18

ELECfROMECHANICAL MOTION DEVICES

Earlier in this section, we mentioned that in the case of an ideal

transformer only the turns-ratio is considered, that is, v 2 = (N2/ N j )v j and
i2 = -(N j /N2 )i l We can now more fully appreciate the assumptions which are
made in this type of analysis. In particular, the resistances rI and r2 and the
leakage inductances Lll and L/2 are neglected, and it is assumed that the
magnetizing inductance is large so that the magnetizing current i l + i~ is
negligibly small.
The information presented in this section forms the basis of the equiva
lent circuits for many types of electric machines. Using a turns-ratio to refer
the voltages and currents of rotor circuits of electric machines to a winding with
the same number of turns as the stator windings is common practice. In fact,
the equivalent circuits for many ac machines are of the same form as shown in
Fig. 1.4-2, with the addition of a voltage source referred to as a speed voltage.
We shall talk much more about this speed voltage later-where it comes from
and how it fits into the equivalent circuit.
Example Ie. It is instructive to illustrate. the method of deriving an equivalent T

circuit from open- and short-circuit measurements. When winding 2 of the

2-winding transformer shown in Fig. 1.4-2 is open-circuited and a voltage of 110 V

(rms) at 60 Hz is applied to winding 1, the average power supplied to winding 1 is

6.66 W. The measured current in winding 1 is 1.05 A (rms). Next, with winding 2

short-circuited, the current flowing in winding 1 is 2 A when the applied voltage is

30 V at 60 Hz. The average input power is 44 W. If we assume L/l = L;2' an

approximate equivalent T circuit can be determined from these measurements
with winding 1 selected as the reference winding.
The average power supplied to winding 1 may be expressed as
PI = r~\lllll cos cf>pf

(IC-l)

2 is short,
values of ~
cases]
:
SP1.4-3. (
given in E

where the so-called power factor angle is defined as

(lC-2)
Here, VI and il are phasors with the positive direction of il taken in the_ directi~n
of the voltage drop and 8ev (0) and 8. i (0) are the phase angles of VI and 11'

respectively (Appendix B). Solving for cf>pf> the power factor angle, during the

open-circuit test, we have

-1

cf>pf = cos

PI

!Vlllill

-1

= cos

6.66
86 70
(110)(1.05) = .

(IC-3)

Although cf>Pf =_-86. 7 i~ also a legitimate solution of (lC-3), the positive solution
is taken since VI leads 11 in an inductive circuit. With winding 2 open-circuited,
the input impedance of winding 1 is

VI

Z = --,.- =
11

With

VI

as the reference phasor,

.

'1 + ](X/1 + X

ml )

. +X
'1 + ](XIl

VI = 110iQ:, i1 = 1.05/-86.7.
1l0iQ:.
= 6 + JI04.6 n

= 1.05/-86.7

(lC-4)

m1 )

Thus,
(lC-5)

1.5 OP
CHARA'
MAGNE
It is inst

transform
paramete
circuit ch:
are A, VI'
term on t
winding 1
magnetizi,
the magn
Initi
applied t(
Fig. 1.5-:
steady-sta
inductive

MAGNETIC AND MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

3.t in the case of an ideal

that is, v 2 = (N2/ Nl )Vl and
te the assumptions which are
resistances rI and r2 and the
and it is assumed that the
lagnetizing current i l + i~ is

)rms the basis of the equiva

. Using a turns-ratio to refer
ic machines to a winding with
, is common practice. In fact,
of the same fbrm as shown in
referred to as a speed voltage.
,'e later-where it comes from

~thod of deriving an equivalent T

ments. When winding 2 of the
n-circuited and a voltage of 110 V
1ge power supplied to winding 1 is
.05 A (rms). Next, with winding 2
is 2 A when the applied voltage is
4W. If we assume L/1 = L;2' an
mined from these measurements

Ig.

t may be expressed as
(lC-l)

CPpf

19

In the analysis of sinusoidal steady-state operation, reactances are generally used.

That is X = weL, where X is the inductive reactance, L is the inductance, and We
(We = 21ff) is the electrical angular frequency of the sinusoidal variables (Appen
dix B). If we neglect core losses, then, from (1C-S), " = 6 O. We also see from
(lC-5) that X/1 + X ml = 104.60,
For the short-circuit test, we will assume that i l = - i~ since transformers
are designed so that X ml j!> Ir~ + jX;21. Hence, using (lC-1) again,

cfJpf = cos

-1

44
42
(30)(2) = .8

In this case, the input impedance is Z = (rl +

determined as

r~)

(lC-6)

+ j(Xll + X;2)' This may be

30iQ:
.
Z = 2/-42.8 = 11 + JlO.20

(lC-7)

Hence, r~ = 11 - , I = 50 and, since it is assumed that X/1 = X;2' both are

10.2/2=5.10. Therefore, Xml=104.6-5.1=99.S0. In summary, ,,=60,
Ln = 13.5 mH, LmI = 263.9 mH, ,; = 5 n, L;2 = 13.5 mHo Make sure we con
verted from X's to L'scorrectly.
SPl.4-1. Remove the cente{ leg of the magnetic system shown in Fig. 1B-1. Calculate
LIP L 22 , and L,Z' Neglect the leakage inductances. [Lll = 299.4 mH, LZ2 = 107.8 mH,
. LI2 = 179.5 mH]
SP1.4-2. Consider the transformer and parameters calculated in Example 1C. Winding
2 is short-circuited and 12 V (de) is applied to winding 1. Calculate the steady-state
values of i l and i 2 . Repeat with winding 2 open-circuited. [II = 2 A and 12 = 0 in both
cases]
SPl.4-3. Calculate the no-load (winding 2 open-circuited) current for the transformer
given in Example 1C if VI =V210cos100t. [il =0.352/-77.8 A]

ed as
(1C-2)

(0)

rection of il taken in the_ directi~n

! the phase angles of VI and 11'
Ie power factor angle, during the
6.66
= 86.70
10)(1.05)

(1C-3)

Ion of (1C-3), the positive solution

,t. With winding 2 open-circuited,

(1C-4)

il = 1.05/-86.T
- =6+,'104.60

Thus,

(lC-S)

1.5 OPEN- AND SHORT -CIRCUIT

CHARACTERISTICS OF STATIONARY

MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

It is instructive to observe the open- and short-circuit characteristics of a

transformer with two windings. For this purpose, a transformer with the
parameters given in Example 1e was simulated on a computer. The open
circuit characteristics are shown in Figs. 1.5-1 and 1.5-2. The variables plotted
are A, VI' ii' v~, and i~. The variable A is equal to Lml(i 1 + i;), which is the last
term on the right-hand side of (1.4-31) and (1.4-32). This is the flux linkage of
winding 1 due to the flux in the transformer iron. It is often referred to as the
magnetizing flux linkage(s) and denoted Am' Amag , or A"" while i l + i~ is called
the magnetizing current.
Initially the windings are unexcited. At time zero (t = 0) the voltage
applied to winding 1 with winding 2 open-circuited is VI = v2110 cos 377t in
Fig. 1.5-1 and VI = v2110 sin 3771 in Fig. 1.5-2. The waveforms of the
steady-state current i l are identical in Figs. 1.5-1 and 1.5-2; however, since the
inductive reactance is large, applying a sine wave voltage for VI at time zero

20

ELECfROMECHANICAL MOTION DEVICES

[20.29
A, Y's

results in a I
(You are asl

-[20.29

v1
[2110

-[2110

0.025s

[22

-[22

[2110
lI2, Y

-[2110

i~,A

[22[

_[2~~L------------~--------------------------

FIGURE 1.5-1
Open-circuit conditions of a 2-winding transformer with

lI j =

V2110 cos 377t.

0
A, Y's
-[20.29

[20.29
A, Y's

=v'2110.

identify the 1
wave. Althoj
the current ij
of 50ms. ~
Lml)/rl =~
steady-state
Example Ie
Let usi
steady-state
Fig. 1.5-3.
time ,",V<.<".QU!
look at the
than in the
conditions i1
flux in the .
Looking at
equal

-[20.29

lIl>

lIl>

[2110
0
-[2 110
~

0.025s

/210
.j25
0
-.j2 5
-.j21O

.j2 110
0,
-fi 110

~
il>

[22

o
-[22

lI2'

[2110
lI;,

[2110
0
-p 110

-[2110

ii,, A

[22[

_[2~~L-----------------------------------------

FIGURE 1.5-2
Open-circuit conditions of a 2-winding transformer with

lI j =

V2110 sin 377t.

fi 10
fi5
0
-#5
-210

FIGURE 1.5-3
Short-circuit

MAGNETIC AND MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

VVV\

results in a much larger transient offset in i 1 than when VI = '\12110 cos 377t.
(You are asked to show this in a problem at the end of the chapter.) Since
VI = '\12110 sin 377t causes a large transient offset, it makes it easier for us to
identify the transient period. Therefore, we shall continue with VI as a sine
wave. Although it is difficult to determine the time constant for the offset of
the current il (or A) to decay to one-third of its original value, it is on the order
of 50 ms. The calculated value of the no-load time constant is Tnl = (Lll +
Lml)/rl =46.2ms. Before leaving Figs. 1.5-1 and 1.5-2, note that, during
steady-state conditions, II lags V, by something close to 90 (86.7, from
Example Ie).
Let us now go to the short-circuit characteristics. The transient and
steady-state response with VI = '\12110 sin 377t and with v~ = 0 are shown in
Fig. 1.5-3. There are several things to note. From Fig. 1.5-3, it appears that the
time constant associated with the decay of i 1 is small, less than 5 ms. Now let us
look at the magnetizing flux linkage A. We see that it is smaller in amplitude
than in the no-load case. We would expect this since during short-circuit
conditions il == -i~; the mmf's of the two windings oppose, and the resulting
flux in the transformer iron is less than for the no-load condition where i~ = O.
Looking at this in another way, we realize that i 1 and - i~ will be essentially
equal during short-circuit conditions whenever the impedance of the "mag

:083771.
A,

vs

VI,

IV\IV

V2,V

f2 0.29
0
-f2 0.29
f2

110

-fi

110

{i110

O~---------------------------------------------

-f2 110

f2 10
f25
o

-f25

-{i10
FIGURE 1.5-3

sin 3771.

21

Short-circuit conditions of a 2-winding transformer with

VI

= V2110 sin 377/.

22

ELECfROMECHANICAL MOTION DEVICES

netizing branch" (jw e L m1 ) is much larger (say 8 to 10 times larger) than

,~ + jweL;2' Here, we = 377 rad/s.
It is interesting to note that the decay of the magnetizing flux linkage A is
much slower than the apparent decay of the currents. As we mentioned, the
time constant associated with il is small; however, there is indeed a small
difference between i 1 and - i~ and this small current (magnetizing current),
which is actually a small part of ip must flow in the large inductance L m1
Hence, the magnetizing current is associated with a longer time constant than
the much larger component of the current il which circulates through the series
,~ and L;2'
Let us take a brief look at the effects of saturation of the transformer
iron. For this purpose we will assume that the A versus (il + i~) plot ofthe core
of the transformer is that shown in Fig. 1.5-4. The slope of the straightline part
of this plot is L m1 The saturation characteristics shown in Fig. 1.5-4 were
implemented on the computer following the method outlined in [3]. Since A is
small during short-circuit conditions (Fig. 1.5-3), saturation does not occur.
However, it is a different situation when we talk about the open-circuit
conditions shown in Fig. 1.5-5, which is the same as Fig. 1.5-2 with saturation
taken into account. Here, we see that during steady-state open-circuit condi
tions, the current ii' which is the total magnetizing current since i~ is zero, is
rich in third harmonic. What is happening? Well, we realize that, if there were

0.6

'1

no
and
voltage.
We see
produce

I
I
I

I
I

0.5

I
I

0.4

I
I

A. Vs

0.3

I
I

0.2

0.1

normal
high as 50
cycles
formers
the large

10

FIGURE 1.5-4
+ i;.

A versus i 1

MAGNETIC AND MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS

10 times larger) than

>..,Ys

lletizing flux linkage A is

, As we mentioned, the
there is indeed a small
: (magnetizing current),
~large inductance L ml
Inger time constant than
ulates through the series

10

fi 0.29
0
-fiO.29

fi 110
u1,Y

-[2

0
110

fi8

{I6
iJ, A

Ition of the transformer

(il + i~) plot of the core
Ie of the straightline part
,own in Fig. 1.5-4 were
lutlined in [3]. Since A is
uration does not occur.
about the open-circuit
iig. 1.5-2 with saturation
state open-circuit condi
lrrent since i~ is zero, is
ealize that, if there were

23

.[24
fi2
0

-fi 2

fi 110
U2' Y

i~, A

-fi 110

fi ~ [1----'----------------------
-{22

FIGURE 1.55

Same as Fig. 1.5-2 with saturation.

no r l and LIP then the time rate of change of A must equal VI' the applied
voltage. In this case, the peak value of A would be Y2110/377 = Y2 0.29 V' s.
We see from Fig. 1.5-4 that saturation must occur in order for the core to
produce this peak value of A. In the saturated region, a much larger increase in
current per unit increase in A is required than when the transformer is not
saturated. Hence,a peaking of the magnetizing current occurs. Now, in real
life there is r l and Lll and, hence,a voltage drop will occur across each of these
components. Thus, the magnitude of dAldt is somewhat less than that of VI;
nevertheless, saturation must occur to produce the required steady-state peak
value of A, which is approximately Y2 0.26 V' s from Fig. 1.5-5.
There is one last item worthy of discussion. Recall that a relatively large
transient offset in A occurs when we apply a sine wave voltage for VI' This large
transient offset drives the core into saturation. Note A during the first cycle in
Fig. 1.5-5. Since the core is highly saturated, the magnetizing current necessary
to produce the required A is very large. In Fig. 1.5-5 we see that this current,
which occurs upon "energizing" the transformer, is nearly three times the
normal steady-state magnetizing current. In some transformers, this may be as
high as 50 to 100 times the normal magnetizing current, and it may take several
cycles before reaching steady-state conditions. For this reason, some trans
formers may "hum" loudly during energization as a result of forces created by
the large inrush current. Also, note the waveform of v~ during the first cycle of

24

ELECTROMECHANICAL MOTION DEVICES

as two s~
in a thrd
although.
trans f orm~

energization. The effects of saturation are reflected into the open-circuit

voltage of winding 2. Since during saturation the change of the flux linkages is
small, the open-circuit voltage will be small, as depicted in Fig. 1.5-5.
However, these changes would probably not be as distinct in the open-circuit

voltage of an actual transformer.

.1

Thr~
single-phaj
one 6-wiIli
our purpOl

SP1.S-1. Use the plot of A in Fig. 1.5-3 to approximate Iii + i~l. [iii + i~1 ;; ! A]
SP1.S-2. Calculate, using reasonable approximations, the phase angle between the
steady-state current i l and voltage VI for the conditions of Fig. 1.5-3. Check your
answer from the plots. [VI leads i l by 42.8]
SP1.S-3. Consider the transformer given in Example 1C. Assume VI =
Y'2110 cos 1000t, and a load is connected across winding 2. The impedance of this load
referred to winding 1 is 21 + j5 il. Calculate j~. Make valid approximations to reduce
your work. [i;;; -2.4/-45]

Wye-Wyel

The so-cal
transformd

1.6 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS AND

TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
In our study of ac electromechanical motion devices, we will first concentrate
on the two-phase versions and then discuss the modifications of this analysis
necessary to treat three-phase devices. One wonders if, for this first study, it is
really necessary to consider three-phase systems at all since the salient features
of each device can be explained from a two-phase treatment. Moreover,
three-phase systems have traditionally been associated with power systems
since all electric power is transmitted from the point of generation to the cities
by three-phase transmission systems. It would appear, from all of this, that we
have made a case to let the three-phase system be the concern of the power
systems engineer. However, the generator used in your automobile is likely to
be a three-phase synchronous generator whose output voltages are rectified.
Moreover, development has been underway to convert the small dc motors
used in control applications to brushlessdc motors. You should not be
expected to know this at this time, but brushless dc motors are permanent
magnet motors with the stator windings often connected as a three-phase
system. Therefore, it is worthwhile to take at least a brief look at three-phase
systems since it is helpful to become aware of the meaning of line-to-neutral
and line-to-line quantities. At the same time, consider in passing the connec
tions which are not only common to power system transformers but also to the
windings of some low-power ac drive motors used in position control systems,
for example.
In a balanced two-phase ac system, the sinusoidal voltage and current of
one phase are displaced 90 from the voltage and current of the second phase,
and the amplitudes of the sinusoidal voltages (currents) are equal (Appendix
C). In a balanced three-phase ac system, the sinusoidal voltage and current of
one phase are displaced 120 from the voltage and current of the other two
phases. When transformers are used in a two-phase system, they are arranged

+
Vbcl

FIGURE 1.6
A Y-Y three-