pile cap reinforcement formwork

what is a pile cap?

A pile cap is a thick concrete mat that rests on piles and is usually part of the foundation
of a building especially a multi-storey building. It helps to distribute the load from the
pillars or piers to the piles.

Typical dimensions: 5m wide x 800mm thick

Concrete used: Grade 40/20
Nominal concrete cover to re-bars: 75mm blinding layer for underside
Minimum cover to re-bars for precast concrete covers on topside: 30mm
Thickness of all precast concrete covers: 125mm
The pile caps were casted by employing a pump truck with hydraulic boom placer to
pump fresh concrete from truckmixer down to cap formwork at Pok Fu Lam Road
level.
Nominal concrete cover to re-bars: 50mm, with a 75mm blinding layer below
the underside as well
Concreting operation for the pile caps was launched simultaneously using two
different methods: one by crane-and-skip bucket and the other by hydraulic
excavator, in order to achieve faster placing rates.
Formwork is the term used for the temporary timber, plywood, metal or other
material used to contain, support and form wet concrete until it has gained
sufficient strength to be self-supporting. Falsework is the term used to describe the
temporary system or systems of support for formwork.

reference:
http://www.ask.com/question/what-is-a-pile-cap
http://civcal.media.hku.hk/queenmary/structures/trough/pile_cap/default.htm
http://civcal.media.hku.hk/queenmary/structures/bridge/cap/default.htm

manufactured steel trusses

lift slabs

Lift slab construction is a method of constructing concrete buildings by casting the floor or roof slab on
top of the previous slab and then raising (jacking) the slab up with hydraulic jacks, so being cheaper and
faster as not requiring boxing and supports for casting in situ.
Johnstone Hall, a dormitory at Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina was erected using this
method in 1954. Several of the blocks have now been demolished, and campus legend says that that two
other similar structures built elsewhere collapsed before completion. [citation needed]
The method was involved in the L'Ambiance Plaza collapse in Bridgeport, Connecticut during construction
in 1987, and resulted in a major nationwide federal investigation into this construction technique in the
United States, and a temporary moratorium of its use in Connecticut. [1]
A patent was issued to Tom Slick for this construction method, called the "Youtz-Slick" method, in 1955.

what is lift slab construction?

Ba s i c a l l y, the method entails casting floor and ro o f slabs on or at ground level and jacking
them up into position. The traditional lift slab construction sequence is
i l l u s t rated in Fi g u re 1. Flat plate floors are commonly used because they are so well suited
to stack-casting, req u i ring form w o rk at only the edges of the slab and at floor openings.
Special lifting collars or shearheads are provided inthe slabs at the columns. Bond breaking
compounds areapplied between slabs to separate them. After the slabsh a ve cured long enough
to reach a pre s c ribed stre n g t h ,p owe rful hyd raulic jacks mounted on top of the columnslift
the slabs into their re s p e c t i ve positions. A consoleconnected to each hyd raulic jack synchro
n i zes the number of turns of the check nuts to assure that the concre t eslab is being raised the
same amount at all points.Lift slab can be used for heights up to about 16 stori e s. Economical
column spacing ranges from 22 to 32feet. Columns may be pipe, tubes or wide flange sections;
concrete columns may be used in 3- to 4-storybuildings not re q u i ring splices.The big
advantage of erecting concrete buildings using lift slab construction is elimination of most
formw o rk, an especially important factor in areas where labor
costs are high. Co n c rete floor construction at groundlevel is convenient and requires no shore
s, scaffolds orc ra n e s. Slabs can be cast and protected easily duri n gcold weather without
expensive heating and enclosure sre q u i red for ord i n a ry construction. Another advantage
isreduced handling and hoisting of materials and suppliesthat can simply be placed on top of the
slabs and lifted
with them.Because lift slab uses concre t e, the technique offersgood fire resistance and good
acoustic ra t i n g s. Mass designed into walls, floors and roofs helps to reduce theNew
developments inlift slab construction

Figure 1. The lift slab technique reduces costs for multistory buildings by eliminating most formwork. A
typical lifting
sequence is illustrated above.

Figure 2. Recent changes in lift slab construction include supporting the hydraulic jack off the column by a
welded plate. The old approach used jacks mounted on top of the columns. Columns can now be up to 6
stories tall without field splices.

Figure 3. A lift slab system used extensively in Latin America involves casting concrete bearing walls flat
in the stack along with the floor slabs. The wall panels are hinged to the floor with plastic rope, allowing
them to unfold automatically as the stack is raised into position.

reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_slab_construction
http://www.concreteconstruction.net/images/New%20Developments%20in%20Lift
%20Slab%20Construction_tcm45-343687.pdf
http://books.google.com.ph/books?
id=bC7KMKKyPbEC&pg=PT8&lpg=PT8&dq=lift+slabs&source=bl&ots=an3slS0iwW
&sig=XLSV03v5xqNPkTAlsVh02Em2pXs&hl=en&sa=X&ei=C2rhUdyDCsWxrAeJm4Ho
Dw&ved=0CFQQ6AEwCA (jep daytoi kut han ku maala nga mayat daytoi
kompleto . . .google books gamin isu nga haan maala. . .)

steel space deck roof

What is Steel Deck ?
There are a wide variety of steel deck products on the market today, basically divided into two
categories: roof deck and composite floor deck. Steel deck is a structural panel element that acts
as the surface of a floor or roof. The deck is roll formed from structural quality sheet steel and is
engineered to span over joist or purlins. Variations in the thickness, shape and depth of the deck
can be utilized to meet a variety of loading conditions and spans. The deck can also be fastened
to the supporting structure to enable it act as a diaphragm and provide lateral bracing for the
structure.

Advantages of Steel Deck

Versatility: Steel deck products are available from CSSBI Fabricator member companies in a
range of depths (38 to 76 mm, (1-1/2 to 3 in.)) and different rib spacing. Roof deck can also
be supplied as acoustical deck with perforations in the web elements to attenuate sound.
Steel deck products are available in a variety of thickness to meet most structural
requirements. This extensive choice of options makes steel deck applicable to a wide range
of projects and structural designs.
High Strength to Weight Ratio: The strength of steel is used with maximum efficiency in the
design and fabrication of steel deck, resulting in products with a high strength-to-weight
ratio. Consequently, delivery, erection and structural framing costs can be lower than other
systems.
Aesthetics: Although steel deck is primarily a structural component, it is visually attractive
when left exposed to the interior of the building. With the properly specified prefinished
coating, steel deck is easy to maintain, durable and aesthetically pleasing.
All-Weather Construction: Steel deck can be erected in
most weather conditions, eliminating the costly delays
that can occur with other types of roof systems.
Required Fire Resistance Ratings: ULC and UL fire resistance ratings are available for many
standard roof and floor assemblies incorporating steel deck.
Uniform Quality: Through engineering and continuously refined production techniques,
CSSBI fabricators produce deck that conforms to explicit industry standards.
Proven Durability: Steel deck has a successful service
history of over 60 years, which is indicative of the
products durability.
Economy and Value: Value is determined by combining
initial costs, life-cycle costs, and overall performance. Steel deck assemblies are the best
value in roof and floor designs. They combine low cost with top performance

SECTION 05 31 23 - STEEL ROOF DECKING

PART 1 - GENERAL
1.1 SUMMARY
A. Furnish all materials and labor necessary to complete metal decking installation per
the Contract Documents.
Edit list of related sections for project requirements. Section numbers and titles are those
recommended in CSI MasterFormat; revise numbers and titles to reflect actual sections in Project
Manual.
B. Related Requirements:
1. Section 03 52 16: Lightweight Insulating Concrete.
2. Section 05 10 00: Structural Metal Framing.
3. Section 05 20 00: Metal Joist.
4. Section 07 22 16: Roof Board Insulation.
5. Section 07 60 00: Flashing and Sheet Metal.
6. Section 09 91 00: Painting
1.2 REFERENCE STANDARDS FOR QUALITY ASSURANCE
A. Codes/Standards The work and materials of this section shall comply with:
1. ASCE 7: Minimum Design Loads for Building and Other Structures.
2. Section properties shall be derived in accordance with AISI "North American
Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members", latest
edition.
3. Metal Decking is to be attached to the structural frame in conformance with AWS
D1.1 "Structural Welding Code Steel" and D1.3 "Structural Welding Code
Sheet Steel."
4. ICC Research Report No. ESR-1414.
5. IAPMO Research Report No. IAPMO ES-0161

Insert the appropriate L.A. City Research Report No. when applicable; 23783, 23784, 23803.
6. ASTM A653, "Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized)
or Zinc-Iron Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process".
7. Steel Deck Institute (SDI) Metal roof deck profiles shall be in conformance with
ANSI/SDI standard RD1.0 "Standard for Steel Roof Deck".
8. Factory Mutual (FM) Metal roof deck profiles shall be in conformance with FM
where applicable. ASC Steel Deck, A Division of ASC Profiles, Inc. STEEL ROOF DECK
PANELS
Guide Specification 05 31 23 - 2
1.3 SUBMITTALS
A. Product Data for each type of decking specified, including dimensions of individual
components, profiles, and finishes.
B. Shop drawings:
Prior to fabrication, prepare shop drawings for work under this section and submit to
Architect. Shop drawings are to include deck layout, deck type and gauge, framing and
support of openings, dimensions and sections, details of accessories and type and
location of welds. Manufacturers product literature and relevant approvals are to be
submitted with the shop drawings.
1.4 PRODUCT DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING
A. Metal Deck:
Transport, store and erect metal deck and accessories in a manner that will prevent
corrosion, deformation or other damage. Store deck clear of the ground with one end
elevated to promote drainage; protect metal deck from water and the elements with a
water resistant material.
Include the following when Acustadek is specified:

B. Acustadek Sound Absorption Batts:

Store batts in an enclosed area, protected from the elements.
PART 2 - PRODUCTS
2.1 MATERIAL AND FINISHES
A. Metal roof deck to be ASC Steel Deck [select appropriate profile(s) and gauge(s)].
1. B-36 [22], [20], [18], [16] gauge;1 1/2 inches deep by 36 inches wide.
2. N-32 [22], [20], [18], [16] gauge; 3 inches deep by 32 inches wide.
3. N-24 [22], [20], [18], [16] gauge; 3 inches deep by 24 inches wide.
4. 2W-36 [22], [20], [18], [16] gauge; 2 inches deep x 36 inches wide.
5. 3W-36 [22], [20], [18], [16] gauge; 3 inches deep by 36 inches wide.
6. BF-36 [20/20], [20/18], [20/16], [18/20], [18/18], [18/16], [16/16] gauge; 1 1/2
inches deep by 36 inches wide.
7. NF-24 [20/20], [20/18], [20/16], [18/20], [18/18], [18/16], [16/16] gauge; 3 inches
deep by 24 inches wide.
Deck units are to be fabricated from sheet steel conforming to ASTM A653 SS Grade 40 with a
galvanized coating.
2W-36 and 3W-36 are available in 24 wide panels; when specified, the designations are 2W-24
and 3W-24.
When specifying CP-32, use the following, for CP-32 18 gauge; replace ASTM A653 SS Grade
80 with ASTM A653 Grade 33.
7. CP-32 [26], [24], [22], [20], [18] gauge; 1 3/8 inches deep by 32 inches wide.
Deck units are to be fabricated from sheet steel conforming to ASTM A653 SS Grade 80, with a
G-40 galvanized coating.
When specifying Deep Deck and Deep Cellular, using the following:
1. Deep Deck [20], [18], [16], [14] gauge; 4 1/2, 6, or 7 1/2 inches deep by 12

inches wide.
2. Deep Deck Cellular [20/20], [20/18], [20/16], [18/20], [18/18], [18/16], [16/16]
gauge; 4 1/2, 6, or 7 1/2 inches deep by 24 inches wide.
Deck units are to be fabricated from sheet steel confirming to ASTM A653, Fy = 33ksi with a
galvanized coating.
When specifying acoustical deck use the following: ASC Steel Deck, A Division of ASC
Profiles, Inc. STEEL ROOF DECK PANELS
Guide Specification 05 31 23 - 3
A. Metal roof deck to be ASC Steel Deck [select appropriate profile(s) and gauge(s).]
1. B-36 Acustadek [22], [20], [18], [16] gauge, 1 1/2 inches deep by 36inches wide.
2. N-32 Acustadek [22], [20], [18], [16] gauge, 3inches deep by 32 inches wide.
3. N-24 Acustadek [22], [20], [18], [16] gauge, 3 inches deep by 24 inches wide.
4. BF-36 Acustadek [20/20], [20/18], [20/16], [18/20], [18/18], [18/16], [16/16]
gauge; 1 1/2 inches deep by 36 inches wide.
5. NF-24 Acustadek [20/20], [20/18], [20/16], [18/20], [18/18], [18/16], [16/16]
gauge; 3 inches deep by 24 inches wide.
6. Deep Deck Acustadek [20], [18], [16], [14] gauge; 4 1/2, 6, or 7 1/2 inches deep
by 12 inches wide.
7. Deep Deck Cellular Acustadek [20/20], [20/18], [20/16], [18/20], [18/18], [18/16],
[16/16] gauge; 4 1/2, 6, or 7 1/2 inches deep by 24 inches wide.
8. 2WF-36 Acustadek [20/20], [20/18], [20/16], [18/20], [18/18], [18/16], [16/16]
gauge; 2 inches deep by 36 inches wide.
9. 3WF-36 Acustadek [20/20], [20/18], [20/16], [18/20], [18/18], [18/16], [16/16]
gauge; 3 inches deep by 36 inches wide.
B. Acustadek perforations are 1/8 or 5/32 diameter holes on staggered centers. The noise

reduction Coefficient is to be [select from chart on pages 23 and 24]. The NRC values
were developed in accordance with ANSI C423, as performed by Riverbank Laboratory.
ASC Steel Deck panels, in their standard sheet steel, contain approximately 24.3 percent
postconsumer recycled content and 9.4 percent pre-consumer recycled content, for a total 29
percent
recycled content as calculated for this LEED credit. Higher percentages are available if specified.
B. [Or C. for acoustical deck] Sustainability Characteristics:
1. Recycled Content: [29] [50] [75] percent post-consumer recycled content [,
calculated according to LEED Credit MR4].
2. Shipping Distance: Provide panels manufactured at the following factory:
If locally manufactured materials are a project requirement, select factory closer to Project site.
a. Fontana, California 92335
b. West Sacramento, California 95691
If the project is subject to Federal Buy American provisions, which requires that panels be
manufactured in the USA and that 50 percent of the cost of the panels be of U.S.A. origin, use
the
following:
C. [Or D. for acoustical deck] Manufacturing Characteristics: Provide panels complying with
provisions of Buy American Act 41 U.S. C 10a 10d.
If the project is subject to Buy America Act (STAA) or American Recovery & Reinvestment Act
(ARRA) 2009 (which requires that steel used in the manufacturing process be poured and melted
in the USA, use the following:
C. [Or D. for acoustical deck] Manufacturing Characteristics: Provide panels complying
with provisions of the Buy America Act (STAA) or the American Recovery &
Reinvestment Act (ARRA) 2009.
2.2 FABRICATION

A. Metal Deck
Manufacture deck units to lengths as indicated on shop drawings. Panel end
conditions are to be butted or end-lapped, 2 minimum. Sidelaps are to be
male/female interlocking type allowing connection with DeltaGrip tool. Sidelaps are
to be nestable or interlocking when using screw-type fasteners.
When specifying CP-32 delete the last two sentences and insert: Sidelaps are to be overlapping
type.
B. Accessories
Fabricate steel deck accessories (not including cell closures) from the same gauge
and materials as adjacent steel deck.
reference:
http://www.cssbi.ca/Eng/_pdf/CSSBI-S15-01.pdf
http://www.ascsd.com/files/Roof%20Deck%20Guide%20Specs.pdf

space frames
In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure is a truss-like,
lightweight rigid structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space
frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space frame
is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are
transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.

If a force is applied to the blue node, and the red bar is not present, the behaviour of the structure depends completely on
the bending rigidity of the blue node. If the red bar is present, and the bending rigidity of the blue node is negligible
compared to the contributing rigidity of the red bar, the system can be calculated using a rigidity matrix, neglecting angular
factors.

Simplified space frame roof with the half-octahedron highlighted in blue

The roof of this industrial building is supported by a space frame structure.

Advantages of Space Frames

1. One of the most important advantages of a space structure is its lightweight. This is mainly
due to

the fact that material is distributed spatially in such a way that the load transfer mechanism is
primarily axial tension or compression. Consequently, all material in any given element is
utilized to its full extent. Furthermore, most space frames are now constructed with steel or
aluminum, which decreases considerably their self-weight. This is especially important in the
case
of long-span roofs, which led to a number of notable examples of applications.
2. The units of space frames are usually mass produced in the factory so that they can take full
advantage of the industrialized system of construction. Space frames can be built from simple
prefabricated units, which are often of standard size and shape. Such units can be easily
transported and rapidly assembled on site by semi-skilled labor. Consequently, space frames can
be built at a lower cost.
Secondary
beam
Beam
Beam
Arch
(a) (b)
Purlin
FIGURE 24.2 Roof framing for a Circular Dome.
24-4 Handbook of Structural Engineering
Copyright 2005 by CRC Press3. A space frame is usually sufciently stiff in spite of its lightness.
This is due to its
three-dimensional character and to the full participation of its constituent elements. Engineers
appreciate the inherent rigidity and great stiffness of space frames and their exceptional ability to
resist unsymmetrical or heavy concentrated load. Possessing greater rigidity, the space frames
allow also greater exibility in layout and positioning of columns.

4. Space frames possess a versatility of shape and form and can utilize a standard module to
generate
various at space grids, latticed shell, or even free-form shapes. Architects appreciate the visual
beauty and the impressive simplicity of lines in space frames. A trend is very noticeable in which
the structural members are left exposed as a part of the architectural expression. Desire for
openness for both visual impact as well as the ability to accommodate variable space
requirements
always calls for space frames as the most favorable solution.

Preliminary Planning Guidelines

In the preliminary stage of planning a space frame to cover a specic building, a number of
factors
should be studied and evaluated before proceeding to structural analysis and design. These
include not
only structural adequacy and functional requirements but also the esthetic effect desired.
1. In its initial phase, structural design consists of choosing the general form of the building and
the
type of space frame appropriate to this form. Since a space frame is assembled of straight, linear
elements connected at nodes, the geometrical arrangement of the elements surface shape,
number of layers, grid pattern, etc.needs to be studied carefully in the light of various pertinent
requirements.
2. The geometry of the space frame is an important factor to be planned, which will inuence
both
the bearing capacity and the weight of the structure. Themodulesize is developed from the
overall
building dimensions, while the depth of the grid (in the case of double-layer), the size of
cladding,
and the position of the supports will also have a pronounced effect upon it. For curved surface,
the

geometry is also related to the curvature, or more specically to the rise of the span. A
compromise
between these various aspects usually has to be made to achieve a satisfactory solution.
3. In a space frame, connecting joints play an important role, both functional and esthetic, which
derives from their rationality during construction and after completion. Since joints have a
decisive effect on the strength and stiffness of the structure and compose around 20 to 30% of the
total weight, joint design is critical to space frame economy and safety. These are quite a few
proprietary systems that are used for space frame structures. They should be selected on the basis
of quality, cost, and erection efciency. In addition, custom-designed space frames have been
developed, especially for long-span roofs. Regardless of the type of space frame, the essence of
any
system is the jointing system.
4. At the preliminary stage of design, the choosing of the type of space frames has to be closely
related
with the constructional technology. The space frames do not have such a sequential order of
erection for planar structures and require special consideration on the method of construction.
Usually, a complete falsework has to be provided so that the structure can be assembled in the
high
position. Alternatively, the structure can be assembled on the ground, and a certain technique can
be adopted to lift the whole structure, or its major part, to the nal position.
reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_frame
http://img20.imageshack.us/img20/5880/ch24spaceframestructure.pdf

cold roll-formed sections welded together

Cold-formed steel (CFS) is the common term for products made by rolling or pressing thin
gauges of sheet steel into goods. Cold-formed steel goods are created by the working of sheet

steel using stamping, rolling, or presses to deform the sheet into a usable product. Cold worked
steel products are commonly used in all areas of manufacturing of durable goods like
appliances or automobiles but the phrase cold form steel is most prevalently used to described
construction materials. The use of cold-formed steel construction materials has become more
and more popular since its initial introduction of codified standards in 1946. In the construction
industry both structural and non-structural elements are created from thin gauges of sheet steel.
These building materials encompass columns, beams, joists, studs, floor decking, built-up
sections and other components. Cold-formed steel construction materials differ from other steel
construction materials known as hot-rolled steel (see structural steel). The manufacturing of
cold-formed steel products occurs at room temperature using rolling or pressing. The strength of
elements used for design is usually governed by buckling. The construction practices are more
similar to timber framing using screws to assemble stud frames.

Cold-formed steel building

Cold-formed steel members have been used in buildings, bridges, storage racks, grain bins, car
bodies, railway coaches, highway products, transmission towers, transmission
poles, drainage facilities, various types of equipment and others.[1] These types of sections are
cold-formed from steel sheet, strip, plate, or flat bar in roll forming machines, by press brake
(machine press) or bending operations. The material thicknesses for such thin-walled steel
members usually range from 0.0147 in. (0.373 mm) to about in. (6.35 mm). Steel plates and
bars as thick as 1 in. (25.4 mm) can also be cold-formed successfully into structural shapes
(AISI, 2007b).

History of cold-formed steel

The use of cold-formed steel members in building construction began in the 1850s in both the
United States and Great Britain. In the 1920s and 1930s, acceptance of cold-formed steel as a
construction material was still limited because there was no adequate design standard and
limited information on material use in building codes. One of the first documented uses of coldformed steel as a building material is the Virginia Baptist Hospital [1], constructed around 1925
in Lynchburg, Virginia. The walls were load bearing masonry, but the floor system was framed
with double back-to-back cold-formed steel lipped channels. According to Chuck Greene, P.E of
Nolen Frisa Associates [2], the joists were adequate to carry the initial loads and spans, based

on current analysis techniques. Greene engineered a recent renovation to the structure and said
that for the most part, the joists are still performing well. A site observation during this renovation
confirmed that "these joists from the 'roaring twenties' are still supporting loads, over 80 years
later!" In the 1940s, Lustron Homes built and sold almost 2500 steel-framed homes, with the
framing, finishes, cabinets and furniture made from cold-formed steel.

History of AISI design standards[edit]

Design standards for hot-rolled steel (see structural steel) were adopted in 1930s, but were not
applicable to coldformed sections because of their relatively thin steel walls which were
susceptible to buckling. Cold-formed steel members maintain a constant thickness around their
cross-section, whereas hot-rolled shapes typically exhibit tapering or fillets. Cold-formed steel
allowed for shapes which differed greatly from the classical hot-rolled shapes. The material was
easily workable; it could be deformed into many possible shapes. Even a small change in the
geometry created significant changes in the strength characteristics of the section. It was
necessary to establish some minimum requirements and laws to control the buckling and
strength characteristics. Also it was observed that the thin walls underwent local buckling under
small loads in some sections and that these elements were then capable of carrying higher
loads even after local buckling of the members.
In the United States, the first edition of the Specification for the Design of Light Gage Steel
Structural Members was published by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) in 1946 (AISI,
1946).[3] The first Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Specification was based on the research work
sponsored by AISI at Cornell University under the direction of late Professor George
Winter [3]since 1939.[4] As a result of this work, George Winter is now considered the
grandfather of cold-formed steel design. The ASD Specification was subsequently revised in
1956, 1960, 1962, 1968, 1980, and 1986 to reflect the technical developments and the results of
continued research at Cornell and other universities (Yu et al., 1996).[5] In 1991, AISI published
the first edition of the Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification developed at University
of Missouri of Rolla and Washington University under the directions of Wei-Wen Yu [4] and
Theodore V. Galambos (AISI, 1991).[6] Both ASD and LRFD Specifications were combined into a
single specification in 1996 (AISI, 1996).[7]
In 2001, the first edition of the North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed
Steel Structural Members was developed by a joint effort of the AISI Committee on
Specifications, theCanadian Standards Association (CSA) Technical Committee on ColdFormed Steel Structural Members, and Camara Nacional de la Industria del Hierro y del Acero
(CANACERO) in Mexico (AISI, 2001).[8] It included the ASD and LRFD methods for the United
States and Mexico together with the Limit States Design (LSD) method for Canada. This North

American Specification has been accredited by the American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
as an ANSI Standard to supersede the 1996 AISI Specification and the 1994 CSA Standard.
Following the successful use of the 2001 edition of the North American Specification for six
years, it was revised and expanded in 2007.[9]
This updated specification includes new and revised design provisions with the additions of the
Direct Strength Method in Appendix 1 and the Second-Order Analysis of structural systems in
Appendix 2.
In addition to the AISI specifications, the American Iron and Steel Institute has also published
commentaries on various editions of the specifications, design manuals, framing design
standards, various design guides, and design aids for using cold-formed steel. For details, see
AISI [5] website.

Common section profiles and applications[edit]

In building construction there are basically two types of structural steel: hot-rolled steel shapes
and cold-formed steel shapes. The hot rolled steel shapes are formed at elevated temperatures
while the cold-formed steel shapes are formed at room temperature. Cold-formed steel
structural members are shapes commonly manufactured from steel plate, sheet metal or strip
material. The manufacturing process involves forming the material by either pressbraking or cold roll forming to achieve the desired shape.
When steel is formed by press-braking or cold rolled forming, there is a change in the
mechanical properties of the material by virtue of the cold working of the metal. When a steel
section is cold-formed from flat sheet or strip the yield strength, and to a lesser extent the
ultimate strength, are increased as a result of this cold working, particularly in the bends of the
section.
Some of the main properties of cold formed steel are as follows:[10]

Lightness in weight

High strength and stiffness

Ease of prefabrication and mass production

Fast and easy erection and installation

Substantial elimination of delays due to weather

More accurate detailing

Non shrinking and non creeping at ambient temperatures

No formwork needed

Termite-proof and rot proof

Uniform quality

Economy in transportation and handling

Non combustibility

Recyclable material

Panels and decks can provide enclosed cells for conduits.

A broad classification of the cold-formed shapes used in the construction industry can be made
as individual structural framing members or panels and decks.
Some of the popular applications and the preferred sections are:

Roof and wall systems (industrial, commercial, and agricultural buildings)

Steel racks for supporting storage pallets

Structural members for plane and space trusses

Frameless Stressed skin structures: Corrugated sheets or sheeting profiles with stiffened
edges are used for small structures up to a 30 ft clear span with no interior framework

CFS Decking

CFS purlins

CFS X-braced wall system

CFS stud/girt wall connection

The AISI Specification allows the use of steel to the following ASTM specifications in the table
below:[11]

Yield
Strength
Fy (ksi)

Tensile
Fu /
Strength
Fy
Fu (ksi)

Minimum
Elongation
(%) in 2-in.
Gage Length

Steel Designation

ASTM
Designation

Carbon structural
steel

A36

36

58-80

1.61 23

A36

50

70

1.4

High-strength lowalloy Structural steel

A242

46

67

1.46 21

Low and intermediate

tensile strength
carbon steel plates

A283

24

45-60

1.88 30

Product

21

Cold-formed welded
and seamless carbon
steel structural tubing
in rounds and shapes

27

50-65

1.85 28

30

55-75

1.83 25

33

60-80

1.82 23

33

45

1.36 25

42

58

1.38 23

46

62

1.35 21

36

58

1.61 23

39

45

1.15 25

46

58

1.26 23

50

62

1.24 21

A500

Round
Tubing

Shape
Tubing

High-strength
carbonmanganese
steel

Hot-rolled carbon
steel sheets and
strips of structural
quality

High-strength lowalloy columbium

vanadium steels of
structural quality

36

58

1.61 23

A529 Gr. 42

42

60-85

1.43 22

A529 Gr. 50

50

70-100

1.40 21

Gr. 30

30

49

1.63 21

Gr. 33

33

52

1.58 18

Gr. 36

36

53

1.47 17

Gr. 40

40

55

1.38 15

Gr. 45

45

60

1.33 13

Gr. 50

50

65

1.30 11

A570

A572

High-strength lowalloy structural steel

with 50 ksi minimum
yield point

Hot-rolled and coldrolled high-strength

low-alloy steel sheet
and strip with
improved corrosion
resistance

Gr. 42

42

60

1.43 24

Gr. 50

50

65

1.30 21

Gr. 60

60

75

1.25 18

Gr. 65

65

80

1.23 17

A588

50

70

1.40 21

A606

Hot-rolled
as rolled 50
cut length

70

1.40 22

Hot-rolled
as rolled 45
coils

65

1.44 22

Hot-rolled
45
annealed

65

1.44 22

65

1.44 22

Coldrolled

45

Hot-rolled and coldrolled high-strength

low-alloy columbium A607 Class I
and/or vanadium
steel sheet and strip

Hot rolled (23)

Gr.45

45

60

1.33

Cold rolled
(22)
Hot rolled (20)

Gr.50

50

65

1.30 Cold rolled

(20)
Hot rolled (18)

Gr.55

55

70

1.27 Cold rolled

(18)
Hot rolled (16)

Gr.60

60

75

1.25 Cold rolled

(16)
Hot rolled (14)

Gr.65

65

80

1.23 Cold rolled

(15)
Hot rolled (12)

Gr.70

70

85

1.21 Cold rolled

(14)

A607 Class
II
Hot rolled (23)
Gr.45

45

55

1.22 Cold rolled

(22)

Hot rolled (20)

Gr.50

50

60

1.20 Cold rolled

(20)
Hot rolled (18)

Gr.55

55

65

1.18 Cold rolled

(18)
Hot rolled (16)

Gr.60

60

70

1.17 Cold rolled

(16)
Hot rolled (14)

Gr.65

65

75

1.15 Cold rolled

(15)
Hot rolled (12)

Gr.70

70

80

1.14 Cold rolled

(14)

Cold-rolled carbon
structural steel sheet

Zinc-coated or zinciron alloy-coated

steel sheet

A611
A

25

42

1.68 26

30

45

1.50 24

33

48

1.45 22

40

52

1.30 20

Gr. 33

33

45

1.36 20

Gr. 37

37

52

1.41 18

Gr. 40

40

55

1.38 16

50 Class 1

50

65

1.30 12

50 Class 3

50

70

1.40 12

A653 SS

HSLAS Type
A
50

50

60

1.20 20

60

60

70

1.17 16

70

70

80

1.14 12

80

80

90

1.13 10

50

50

60

1.20 22

60

60

70

1.17 18

70

70

80

1.14 14

80

80

90

1.13 12

Gr. 50

50

60

1.20 22

Gr. 60

60

70

1.17 18

Gr. 70

70

80

1.14 14

Gr. 80

80

90

1.13 12

Gr. 33

33

45

1.36 20

Gr. 37

37

52

1.41 18

Gr. 40

40

55

1.38 16

Gr. 50A

50

65

1.30 12

A847

50

70

1.40 19

HSLAS Type
B

Hot-rolled and coldrolled high-strength

low-alloy steel sheets
and strip with
improved formability

55% aluminum-zinc
alloy-coated steel
sheet by the hot-dip
process

Cold-formed welded
and seamless highstrength, low-alloy
structural tubing with

A715

A792

improved
atmospheric
corrosion resistance
Zinc-5% aluminum
alloy-coated steel
sheet by the hot-dip
process

A875 SS

Gr. 33

33

45

1.36 20

Gr. 37

37

52

1.41 18

Gr. 40

40

55

1.38 16

50 Class 1

50

65

1.30 12

50 Class 3

50

70

1.40 12

50

50

60

1.20 20

60

60

70

1.17 16

70

70

80

1.14 12

80

80

90

1.13 10

50

50

60

1.20 22

60

60

70

1.17 18

70

70

80

1.14 14

80

80

90

1.13 12

HSLAS Type
A

HSLAS Type
B

Typical stressstrain properties[edit]

A main property of steel, which is used to describe its behavior, is the stressstrain graph. The
stressstrain graphs of cold-formed steel sheet mainly fall into two categories. They are sharp
yielding and gradual yielding type illustrated below in Fig.1 and Fig.2, respectively.

These two stressstrain curves are typical for cold-formed steel sheet during tension test. The
second graph is the representation of the steel sheet that has undergone the cold-reducing
(hard rolling) during manufacturing process, therefore it does not exhibit a yield point with a yield
plateau. The initial slope of the curve may be lowered as a result of the prework. Unlike Fig.2,
the stressstrain relationship in Fig.1 represents the behavior of annealed steel sheet. For this
type of steel, the yield point is defined by the level at which the stressstrain curve becomes
horizontal.
Cold forming has the effect of increasing the yield strength of steel, the increase being the
consequence of cold working well into the strain-hardening range. This increase is in the zones
where the material is deformed by bending or working. The yield stress can be assumed to have
been increased by 15% or more for design purposes. The yield stress value of cold-formed steel
is usually between 33ksi and 80ksi. The measured values of Modulus of Elasticity based on the
standard methods usually range from 29,000 to 30,000 ksi (200 to 207 GPa). A value of 29,500
ksi (203 GPa) is recommended by AISI in its specification for design purposes. The ultimate
tensile strength of steel sheets in the sections has little direct relationship to the design of those
members. The load-carrying capacities of cold-formed steel flexural and compression members
are usually limited by yield point or buckling stresses that are less than the yield point of steel,
particularly for those compression elements having relatively large flat-width ratios and for
compression members having relatively large slenderness ratios. The exceptions are bolted and
welded connections, the strength of which depends not only on the yield point but also on the
ultimate tensile strength of the material. Studies indicate that the effects of cold work on formed
steel members depend largely upon the spread between the tensile and the yield strength of the
virgin material.

Ductility criteria[edit]

Ductility is defined as an extent to which a material can sustain plastic deformation without
rupture. It is not only required in the forming process but is also needed for plastic redistribution
of stress in members and connections, where stress concentration would occur. The ductility
criteria and performance of low-ductility steels for cold-formed members and connections have
been studied by Dhalla, Winter, and Errera at Cornell University. It was found that the ductility
measurement in a standard tension test includes local ductility and uniform ductility. Local
ductility is designated as the localized elongation at the eventual fracture zone. Uniform ductility
is the ability of a tension coupon to undergo sizeable plastic deformations along its entire length
prior to necking. This study also revealed that for the different ductility steels investigated, the
elongation in 2-in. (50.8-mm) gage length did not correlate satisfactorily with either the local or
the uniform ductility of the material. In order to be able to redistribute the stresses in the plastic
range to avoid premature brittle fracture and to achieve full net-section strength in a tension
member with stress concentrations, it is suggested that:

The minimum local elongation in a - 12 in. (12.7-mm) gauge length of a standard

tension coupon including the neck be at least 20%.

The minimum uniform elongation in a 3-in. (76.2-mm) gauge length minus the elongation
in a 1-in. (25.4-mm) gage length containing neck and fracture be at least 3%.

The tensile-strength-to-yield-point ratio Fu /Fy be at least 1.05.

Weldability[edit]
Weldability refers to the capacity of steel to be welded into a satisfactory, crack free, sound joint
under fabrication conditions without difficulty.[1] Welding is possible in cold-formed steel
elements, but it shall follow the standards given in AISI S100-2007, Section E.
1.When thickness less than or equal to 3/16 (4.76mm):
The various possible welds in cold formed steel sections, where the thickness of the thinnest
element in the connection is 3/16 or less are as follows

Groove Welds in Butt joints

Arc Spot Welds

Arc Seam Welds

Fillet Welds

Flare Groove Welds

2.When thickness greater than or equal to 3/16 (4.76mm):

Welded connections in which thickness of the thinnest connected arc is greater than 3/16
(4.76mm) shall be in accordance with ANSI/AISC-360. The weld positions are covered as
per AISI S100-2007 (Table E2a)[9]

Minimum material thickness recommended for welding

connections[edit]
Application

Shop or Field
fabrication

Electrode method

Suggested minimum
CFS thickness

CFS to Structural
Field-fabrication
steel

Stick-welding

54 mils to 68 mils

CFS to Structural
Shop-fabrication
steel

Stick-welding

54 mils to 68 mils

CFS to CFS

Field-fabrication

Stick-welding

54 mils to 68 mils

CFS to CFS

Field-fabrication

Wire-fed MIG (Metal Inert

Gas) welding

43 mils to 54 mils

CFS to CFS

Shop-fabrication

Wire-fed MIG (Metal Inert

Gas) welding

33 mils

[12]

Application in buildings[edit]

Cold-formed steel framing[edit]

Cold-formed steel framing (CFSF) refers specifically to members in light-frame building
construction that are made entirely of sheet steel, formed to various shapes at ambient
temperatures. The most common shape for CFSF members is a lipped channel, although Z,
C, tubular, hat and other shapes and variations have been used. The building elements that
are most often framed with cold-formed steel are floors, roofs, and walls, although other building
elements and both structural and decorative assemblies may be steel framed.
Although cold-formed steel is used for several products in building construction, framing
products are different in that they are typically used for wall studs, floor joists, rafters, and truss
members. Examples of cold-formed steel that would not be considered framing includes metal
roofing, roof and floor deck, composite deck, metal siding, and purlins and girts on metal
buildings.
Framing members are typically spaced at 16 or 24 inches on center, with spacing variations
lower and higher depending upon the loads and coverings. Wall members are typically vertical
lipped channel stud members, which fit into unlipped channel track sections at the top and
bottom. Similar configurations are used for both floor joist and rafter assemblies, but in a
horizontal application for floors, and a horizontal or sloped application for roof framing.
Additional elements of the framing system include fasteners and connectors, braces and
bracing, clips and connectors.
In North America, member types have been divided into five major categories, and product
nomenclature is based on those categories.

S members are lipped channels, most often used for wall studs, floor joists, and ceiling
or roof rafters.

T members are unlipped channels, which are used for top and bottom plates (tracks) in
walls, and rim joists in floor systems. Tracks also form the heads and sills of windows, and
typically cap the top and bottom of boxed- or back-to-back headers.

U members are unlipped channels that have a smaller depth than tracks, but are used to
brace members, as well as for ceiling support systems.

F members are furring or hat channels, typically used horizontally on walls or ceilings.

L members are angles, which in some cases can be used for headers across openings,
to distribute loads to the adjacent jamb studs.

In high-rise commercial and multi-family residential construction, CFSF is typically used for
interior partitions and support of exterior walls and cladding. In many mid-rise and low-rise
applications, the entire structural system can be framed with CFSF.

Connectors and fasteners in framing[edit]

Connectors are used in cold-formed steel construction to attach members (i.e. studs, joists) to
each other or to the primary structure for the purpose of load transfer and support. Since an
assembly is only as strong as its weakest component, it is important to engineer each
connection so that it meets specified performance requirements. There are two main connection
types,Fixed and Movement-Allowing (Slip). Fixed connections of framing members do not
allow movement of the connected parts. They can be found in axial-load bearing walls, curtain
walls, trusses, roofs, and floors. Movement-Allowing connections are designed to allow
deflection of the primary structure in the vertical direction due to live load, or in the horizontal
direction due to wind or seismic loads, or both vertical and horizontal directions. One application
for a vertical movement-allowing connection is to isolate non-axial load bearing walls (drywall)
from the vertical live load of the structure and to prevent damage to finishes. If the structure is in
an active seismic zone, vertical and horizontal movement-allowing connections may be used to
accommodate both the vertical deflection and horizontal drift of the structure.
Connectors may be fastened to cold-formed steel members and primary structure using welds,
bolts, or self-drilling screws. These fastening methods are recognized in the American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI) 2007 North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel
Structural Members, Chapter E. Other fastening methods, such as clinching, power actuated
fasteners (PAF), mechanical anchors, adhesive anchors and structural glue, are used based on
manufacturer's performance-based tests.

Hot-rolled versus cold-rolled steel and the influence of

annealing[edit]
Hot rolled

Material
properties

Cold rolled

The material is not deformed;

there is no initial strain in the The yield value is increased by
Yielding
material, hence yielding starts 15%30% due to prework (initial
strength
at actual yield value as the
deformation).
original material.

Modulus
of
29,000 ksi
elasticity

Unit
weight

Unit weight is comparatively

huge.

Ductility More ductile in nature.

Design

Main uses

Flexibility of
shapes

Economy

29,500 ksi

It is much smaller.

Less ductile.

Most of the time, we consider Local buckling, Distortional

only the global buckling of the Buckling, Global Buckling have to
member.
be considered.

Load bearing structures,

usually heavy load bearing
structures and where ductility
is more important ( Example
Seismic prone areas)

Application in many variety of

loading cases. This includes
building frames, automobile,
aircraft, home appliances, etc. Use
limited in cases where high ductility
requirements.

Standard shapes are

followed. High value of unit
Any desired shape can be molded
weight limits the flexibility of
out of the sheets. The light weight
manufacturing wide variety of enhances its variety of usage.
shapes.

High Unit weight increases

the overall cost material,
lifting, transporting, etc. It is
difficult to work with (e.g.
connection).

Low unit weight reduces the cost

comparatively. Ease of construction
(e.g. connection).

Research
possibilities

In the advanced stages at

present.

More possibilities as the concept is

relatively new and material finds
wide variety of applications.

Annealing, also described in the earlier section, is part of the manufacturing process of coldformed steel sheet. It is a heat treatment technique that alters the microstructure of the coldreducing steel to recover its ductility.

reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold-formed_steel

welded built-up columns

Built-up columns are used in steel construction when the column buckling
lengths are large and the compression forces are relatively low. This guide
covers two types of built-up columns:
Built-up columns with lacing
Built-up columns with battens.
This document includes an overview of common details for such members. It
describes the design method according to EN 1993-1-1[1] for the determination
of the internal forces and the buckling resistance of each member (chords,
diagonals, etc) of built-up columns made of hot rolled profiles.
It should be noted that due to the shear deformation, battened built-up columns
are more flexible than solid columns with the same inertia; this must be taken
into account in the design.
In order to derive the axial resistance of a steel built-up column, the following
must be addressed:
Analysis of the built-up column to determine the internal forces by taking

into account an equivalent initial imperfection and the second order effects
Verification of the chords and bracing members (diagonals and battens)
Verification of the connections.
A fully worked example of a built-up column with an N-shape arrangement of
lacings is given in Appendix A, which illustrates the design principles.

TYPES OF BUILT-UP MEMBERS AND THEIR

APPLICATION
2.1 General
In general, built-up columns are used in industrial buildings, either as posts for
cladding when their buckling length is very long, or as columns supporting a
crane girder.
When used as a post for cladding with pinned ends, the column is designed to
support the horizontal forces, mainly due to wind. Hence the bending moment
in such a built-up column is predominant compared to the compression force.

A typical built-up column that supports a crane girder is shown in Figure 2.2.
They usually have a fixed base and a pinned end at the top, and are
designed to
resist:
The compression forces that result either from the frame or from the crane
rail
The horizontal forces that result from the effects of the crane applied on
the
internal chord and the wind loads applied to the external one.
In this case, the compression forces are predominant compared to the
bending
moment.

The built-up columns are composed of two parallel chords interconnected by

lacings or battens see Figure 2.1. In general, the truss system concentrates
material at the structurally most efficient locations for force transfer.
In an industrial building and for a given height, built up columns theoretically
have the least steel weight of any steel framing system.
Any hot rolled section can be used for the chords and the web members of
built-up columns. However, channels or I-sections are most commonly used
as
chords. Their combination with angles presents a convenient technical
solution
for built-up columns with lacing or battens. Flat bars are also used in built-up
column as battens.
This guide covers two types of built-up columns with pinned ends that are
assumed to be laterally supported:
Laced columns

 Battened columns.

The difference between these two types of built-up columns comes from the
mode of connection of the web members (lacings and battens) to the chords.
The first type contains diagonals (and possibly struts) designed with pinned
ends. The second type involves battens with fixed ends to the chords and
functioning as a rectangular panel.
The inertia of the built-up column increases with the distance between the
chord axes. The increase in stiffness is counterbalanced by the weight and
cost
increase of the connection between members.
Built-up columns provide relatively light structures with a large inertia.
Indeed,
the position of the chords, far from the centroid of the built-up section, is
very
beneficial in producing a great inertia. These members are generally
intended
for tall structures for which the horizontal displacements are limited to low
values (e.g. columns supporting crane girders).
The axial resistance of built-up columns is largely affected by the shear
deformations. The initial bow imperfection is significantly amplified because
of the shear strains.
It is possible to study the behaviour of built-up columns using a simple
elastic
model.

Laced built-up columns

2.2.1 General
There is a large number of laced column configurations that may be
considered. However, the N-shape and the V-shape arrangements of lacings
are
commonly used.

Figure 2.4 Built-up column with lacings in an industrial building

The selection of either channels or I-sections for chord members provides

different advantages. I-sections are more structurally efficient and therefore
are
potentially shallower than channels. For built-up columns with a large
compressive axial force (for example, columns supporting cranes), I or
H sections will be more appropriate than channels. Channels may be
adequate
in order to provide two flat sides.
Tee sections cut from European Column sections are also used for the chord
members. The web of the Tee sections should be sufficiently deep to permit
easy welding of the bracing members.
The angle web members of the laced column allow use of gusset-less welded
connections, which minimises fabrication costs. Other member types require
either gussets or more complex welding.
The centroidal axes of the compression and tension web members are not
necessarily required to meet at the same point on the chord axes. In fact,
laced
columns with an eccentricity at the joints can be as efficient as those without
eccentricity. The chord-web joint can be separated without an increase in
steel
weight. Although eccentric joints require that local moments be designed for,
there are several advantages in doing so. Eccentric joints provide additional
space for welding, hence reducing fabrication complexity. In addition, the
reduced length of the compression chord provides enhanced buckling and
bending resistance which partly compensates for the additional moments
generated by the joint eccentricity. For single angles, it is recommended that
joint eccentricity is minimised.
2.2.2 Various lacing geometries
The N-shape arrangement of lacings, as shown in Figure 2.5(a), can be
considered as the most efficient truss configuration, for typical frames in
industrial buildings. The web of the N-shape arrangement comprises
diagonals
and posts that meet at the same point on the chord axes.
This arrangement reduces the length of the compression chords and
diagonals.
It is usually used in frames with a significant uniform compressive force.
The V-shape arrangement of lacings increases the length of the compression
chords and diagonals and provides a reduction of buckling resistance of the
members. This arrangement is used in frames with a low compressive force.
The X-shape configurations are not generally used in buildings because of
the
cost and the complexity of fabrication.

2.2.3 Construction details

Single lacing systems on opposite faces of the built-up member with two
parallel laced planes should be corresponding systems as shown in
Figure 2.6(a) (EN 1993-1-1 6.4.2.2(1)).
When the single lacing systems on opposite faces of a built-up member with
two parallel laced planes are mutually opposed in direction, as shown in
Figure 2.6(b), the resulting torsional effects in the member should be taken
into
account. The chords must be designed for the additional eccentricity caused
by
the transverse bending effect, which can have a significant influence on the

member size.
Tie panels should be provided at the ends of lacing systems, at points where
the
lacing is interrupted and at joints with other members.

2.3 Battened built-up columns

Battened built-up columns are not appropriate for frames in industrial
buildings. They are sometimes used as isolated frame members in specific
conditions, where the horizontal forces are not significant.
Channels or I-sections are mostly used as chords and flat bars are used as
battens. The battens must have fixed ends on the chords.
Battened built-up columns are composed of two parallel planes of battens
which are connected to the flanges of the chords. The position of the battens

should be the same for both planes. Battens should be provided at each end
of
the built-up member.
Battens should also be provided at intermediate points where loads are
applied,
and at points of lateral restraint.

reference:
http://www.arcelormittal.com/sections/fileadmin/redaction/4-Library/4SBE/EN/SSB06_Detailed_design_of_built-up_columns.pdf

hallow precast floor beams

A hollow core slab, also known as a voided slab or hollow core plank, is a precast slab
of prestressed concrete typically used in the construction of floors in multi-story apartment

buildings. The slab has been especially popular in countries where the emphasis of home
construction has been on precast concrete, including Northern Europe and socialist
countries of Eastern Europe. Precast concrete popularity is linked with low-seismic zones and
more economical constructions because of fast building assembly, lower self weight (less
material), etc.
The precast concrete slab has tubular voids extending the full length of the slab, typically with a
diameter equal to the 2/3-3/4 of the slab. This makes the slab much lighter than a massive floor
slabs of equal thickness or strength. Reduced weight is important because of transportation cost
and less cost of material (concrete). The slabs are typically 120 cm wide with standard
thicknesses between 15 cm and 50 cm. The precast concrete I-beamsbetween the holes
contain the steel wire rope that provide bending resistance to bending moment from loads.
Slabs in prestressed concrete are usually produced in lengths of about 120 meters. The process
involves extruding wet concrete along with the prestressed steel wire rope from a moving mold.
The continuous slab is then cut by big diamond circular saw according to the lengths (and width)
required on blueprint. Factory production provides the obvious advantages of reduced time,
labor and training. Another fabrication system produces hollow-core floorslabs in Reinforced
Concrete (not prestressed). These are made on carousel production lines, directly to exact
length, and as a stock product. Although the length is limited to about 7-8 metre, this type is
much more cost effective (needs less people, and is faster). Especially in Belgium, this method
is widely used in private housing.
To meet modern standards (both hollow-core and massive slab) of soundproofing the floor
needs to be covered with a soft floor covering that is able to dampen the sound of footsteps. An
alternative is to use a thin "floating" slab of concrete insulated from the voided slabs.

Diagram of a concrete slab of hollow core construction

Hollowcore benefits
Clear, unpropped spans
Fast and simple to erect
Provides an immediate working platform
Can be used in all types of structure
Masonry, steel and concrete

Excellent sound and fire resistance

Easier installation of services
Holes and notches preformed during manufacture
Quality service guaranteed
Available nationwide either supply only or supply and fix
Factory manufacture to consistent quality standards Complies with all relevant standards and
manufactured in accordance with BS EN ISO 9001 and BS EN ISO140001

reference

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow-core_slab
http://www.heidelbergcement.com/NR/rdonlyres/DECAC297-B027-4E60-A7C07BCF29AEDC19/0/Flooring_Hollowcore.pdf

precast prestressed concrete floor units

steel ring spacer

floor reinforcement cage

precast concrete wall frame

stud frames
Framing, in construction known as light-frame construction, is a building technique based
around vertical structural members, usually called studs, which provide a stable frame to which
interior and exterior wall coverings are attached, and covered by a roof made of horizontal
ceiling joists and sloping rafters (or pre-fabricated roof trusses).
Modern light-frame structures usually gain strength from rigid panels (plywood and other
plywood-like composites such as oriented strand board (OSB) used to form all or part of wall
sections) but until recently carpenters employed various forms of diagonal bracing (called wind
braces) to stabilize walls. Diagonal bracing remains a vital interior part of many roof systems,
and in-wall wind braces are required by building codes in many municipalities or by
individual state laws in the United States.
Light frame construction using standardized dimensional lumber has become the dominant
construction method in North America andAustralia because of its economy. Use of minimal
structural materials allows builders to enclose a large area with minimal cost, while achieving a
wide variety of architectural styles. The ubiquitous platform framing and the older balloon
framing are the two different light frame construction systems used in North America.

A wooden-frame house under construction in this example of platform framing the location of the upper floor is
readily discerned by the wide joists between the floors, and the upper structure rests on this platform.

Walls[edit]
Wall framing in house construction includes the vertical and horizontal members of exterior walls
and interior partitions, both of bearing walls and non-bearing walls. These stick members,
referred to as studs, wall plates and lintels (headers), serve as a nailing base for all covering
material and support the upper floor platforms, which provide the lateral strength along a wall.
The platforms may be the boxed structure of a ceiling and roof, or the ceiling and floor joists of
the story above.[1] The technique is variously referred to colloquially in the building trades
as stick and frame, stick and platform, or stick and box as the sticks (studs) give the structure its
vertical support, and the box shaped floor sections with joists contained within length-long post
and lintels (more commonly called headers), supports the weight of whatever is above, including
the next wall up and the roof above the top story. The platform also provides the lateral support
against wind and holds the stick walls true and square. Any lower platform supports the weight
of the platforms and walls above the level of its component headers and joists.
Framing lumber should be grade-stamped, and have a moisture content not exceeding 19%.[2]
There are three historically common methods of framing a house.

Post and beam, which is now used predominately in barn construction.

Balloon framing using a technique suspending floors from the walls was common until
the late 1940s, but since that time, platform framing has become the predominant form of
house construction.[3]

Platform framing often forms wall sections horizontally on the sub-floor prior to erection,
easing positioning of studs and increasing accuracy while cutting the necessary manpower.
The top and bottom plates are end-nailed to each stud with two nails at least 3.25 in
(83 mm) in length (16d or 16 penny nails). Studs are at least doubled (creating posts) at
openings, the jack stud being cut to receive the lintels(headers) that are placed and endnailed through the outer studs.[3]

Wall sheathing, usually a plywood or other laminate, is usually applied to the framing prior to
erection, thus eliminating the need to scaffold, and again increasing speed and cutting
manpower needs and expenses. Some types of exterior sheathing, such as asphaltimpregnated fibreboard, plywood, oriented strand board and waferboard, will provide adequate
bracing to resist lateral loads and keep the wall square. (Construction codes in most
jurisdictions require a stiff plywood sheathing.) Others, such as rigid glass-fibre, asphalt-coated
fibreboard, polystyrene orpolyurethane board, will not.[1] In this latter case, the wall should be
reinforced with a diagonal wood or metal bracing inset into the studs.[4] In jurisdictions subject to
strong wind storms (hurricane countries, tornado alleys) local codes or state law will generally
require both the diagonal wind braces and the stiff exterior sheathing regardless of the type and
kind of outer weather resistant coverings.

Corners[edit]
A multiple-stud post made up of at least three studs, or the equivalent, is generally used at
exterior corners and intersections to secure a good tie between adjoining walls and to provide
nailing support for the interior finish and exterior sheathing. Corners and intersections, however,
must be framed with at least two studs.[5]
Nailing support for the edges of the ceiling is required at the junction of the wall and ceiling
where partitions run parallel to the ceiling joists. This material is commonly referred to as 'dead
wood'[6]or backing.

Exterior wall studs[edit]

Wall framing in house construction includes the vertical and horizontal members of exterior walls
and interior partitions. These members, referred to as studs, wall plates and lintels, serve as a
nailing base for all covering material and support the upper floors, ceiling and roof.[1]
Exterior wall studs are the vertical members to which the wall sheathing and cladding are
attached.[7] They are supported on a bottom plate or foundation sill and in turn support the top
plate. Studs usually consist of 1.5 in 3.5 in (38 mm 89 mm) or 1.5 in 5.5 in (38 mm
140 mm) lumber and are commonly spaced at 16 in (410 mm) on centre. This spacing may be
changed to 12 in (300 mm) or 24 in (610 mm) on centre depending on the load and the
limitations imposed by the type and thickness of the wall covering used. Wider 1.5 in 5.5 in
(38 mm 140 mm) studs may be used to provide space for more insulation. Insulation beyond
that which can be accommodated within a 3.5 in (89 mm) stud space can also be provided by
other means, such as rigid or semi-rigid insulation or batts between 1.5 in 1.5 in (38 mm
38 mm) horizontal furring strips, or rigid or semi-rigid insulation sheathing to the outside of the
studs. The studs are attached to horizontal top and bottom wall plates of 1.5 in (38 mm) lumber
that are the same width as the studs.[2]

Interior partitions[edit]
Interior partitions supporting floor, ceiling or roof loads are called loadbearing walls; others are
called non-loadbearing or simply partitions. Interior loadbearing walls are framed in the same
way as exterior walls. Studs are usually 1.5 in 3.5 in (38 mm 89 mm) lumber spaced at 16 in
(410 mm) on centre. This spacing may be changed to 12 in (300 mm) or 24 in (610 mm)
depending on the loads supported and the type and thickness of the wall finish used.[5]
Partitions can be built with 1.5 in 2.5 in (38 mm 64 mm) or 1.5 in 3.5 in (38 mm 89 mm)
studs spaced at 16 or 24 in (400 or 600 mm) on center depending on the type and thickness of
the wall finish used. Where a partition does not contain a swinging door, 1.5 in 3.5 in (38 mm
89 mm) studs at 16 in (410 mm) on centre are sometimes used with the wide face of the
stud parallelto the wall. This is usually done only for partitions enclosing clothes closets or
cupboards to save space. Since there is no vertical load to be supported by partitions, single
studs may be used at door openings. The top of the opening may be bridged with a single piece
of 1.5 in (38 mm) lumber the same width as the studs. These members provide a nailing support
for wall finish, door frames and trim.[5]

Lintels (headers)[edit]
Lintels (or, headers) are the horizontal members placed over window, door and other openings
to carry loads to the adjoining studs.[1] Lintels are usually constructed of two pieces of 2 in
(nominal) (38 mm) lumber separated with spacers to the width of the studs and nailed together
to form a single unit. The preferable spacer material is rigid insulation.[7] The depth of a lintel is
determined by the width of the opening and vertical loads supported.

Wall sections[edit]
The complete wall sections are then raised and put in place, temporary braces added and the
bottom plates nailed through the subfloor to the floor framing members. The braces should have
their larger dimension on the vertical and should permit adjustment of the vertical position of the
wall.[4]
Once the assembled sections are plumbed, they are nailed together at the corners and
intersections. A strip of polyethylene is often placed between the interior walls and the exterior
wall, and above the first top plate of interior walls before the second top plate is applied to attain
continuity of the air barrier when polyethylene is serving this function.[4]
A second top plate, with joints offset at least one stud space away from the joints in the plate
beneath, is then added. This second top plate usually laps the first plate at the corners and
partition intersections and, when nailed in place, provides an additional tie to the framed walls.

Where the second top plate does not lap the plate immediately underneath at corner and
partition intersections, these may be tied with 0.036 in (0.91 mm) galvanized steel plates at least
3 in (76 mm) wide and 6 in (150 mm) long, nailed with at least three 2.5 in (64 mm) nails to each
wall.[4]

Balloon framing[edit]

Balloon framing is a method of wood construction also known as "Chicago construction" in the
19th century[8] used primarily inScandinavia, Canada and the United States (up until the mid1950s). It utilizes long continuous framing members (studs) that run from the sill plate to the top
plate, with intermediate floor structures let into and nailed to them.[9][10] Here the heights of
window sills, headers and next floor height would be marked out on the studs with a storey pole.
Once popular when long lumber was plentiful, balloon framing has been largely replaced
by platform framing.
It is not certain who introduced balloon framing in the United States. However, the first building
using balloon framing was probably a warehouse constructed in 1832 in Chicago, Illinois,
by George Washington Snow.[11] The following year, Augustine Taylor (17961891) constructed
St. Mary's Catholic Church in Chicago using the balloon framing method.
In the 1830s, Hoosier Solon Robinson published articles about a revolutionary new framing
system, called balloon framing by later builders. Robinsons system called for standard 2x4

lumber, nailed together to form a sturdy, light skeleton. Builders were reluctant to adopt the new
technology, however, by the 1880s, some form of 2x4 framing was standard.[12]
Alternatively, the balloon frame has been shown to have been introduced in Missouri as much
as fifty years earlier.[13]
The name comes from a French Missouri type of construction, maison en boulin,[13] boulin being
a French term for a horizontal scaffolding support. Historians have also fabricated the following
story:[14] As Taylor was constructing his first such building, St. Mary's Church, in 1833, skilled
carpenters looked on at the comparatively thin framing members, all held together with nails,
and declared this method of construction to be no more substantial than a balloon. It would
surely blow over in the next wind! Though the criticism proved baseless, the name stuck.[15]
Although lumber was plentiful in 19th-century America, skilled labor was not. The advent of
cheap machine-made nails, along with water-powered sawmills in the early 19th century made
balloon framing highly attractive, because it did not require highly-skilled carpenters, as did
the dovetail joints, mortises and tenons required by post-and-beam construction. For the first
time, any farmer could build his own buildings without a time-consuming learning curve.[16]
It has been said that balloon framing populated the western United States and the western
provinces of Canada. Without it, western boomtowns certainly could not have blossomed
overnight.[17] It is also a fair certainty that, by radically reducing construction costs, balloon
framing improved the shelter options of poorer North Americans.[citation needed] For example, many
19th-century New England working neighborhoods consist of balloon-constructed three-story
apartment buildings referred to as triple deckers.

A very unusual example of balloon framing: The Jim Kaney Round Barn, Adeline, Illinois, U.S.A.

The main difference between platform and balloon framing is at the floor lines. The balloon
wall studs extend from the sill of the first story all the way to the top plate or end rafter of the
second story. The platform-framed wall, on the other hand, is independent for each floor.[18]

Balloon framing has several disadvantages as a construction method:

1. The creation of a path for fire to readily travel from floor to floor. This is mitigated with the
use of firestops at each floor level.
2. The lack of a working platform for work on upper floors. Whereas workers can readily
reach the top of the walls being erected with platform framing, balloon construction
requires scaffolding to reach the tops of the walls (which are often two or three stories
above the working platform).
3. The requirement for long framing members.
4. In certain larger buildings, a noticeable down-slope of floors towards central walls,
caused by the differential shrinkage of the wood-framing members at the perimeter
versus central walls. Larger balloon-framed buildings will have central bearing walls
which are actually platform framed and thus will have horizontal sill and top plates at
each floor level, plus the intervening floor joists, at these central walls. Wood will shrink
much more across its grain than along the grain. Therefore, the cumulative shrinkage in
the center of such a building is considerably more than the shrinkage at the perimeter
where there are many fewer horizontal members. This problem, unlike the first three,
takes time to develop and become noticeable.
5. Present-day balloon framing buildings often have higher heating costs, due to the lack of
insulation separating a room from its exterior walls. However, this can be remedied
through the addition of insulation, as with any other framed building.
Since steel is generally more fire-resistant than wood, and steel framing members can be made
to arbitrary lengths, balloon framing is growing in popularity again in light gauge steel stud
construction. Balloon framing provides a more direct load path down to the foundation.
Additionally, balloon framing allows more flexibility for tradesmen in that it is significantly easier
to pull wire, piping and ducting without having to bore through or work around framing
members. [citation needed]

Platform framing[edit]
In Canada and the United States, the most common method of light-frame construction
for houses and small apartment buildings as well as other small commercial buildings
is platform framing. In builder parlance, platform framing might also nowadays be called (only
partly correctly) 'stick framing' or 'stick construction' as each element is built up stick by stick,
which was also true in the other stick framing method, in the obsolete and labor intensive, but

previously fashionable, balloon framing method, wherein the outside walls were erected,
headers hung, then floor joists were inserted into a box made of walls.
In contrast, in platform framing a floor box and joists making up the platform is built and placed
on a supporting under structure (Sill plates, headers, or beams) where it sits flat and gets
fastened down against wind lifting with galvanized metal tie straps. Once the boxed floor
platform is squared, leveled and fastened then subfloor, walls, ceilings, and roof are built onto
and above that initial platform, which can be repeated floor by floor, 'without the slow downs and
dangers of fastening and leveling rough-sawn joists of a new floor together to the walls from
ladders extending one or even two stories up.
Generally, the flooring ('platform') is constructed then the walls built on top of that layer, then
another atop that, and so forth making for quick efficient labor saving construction
methodologies and those have quickened further as technologies such as joist hangers have
been developed to speed and enhance the technology. The methods and techniques have
become so common and pervasive that even Skyscrapers use a modified form of platform
framing techniques and indeed the same tools and technologies once construction builds the
initial structural skeleton. Once the platform floor is laid down, the builder's crew can with chalk
line, rule and pencil directly transfer an outline of the exterior and interior walls, their openings
and relative locations with ease and precision from the plans or builders blue prints.
As the survey group lays down the notations and chalk lines, a carpenter crew can follow behind
and lay down 2x4 'bottom plates' and tack them to the floor box. The topmost wall plates are cut
only to the outside dimensions of the walls. Butting two other two by fours against these cut to
size and fastened bottom plate allows the crew to rule across all three with square and lay out
studs, cripple studs, and openings for that particular wall. The two loose studs are then quickly
flipped on edge after openings are cut in, and studs added on the marks with quick reliable end
nailing through the respective top and bottom plates. A few minutes later the whole wall section
can be levered up and aligned in place and braced for later application of the top plates and
adjoining walls.
The method provides builders options and flexibility such as when and where there is a floorlevel opening (doorway) the next wall section can be aligned and fastened in place separately
with the top plate added then used then a lintel and cripple studding added, or the entire wall
could have been cut and joined at the top all along and lifted up as one entity. In the end, the
outside walls are plumbed and fastened together with 'ell-configured reinforced corners' that
provide nailing wood in the interior angles and strength to the building forming in effect wide
posts at each corner and fastened lastly by overlapped top plates which stagger their joints from
the ones capping each plate by which the studs are end nailed together. Each wall from top to
bottom ends up with a doubled plate, studs, and a doubled plate, where structurally the doubled

plates spread the weight of the roof and loading across the studs of the wall, ultimately to the
foundation.
Overall, the framed structure sits (most commonly) atop a concrete foundation on pressure
treated wood 'sill', or 'beam'. When on concrete, the sill plate is anchored, usually with
(embedded) 'J' bolts into the concrete substrate of the foundation wall. Generally these plates
must be pressure treated to keep from rotting from condensing moisture. By various standards
the bottom of the sill plate is located a minimum 6 inches (150 mm) above the finished
grade (the surrounding ground) per standard builders practices, and frequently more dependent
upon building codes of the relevant jurisdiction's local building codes. In North America, building
codes may differ not only state to state, but town to town, the tighter specification applying at all
times. This distance, together with roofing overhangs, and other system factors, is most often
selected both to prevent the sill-plate from rotting (due to the invasion of splashed water) as well
as providing a termite barrier. The latter is particularly (more or less) important than anti-rotting
considerations depending upon the geographical location.
Alternatively, the room, room extension, deck or even a house can be built above concrete
columns U.S. builders call piers some others call pilasters, another of many term misuses
common to building trade parlance. In such cases, the pier (column) is usually required to rest
on bed rock or extend well below the zone of average freezing soil depth (the same as a
foundation) locally, and frequently is required to also have flared out or mushroomed bottom of
greater surface than that the pier top (These are called 'big foots' in the building trade and
building suppliers carry PVC molds to conserve concrete which allow a builder to satisfy area
requirements and the building codes). Rigid pressure treated 'beams' (usually doubled or tripled
up wider types of 2x boards) are attached to the piers using galvanized metal brackets and
serve the same function as sills in foundation supported framing.
The floors, walls and roof of a framed structure are created by assembling (using nails)
consistently sized framing elements of dimensional lumber (e.g. 24s) at regular spacings
(typically divisions of 4 and 8 feet, or such as 12, 16, 19.2, or 24 inches on center). The empty
space formed between elements is called a stud bay in the wall and a joist bay in the floor or
ceiling. The floors, walls and roof are typically made torsionally stable with the installation of a
plywood or composite wood skin referred to as sheathing[citation needed]. Sheathing has very specific
requirements (such as thickness and spacing of nailing). These measures allow a known
amount of shear force to be resisted by the elements. Spacing the framing members properly
usually allows them to align with the edges of standard sheathing. In the past, tongue and
groove planks installed diagonally were used as sheathing. Occasionally, wooden or galvanized
steel braces are used instead of sheathing. There are also engineered wood panels made for
shear and bracing.[citation needed]

The floor, or the platform in this framing type's name, is made up of joists (usually 2x6, 28,
210 or 212 depending on the span, on edge thus the wider joist supporting weight for a
greater distance) that sit on supporting foundation walls, beams, columns or girders within and
at right angle to doubled outside members also on edge (the band), forming a box. The outer
perimeter is nearly the same (3 inch vs. 3.5 inches) width as the support sill. The joists will
generally be installed across the shortest distance of any floor span rectangle. The outer layer
of the band will overlap the inner layer with staggered end joints creating a stronger box. If joist
hangers are not used, the installation of the outer board in the band is delayed to allow throughnailing directly into the ends of the joists.
The floor joists are spaced at 12 in, 16 in, and 24 in on center, depending upon the live load
needs of the design the closer the spacing and the wider the floor joist dimension, the less the
floor will flex. It is then usually covered with a 3/4-inch tongue-and-groove plywood subfloor. In
the century past, 1x planks set at 45-degrees to the joists were used for the first subfloor layer,
and a second layer of 1x planks set at 90-degrees to the floor cladding topped that as the
second subfloor layer. In that same era, all flooring choices were a very short menu of choices
between finished wood types or ceramic tiles versus today's extensive multipage menu of
manufactured flooring types.
Where the design calls for a framed floor, the resulting platform is where the framer will
construct and stand that floor's walls (interior and exterior load bearing walls and space-dividing,
non-load bearing partitions). Additional framed floors and their walls may then be erected to a
general maximum of four in wood framed construction. There will be no framed floor in the case
of a single-level structure with a concrete floor known as a slab on grade.[citation needed]
Stairs between floors are framed by installing three 90-stepped stringers attached to wall
structures and then placing the horizontal treads and vertical risers (usually about 14 of each for
an 8-ft. ceiling) upon the planes formed by the stringers.
A framed roof is an assembly of rafters and wall-ties supported by the top story's walls.
Prefabricated and site-built trussed rafters are also used along with the more common stick
framing method. Trusses are engineered to redistribute tension away from wall-tie members and
the ceiling members. The roof members are covered with sheathing or strapping to form the roof
deck for the finish roofing material.[citation needed]
Floor joists can be engineered lumber (trussed, I-joist, etc.), conserving resources with
increased rigidity and value. They are semi-custom manufactured to allow access for runs of
plumbing, HVAC, etc. and some 'common-needs' forms are pre-manufactured as semi-massproduced standard products made on a per order basis, like roofing trusses. Such products
have a post-order lead time from several weeks to several months.

Double framing is a style of framing used in some areas to reduce heat loss and air infiltration.
Two walls are built around the perimeter of the building with a small gap in between. The inner
wall carries the structural load of the building and is constructed as described above. The
exterior wall is not load bearing and can be constructed using lighter materials. Insulation is
installed in the entire space between the outside edge of the exterior wall and the inside edge of
the interior wall. The size of the gap depends upon how much insulation is desired. The vapor
barrier is installed on the outside of the inner wall, rather than between the studs and drywall of
a standard framed structure. This increases its effectiveness as it is not perforated by electrical
and plumbing connections.

Materials[edit]
Light-frame materials are most often wood or rectangular steel tubes or C-channels. Wood
pieces are typically connected with nails or screws; steel pieces are connected with nuts and
bolts. Preferred species for linear structural members are softwoods such
as spruce, pine and fir. Light frame material dimensions range from 38 mm by 89 mm (1.5 in by
3.5 in; i.e., a two-by-four) to 5 cm by 30 cm (two-by-twelve inches) at the cross-section, and
lengths ranging from 2.5 m (8.2 ft) for walls to 7 m (23 ft) or more for joists and rafters. Recently,
architects have begun experimenting with pre-cut modular aluminum framing to reduce on-site
construction costs.[citation needed]
Wall panels built of studs are interrupted by sections that provide rough openings
for doors and windows. Openings are typically spanned by a header or lintel that bears the
weight of structure above the opening. Headers are usually built to rest on trimmers, also called
jacks. Areas around windows are defined by a sill beneath the window, and cripples, which are
shorter studs that span the area from the bottom plate to the sill and sometimes from the top of
the window to a header, or from a header to a top plate. Diagonal bracings made of wood or
steel provide shear (horizontal strength) as do panels of sheeting nailed to studs, sills and
headers.[citation needed]

Light-gauge metal stud framing

Wall sections usually include a bottom plate which is secured to the structure of a floor, and one,
or more often two top plates that tie walls together and provide a bearing for structures above
the wall. Wood or steel floor frames usually include a rim joist around the perimeter of a system
of floor joists, and often include bridging material near the center of a span to prevent lateral
buckling of the spanning members. In two-story construction, openings are left in the floor
system for a stairwell, in which stair risers and treads are most often attached to squared faces
cut into sloping stair stringers.[citation needed]
Interior wall coverings in light-frame construction typically include wallboard, lath and plaster or
decorative wood paneling.[citation needed]
Exterior finishes for walls and ceilings often include plywood
or composite sheathing, brick or stone veneers, and various stucco finishes. Cavities between
studs, usually placed 4060 cm (1624 in) apart, are usually filled with insulation materials,
such as fiberglass batting, or cellulose filling sometimes made of recycled newsprint treated
with boron additives for fire prevention and vermin control.[citation needed]
In natural building, straw bales, cob and adobe may be used for both exterior and interior walls.
The part of a structural building that goes diagonally across a wall is called a T-bar. It stops the
walls from collapsing in gusty winds.[citation needed]

Roofs[edit]
Main article: Roof
Roofs are usually built to provide a sloping surface intended to shed rain or snow, with slopes
ranging from 1 cm of rise per 15 cm (less than an inch per linear foot) of rafter length, to steep
slopes of more than 2 cm per cm (two feet per foot) of rafter length. A light-frame structure built
mostly inside sloping walls comprising a roof is called an A-frame.
Roofs are most often[citation needed] covered with shingles made of asphalt, fiberglass and small
gravel coating, but a wide range of materials are used. Molten tar is often used to waterproof
flatter roofs, but newer materials include rubber and synthetic materials. Steel panels are
popular roof coverings in some areas, preferred for their durability. Slate or tile roofs offer more
historic coverings for light-frame roofs.
Light-frame methods allow easy construction of unique roof designs. Hip roofs, which slope
toward walls on all sides and are joined at hip rafters that span from corners to a ridge. Valleys

are formed when two sloping roof sections drain toward each other. Dormers are small areas in
which vertical walls interrupt a roof line, and which are topped off by slopes at usually right
angles to a main roof section. Gables are formed when a length-wise section of sloping roof
ends to form a triangular wall section. Clerestories are formed by an interruption along the slope
of a roof where a short vertical wall connects it to another roof section. Flat roofs, which usually
include at least a nominal slope to shed water, are often surrounded by parapet walls with
openings (calledscuppers) to allow water to drain out. Sloping crickets are built into roofs to
direct water away from areas of poor drainage, such as behind a chimney at the bottom of a
sloping section.

Structure[edit]
Light-frame buildings are often erected on monolithic concrete-slab foundations that serve both
as a floor and as a support for the structure. Other light-frame buildings are built over a
crawlspace or a basement, with wood or steel joists used to span between foundation walls,
usually constructed of poured concrete or concrete blocks.
Engineered components are commonly used to form floor, ceiling and roof structures in place of
solid wood. I-joists (closed-web trusses) are often made from laminated woods, most often
chippedpoplar wood, in panels as thin as 1 cm (0.4 in), glued between horizontally laminated
members of less than 4 cm by 4 cm (two-by-twos), to span distances of as much as 9 m (30 ft).
Open web trussed joists and rafters are often formed of 4 cm by 9 cm (two-by-four) wood
members to provide support for floors, roofing systems and ceiling finishes.

reference:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framing_(construction)