are purely economic and capital goods are bought
on account of profit prospective. The demand of producers goods is derived
from consumption demand, so there are frequent fluctuations in demand
levels.
Demand for perishable and durable goods:
Perishable goods have no durability, they cannot be stored for a long period of time
eg. Fish, egg, vegetables etc.
Durable good have a long shelf life and can be stored example furniture, car etc.
Perishable goods give a one shot service whereas durable goods can be used for
several years
Demand for perishable goods depends on convenience, style & income of the
consumer. This demand is always immediate.
Demand for durable goods depends on product design, current trends, income levels,
price etc. this demand is postponable.
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A shift in the demand curve or a change in demand occurs when quantity demanded changes
only because there are changes in conditions of demand, while the price of the commodity
remains constant. The demand curve can shift either to the right or to the left, depending upon
the changes in the conditions of demand. The shift in the demand curve is shown as follows:
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Demand for a commodity is also influenced by changes in the price of its substitutes. If
the price of substitutes increases, demand for a commodity will also increase.
For example, if the price of tea increases, demand for coffee will also increase. This
is because people will buy less tea, and therefore, they will shift to coffee. Thus,
there exists a direct relationship between demand for a commodity and the price
of its substitutes.
5. Changes in population:
When the size of the total population changes, demand for goods and services would
generally change. An increase in total population would generally lead to an increase in
demand. However, the pattern of demand depends on the composition of the population
in terms of age and sex. An increase in old age people would mean a greater demand for
walking sticks, spectacles. An increase in young people would mean greater demand for
CD players. On the other hand, more females in the population indicate that demand for
goods and services consumed by women will rise.
6. Expectation of future changes in price:
Expectations by consumers of future changes in prices would affect demand. For example,
if consumers expect future increases in the price of a commodity, then they will buy more
of it now in order to avoid paying a higher price for it later.
7. Changes in distribution of income:
Demand is also affected by changes in the distribution of income within a society.
Incomes could be redistributed to achieve greater equality of income by taxing the rich
and subsidizing the poor. This would leave the poor with more money, thus, increasing
their demand for goods and services.
8. Government policy income tax:
If government imposes high income tax rate or lowers transfer payments, this would
lead to a fall in disposable incomes, thus reducing demand for the commodities.
9. Saving and Rate of interest:
An individuals desire to save would influence his demand for commodities. An increase
in savings would lead to a fall in demand since the individual forgoes present
consumption in order to save. But what encourages people to save is the rate of interest.
Hence, an increase in rate of interest will cause demand to fall.
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Elasticity
Elasticity A general concept used to quantify the response in one variable when another
variable changes.
Type of Elasticity
Price elasticity
o Price elasticity of demand
o Price elasticity of Supply
o
Income Elasticity
Cross elasticity
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Types of Elasticity
Demand for most goods is elastic, inelastic or unitary depending on whether its coefficient is
greater than, less than or equal to one. Demand is said to be elastic when a percentage change
in price brings about a more than proportionate change in quantity demanded.
Inelastic demand
Demand is said to be inelastic when a percentage change in price brings about a less than
proportionate change in quantity demanded.
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Unitary elastic
Demand is said to be unitary when a percentage change in price brings about an equal
proportionate change in quantity demanded. The coefficient of elasticity is equal to 1 (PED = 1).
Elastic demand
Inelastic demand occurs when the percentage change in quantity demanded is less than the
percentage change in price, and the coefficient of the elasticity is less than 1 (PED < 1).
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Relationship between price and total revenue depending upon price elasticity of demand
Total Revenue (TR) / Total Expenditure (TE) = Price (P) * Quantity (Q)
Whether total expenditure or total revenue rises, falls or remains constant with a change in
price depends on the price elasticity of demand of the commodity.
1. Price Elastic:
When demand is elastic, an increase in price causes TR to fall and a decrease in price
causes TR to rise. Thus, there exists an inverse relationship between price and total
revenue or total expenditure when demand is elastic.
2. Price Inelastic:
When demand is inelastic, an increase in price causes TR to rise and a decrease in price
causes TR to fall. Thus, there exists an direct relationship between price and total
revenue or total expenditure when demand is inelastic.
3. Demand is unitary:
When demand is unitary, TR / TE remains the same with a change in price. A rise or fall in
price causes TR / TE to remain unchanged.
Factors influencing price elasticity of demand:
There are various factors which influence the price elasticity of demand.
1. Nature of commodity:
(a)Necessities: The demand for necessities is inelastic because when their prices rise, the
consumers demand will fall very slightly.
(b)Luxuries: Demand for luxuries is elastic. If their prices fall, demand will increase by a
much greater percentage, but if their prices rise, consumers will reduce their demand
considerably.
2. Availability of substitutes:
The more close and numerous availability of substitutes a commodity has, the more will
be its price elasticity of demand, that is, demand is price elastic. This is because if the
price of a commodity rises, consumers would then shift to other substitutes. Thus, the
demand for the commodity will fall by a greater proportion. But fewer substitutes a
commodity has, the lower is the price elasticity of demand (inelastic). However, demand
for a group of commodity as a whole has an inelastic demand.
3. Proportion of income spent on a commodity:
Commodities on which a very low proportion of income is spent, the demand for the
product is inelastic. For example, an increase in the price of match box from 50 cents to
60 cents (20%) will not reduce quantity demanded to a larger extent. On the other hand,
commodities on which a large proportion of income is spent, the demand is elastic.
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The concept of cross elasticity of demand allows the producer to identify whether his
product is a complement or a substitute which is produced by other firms. Hence, he is
able to assess the impact of sales and make better business decisions regarding price and
output polices when prices for substitutes or complements change.
o If the cross elasticity of demand is positive, it means that a cut in price by a rival
business will significantly reduce the firms sales.
o On the other hand, if the value of cross elasticity of demand is negative, the
producer must be cautious when supplying the commodities. If the price of its
complements rises, it is not advisable for the producer to increase production.
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THEORY OF SUPPLY
Quantity supplied: The amount of a particular product that a firm would be willing and able to
offer for sale at a particular price during a given time period.
Supply schedule: A table showing how much of a product firms will sell at alternative prices.
A supply curve is a graphical depiction of a supply schedule. It shows how the quantity supplied
of some product will change as the price of that product changes during a specified period of
time, holding all other determinants of quantity supplied constant.
law of supply: The positive relationship between price and quantity of a good supplied An
increase in market price will lead to an increase in quantity supplied, and a decrease in market
price will lead to a decrease in quantity supplied.
Explaining the Law of Supply : There are three main reasons why supply curves for most
products are drawn as sloping upwards from left to right giving a positive relationship between
the market price and quantity supplied:
1. The profit motive: When the market price rises (for example after an increase in
consumer demand), it becomes more profitable for businesses to increase their output.
Higher prices send signals to firms that they can increase their profits by satisfying
demand in the market.
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2. Production and costs: When output expands, a firms production costs rise, therefore a
higher price is needed to justify the extra output and cover these extra costs of
production.
3. New entrants coming into the market: Higher prices may create an incentive for other
businesses to enter the market leading to an increase in supply.
Supply Function
Supply Equation
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A shift in the supply curve or a change in supply occurs when quantity supplied changes only
because there are changes in conditions of supply such as weather conditions, prices of factor
inputs, etc, while the price of the commodity remains constant. The supply curve can shift either
to the right or to the left, depending upon the changes in the conditions of demand. The shift in
the demand curve is shown as follows:
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Elasticity of Supply
The law of supply, which expresses a direct relationship between quantity supplied and price,
shows only the direction of supply.
Measuring Elasticity of Supply
Price elasticity of supply measures the degree of responsiveness of quantity supplied to a
change in the price of the commodity. Price elasticity of supply is calculated as follows:
Price elasticity of supply =
OR
supplied
Price elasticity of supplied is always positive, indicating the direct relationship between
quantity supplied and price.
Supply for most goods is either elastic, inelastic or unitary depending on whether its
coefficient is greater than, less than or equal to one.
Types of Elasticity
Perfectly inelastic supply
Perfectly inelastic supply curve value of price elasticity of supply is zero.
Inelastic supply
Any straight line supply curve that meets the vertical axis (Price axis) will be elastic and its value
is greater than 1.
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Elastic supply
2. A straight line supply curve that meets the horizontal axis (Quantity axis) will be inelastic and
its value is less than 1.
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Market equilibrium
A situation in which the supply of an item is exactly equal to its demand. Since there is neither
surplus nor shortage in the market, price tends to remain stable in this situation.
Market clearing
Equilibrium price is also called market clearing price because at this price the exact quantity that
producers take to market will be bought by consumers, and there will be nothing left over. This
is efficient because there is neither an excess of supply and wasted output, nor a shortage the
market clears efficiently. This is a central feature of the price mechanism, and one of its
significant benefits
How is equilibrium established?
Graphically, we say that demand contracts inwards along the curve and supply extends
outwards along the curve. Both of these changes are called movements along the demand or
supply curve in response to a price change.
Excess demand
Excess supply
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The amount consumers actually spend is determined by the market price they pay, P, and
the quantity they buy, Q - namely, P x Q, or area PBQC. This means that there is a net
gain to the consumer, because area ABQC is greater that area PBQC. This net gain is
called consumer surplus, which is the total benefit, area ABQC, less the amount spent,
area PBQC. Hence ABQC - PBQC = area ABP
Producer surplus
Producer surplus is the additional private benefit to producers, in terms of profit, gained when
the price they receive in the market is more than the minimum they would be prepared to
supply for. In other words they received a reward that more than covers their costs of
production.
The producer surplus derived by all firms in the market is the area from the supply curve to the
price line, EPB.
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Economic welfare
Economic welfare is the total benefit available to society from an economic transaction or
situation.
Economic welfare is also called community surplus. Welfare is represented by the area ABE in
the diagram below, which is made up of the area for consumer surplus, ABP plus the area for
producer surplus, PBE.
In market analysis economic welfare at equilibrium can be calculated by adding consumer and
producer surplus. Welfare analysis considers whether economic decisions by individuals,
organisations, and the government increase or decrease economic welfare.
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Changes in equilibrium
Graphically, changes in the underlying factors that affect demand and supply will cause shifts in
the position of the demand or supply curve at every price.
Whenever this happens, the original equilibrium price will no longer equate demand with
supply, and price will adjust to bring about a return to equilibrium.
There are four basic causes of a price change:
An increase in demand shifts the demand curve to the right, and raises price and output.
Demand shifts to the right
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Equations
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A subsidy is a payment by the government to suppliers that reduce their costs of production and
encourages them to increase output
The subsidy causes the firm's supply curve to shift to the right
The amount spent on the subsidy is equal to the subsidy per unit multiplied by total
output
A direct subsidy to the consumer has the effect of boosting demand in a market
Different Types of Producer Subsidy
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The economic and social case for a subsidy should be judged carefully on the grounds of
efficiency and fairness
Might the money used up in subsidy payments be better spent elsewhere?
Government subsidies inevitably carry an opportunity cost and in the long run there
might be better ways of providing financial support to producers and workers in specific
industries.
Free market economists argue that subsidies distort the working of the free market mechanism
and can lead to government failure where intervention leads to a worse distribution of
resources.
Distortion of the Market: Subsidies distort market prices for example, export subsidies
distort the trade in goods and services and can curtail the ability of ELDCs to compete in
the markets of rich nations.
Arbitrary Assistance: Decisions about who receives a subsidy can be arbitrary
Financial Cost: Subsidies can become expensive note the opportunity cost!
Who pays and who benefits? The final cost of a subsidy usually falls on consumers (or
tax-payers) who themselves may have derived no benefit from the subsidy.
Encouraging inefficiency: Subsidy can artificially protect inefficient firms who need to
restructure i.e. it delays much needed reforms.
Risk of Fraud: Ever-present risk of fraud when allocating subsidy payments.
There are alternatives: It may be possible to achieve the objectives of subsidies by
alternative means which have less distorting effects.
Impact of Subsidy
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MARKET STABILIZATION
Price stabilization schemes
Many primary markets are subject to extreme fluctuations in price. There are several methods
of intervention available to governments and agencies
Buffer stocks
Buffer stocks are stocks of produce which have not yet been taken to market. They can help
stabilise prices by taking surplus output and putting it into a store, or, with a bad harvest, stock
is released from storage.
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The buffer stock managers are likely to establish a price ceiling, above which intervention selling
will occur, and a price floor, below which intervention buying will take place.
Guaranteed prices
Guaranteeing a price to producers (at P1 in the diagram below), irrespective of the output they
produce, is another way of stabilising prices and incomes.
A government or agency can establish a target price, and then guarantee to pay farmers and
growers this price, whatever output is produced. If the market price rises above this guarantee,
the market price will prevail. But if the market price falls below the guarantee, then the
guaranteed price will prevail.
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Black Markets
A black market (or shadow market) is an illegal market in which the market price is higher than
a legally imposed price ceiling. Black markets develop where there is excess demand for a
commodity. Some consumers are prepared to pay higher prices in black markets in order to get
the goods or services they want.
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Price Mechanism
Price Mechanism is a system where, the private sector allocates scarce resources or solves basic
economic problems of an economy based on the market prices of goods and services which is
decided through the intention of free market forces of demand and supply.
Function of Prices in the Market
The price mechanism describes the means by which millions of decisions taken by consumers
and businesses interact to determine the allocation of scarce resources between competing
uses
The price mechanism plays three important functions in a market:
1. Signaling function
Prices perform a signalling function they adjust to demonstrate where resources are
required, and where they are not
Prices rise and fall to reflect scarcities and surpluses
If prices are rising because of high demand from consumers, this is a signal to suppliers to
expand production to meet the higher demand
If there is excess supply in the market the price mechanism will help to eliminate a
surplus of a good by allowing the market price to fall.
In the example on the right, an increase in market supply causes a fall in the relative prices of
digital cameras and prompts an expansion along the market demand curve
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2. Incentive function
Through their choices consumers send information to producers about the changing
nature of needs and wants
Higher prices act as an incentive to raise output because the supplier stands to make a
better profit.
When demand is weaker in a recession then supply contracts as producers cut back on
output.
3. Rationing function
Prices serve to ration scarce resources when demand in a market outstrips supply.
When there is a shortage, the price is bid up leaving only those with the willingness
and ability to pay to purchase the product. Be it the demand for tickets among England
supporters for an Ashes cricket series or the demand for a rare antique, the market price
acts a rationing device to equate demand with supply.
The popularity of auctions as a means of allocating resources is worth considering as a
means of allocating resources and clearing a market.
Maximizing Behavior
To say that individuals maximize is to say that they pick some objective and then seek to
maximize its value.
Economists pay special attention to two groups of maximizers: consumers and firms. We
assume that consumers seek to maximize utility and that firms seek to maximize
economic profit. The difference between total revenue and total cost, which is the
difference between total revenue and total cost.
Economists are interested in knowing how to judge whether market are the best way of
allocating resources. There are two main ways in which they do this,
o Whether markets are efficient in resources allocation
o Whether equity is there in the economy
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Practice Questions
1) Calculate the producer surplus for the supply curves of S1 and S2 in following diagram.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Identify the equilibrium price and quantity before and after government taxation.
What is the total amount of tax borne by the consumer?
What is the total tax income after the implementation of taxation?
Calculate the producer surplus before and after the implementation taxation?
Calculate the consumer surplus before and after the implementation taxation?
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Qd= 20-2P
Qs=2P
Draw the demand and supply curve according to the given data.
Assume government decides to provide 20% subsidy to the producers of this
product, draw the new supply curve.
Calculate the producer surplus and consumer surplus before and after the
provision of subsidy.
Identify the cost of government subsidy? Calculate the consumers subsidy benefit
and producers subsidy benefit?
Demand
500
100
Supply
100
500
Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
Assume there is 50% VAT on this product. Show that in your graph.
What is the new equilibrium price and quantity?
Calculate the government tax income?
Calculate the tax burden of both the producer and the consumer?
Calculate the producer surplus and consumer surplus before and after tax.
Calculate the economic loss?
Demand
500
400
300
200
100
Supply
-100
0
100
200
300
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. At the equilibrium point, calculate the price elasticity of demand and price
elasticity of supply?
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2
100
0
4
80
20
6
60
40
8
40
60
10
20
80
12
0
100
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the equilibrium point.
c. Assume that the government introduces a minimum control price of Rs.8; identify
the
d. Total supply, local demand, excess supply and the price requested by the
consumers.
e. In order to protect the control price what actions can be taken by the government?
f. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the minimum control
price.
7) Data of a product are given below,
Price
1
5
Demand
250
50
Supply
50
250
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the equilibrium point.
c. Assume government plans to provide 50% subsidy per unit, draw the new supply
curve.
d. Calculate the changes in consumer surplus and producer surplus after the
provision on subsidy.
e. Calculate the benefit from subsidy for the consumer and producer.
f. Identify the total government expenditure for subsidy.
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Demand
200
40
Supply
40
200
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. Assume the government introduces a unit tax of Rs.4 per unit; show that in your
graph.
c. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus before and after tax.
d. Calculate the economic loss.
Demand
200
150
100
50
0
-50
Supply
-50
0
50
100
150
200
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. Calculate the consumer surplus and producer surplus at the equilibrium point.
c. Assume the government introduces a unit subsidy of Rs.2 per unit; show that in
your graph.
d. Identify the total government expenditure for subsidy.
e. Calculate the benefit from subsidy for the consumer and producer.
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10) Consider the following data regarding a product in a perfect competitive market,
Price
20
120
Demand
6000
1000
Supply
0
7000
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. Identify the following using your graph.
Excess demand at Rs.50
Excess supply at Rs.100
Excess demand price at 2000 units
Excess supply price at 5000 units
Price elasticity of demand at equilibrium
Price elasticity of supply at equilibrium
c. Identify the demand and supply equation.
d. Identify the excess demand and excess supply equation.
11) Consider the following data regarding a product in a perfect competitive market,
Price
5
10
Excess demand
200
-200
12) Assume that a price elasticity of demand of a product is -0.4 and price elasticity of supply
is 1.5. this price 1000 units are demanded and 400 units are supplied.
a. Calculate the quantity demanded and the quantity supplied at Rs.24.
b. Draw the demand and supply curves and identify the equilibrium point.
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13) Following graph shows the change in a market after government imposing indirect tax.
Demand
5000
2000
Supply
1000
4000
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. Assume that this product can be imported from a neighboring country at Rs. 32, draw the
supply curve.
c. If the government introduces 25% tax on import, show that in your graph.
d. Calculate the tax income for the government?
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Demand
160
80
Supply
0
120
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. Assume that the government introduces a minimum control price of Rs.4; show that in
your graph.
c. How much should the government purchase in order to maintain the control price?
Calculate the purchasing expense?
d. Calculate government expense for the provision of subsidy?
Demand
40
10
Supply
0
30
a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. If government introduces a maximum control price of Rs.8, what would be the total
demand, local supply, excess demand, black market price and excess income for the
producers?
c. Identify the quantity to be imported?
d. Calculate government expense for the provision of subsidy?
17) Consider the following data regarding a product in a perfect competitive market,
Price
Excess supply
10
-30
30
30
Draw the excess supply curve and identify the equilibrium price.
18) Data of a product are given below,
Price
8
40
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Supply
0
80
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a. Draw the demand and supply curve and identify the equilibrium price and quantity.
b. Calculate the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply at equilibrium.
c. Calculate the Consumer surplus and producer surplus at equilibrium.
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