Question1:

(a)

Compare between Frequency Modulation and Amplitude Modulation in terms of

efficiency,bandwidthandnoise.
FrequencyModulation:
Bandwidth
ThebandwidthofaFMsignalisobtainedfrom:
BW=2(b+1)f
m
wherebisthemodulationindexand
f
isthemaximummodulatingfrequencyused.
m
FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio band isalsolarger.
Thecombinationkeepsthenumberofavailablechannelsaboutthesame.
The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in the AM case . In FM,
both the modulation index and themodulatingfrequencyaffectthebandwidth.Astheinformationis
madestronger,thebandwidthalsogrows.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a signal is the power in the sidebands as a fraction of the total. In FM signals,
because ofthe considerablesidebandsproduced,theefficiencyis generallyhigh. ConventionalAM
is limited to about 33 % efficiency to prevent distortion in the receiver when the modulation index
wasgreaterthan1.FMhasnoanalogousproblem.
The efficiency is generally improved by making the modulation index larger. But if we make the
modulation index larger, we have to make the bandwidth larger (unlike AM) which has its
disadvantages. As is typical in engineering, a compromise between efficiency and performance is

struck. The modulation index is normally limited to a value between 1 and 5, depending on the
application.
Noise
FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise generally is spread uniformly
across the spectrum (the socalled white noise, meaning widespectrum).Theamplitudeof thenoise
varies randomly at these frequencies. The change in amplitude can actuallymodulatethesignaland
be picked up in the AM system. As a result, AM systems are very sensitive to random noise. An
example might be ignition system noise in car. Special filters need to be installed to keep the
interferenceoutofcarradio.
FM systemsareinherentlyimmunetorandomnoise.Inorderforthenoisetointerfere,itwouldhave
to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is distributed uniformly in frequency andvaries
mostly in amplitude. As a result, there is virtually nointerferencepickedupintheFMreceiver.FM
issometimescalled"staticfree,"referringtoitssuperiorimmunitytorandomnoise.
AmplitudeModulation:
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a signal is always of significance for many reasons, but predominately, it
determines how many channels (or stations) are available in a specific band. There could be a
maximum of 107 AM radio stations. If improved the fidelity of AM radio by making the upper
modulating frequency 10 kHz, we would double the signal bandwidth, and as a result only be
allowed 53 radio stations. If we tried to increase theAMband,wewouldlosesomeotherband, like
amateurradio.
ThebandwidthofAMsignalscanbeeasilypredictedusingtheformula:BW=2f
.
m
Efficiency
Definitionofameasureofefficiencyasfollows:
h=efficiency=P
/P
SB
TOT

where:P
=thepowerinallthesidebands
SB
P
=thetotaltransmittedpower(includescarrierandsidebands)
TOT
The efficiency of AM transmission is limited by the restrainttokeepm<1.0.Thenumericvalueof
efficiency when m = 1.0 is about 33 %. AM has a maximumpracticalefficiencyofabout33%due
tothelimitationsplacedonmodulationindex.
Noise:
Amplitude modulation techniques is that the receiver amplifies and detects noise and
electromagnetic interference in equalproportiontothesignal.Increasingthereceivedsignaltonoise
ratio
, by a factor of 10 (a 10 decibel improvement), would require increasing the transmitter power
by a factor of 10. Thisisincontrasttofrequencymodulation(FM)anddigitalradiowherethe effect
of such noise following demodulation is strongly reduced so long as the received signal is well
above the threshold for reception. For this reason AM broadcast is not favored for music and high
fidelity broadcasting, but rather for voice communications and broadcasts (sports, news, talk radio
etc.).
(b)Acarrierwaveoffrequency10MHzandpeakvalue10Vis amplitudemodulatedbya5kHz
waveofamplitude6V.Determine:
i.modulationfactor
ii.uppersidebandfrequencyandthelowersidebandfrequency
iii.amplitudeofsidebandcomponents
iv.Drawthefrequencyspectrum
Carrieramplitude,E
=10V
C
Signalamplitude,E
=6V
S
Carrierfrequency,f
=10MHz
c
Signalfrequency,f
=5kHz=0.005MHz
s

(i)Modulationfactor,m=E
/E
S
C
=6/10

=0.6
(ii)Sidebandfrequenciesare:
f
f
f
+f
c
s
c
s
100.00510+0.005
9.995MHz10.005MHz
(iii)Amplitudeofeachsideband=mE
/2
c
=(0.6x10)/2
=3V
(iv)Frequencyspectrum:

frequencyspectrumoftheA.M.wave.
Question2
(a)DescribethePublicSwitchedTelephoneNetwork(PSTN).Outline:
i.MainElementofPSTN
ii.BasicoperationofPSTN

(b) Consider a FM modulator with modulation index m = 5, modulating signal vm = 2

sin(25kt), and an unmodulated carrier frequency fc = 400 kHz, answer the following
questions:
i.Numberofsetsofsignificantsidebands
ii.Sidebandamplitudes
iii.Drawtheoutputfrequencyspectrum
[Hint:refertoBesselTable]
(c)A FM modulator with 50 kHz of frequency deviationaridamodulatingsignalfrequencyf
m
=8kHz,determinethebandwidthusingboththeBesseltableandCarson'srule.
Answer:
(i)

Public switched telephone networks are communication systems that are available to the

public to allow users to interconnect communication devices. Public telephone networks within
countries and regions are standard integrated systems of transmission and switching facilities,
signalingprocessors,andassociatedoperationssupportsystemsthatallowcommunicationdevicesto
communicatewitheachotherwhentheyoperate.
PSTN customers connect to theendoffice (EO)for telecommunications services. The EO
processes the customer service request locally or passes it off to the appropriate end ortandem
office. As Different levels of switches interconnect the parts of the PSTN system, lowerlevel
switches are used to connect endusers (telephones) directly to other endusers in a specific
geographicarea.Higherlevelswitchesareusedtointerconnectlowerlevelswitches.
Switches within the PSTN send control messagesto each other, usually througha separate
controlsignaling networkcalledsignaling system number 7 (SS7). The SS7 network is composed
of signaling transfer points (STPs) and service control point (SCP) databases. A STP is used to
route packets of control messages through the network. SCP's are databases that are used by the
network to process or reroute calls through thenetwork(suchas800numbertollfreecallrouting).
SS7 also provides for the newer features such as incoming call identification and automatic call
reroutingusedbysomeservicecompaniesthatprovide24/7,worldwidedialinsupport.

PublicSwitchedTelephoneNetworkPSTNDiagram
(i)

TheelementsofPSTNare:
Subscriberterminals
Localloops
Switches(orexchanges)
Trunks

Figure11.1:ElementsofPSTN.


TheSubscriberTerminal

In its simplest form, the subscriber terminal is the ordinary telephone with a keypad to dial the
numbers.Therearetwotypesofdialing:(a)pulsedialingand(b)DTMFdialing.
Pulse dialing:
In pulse dialing, when a digit is dialed, a series of pulses is sent out. When the user
dials 1, 1 pulse is transmitted totheexchange,when2isdialed,2pulsesaresent,andsoonwhen0
is dialed, 10 pulses are sent. The exchange uses apulsecountertorecognizethedigits. Sincepulses
are likely to be distorted over the medium due to attenuation,pulserecognitionaccuracyisnotvery
high. Many old switches and telephones support only pulse dialing, though slowly pulse dialing is
becomingoutdated.
DTMF dialing:
DTMF stands for DualToneMultiFrequency.DTMFdialingisalsoknownastone
dialing or speed dialing. When a digit is dialed, acombinationoftwosinewavesissent..When1is
dialed, a combination of 697Hz and 1209Hz is sent from the terminal to the exchange. A DTMF
recognition chip is used at the exchange to decode the digits. DTMF recognition is highly accurate
andisbecomingpredominant.MostpresentdaytelephonessupportDTMF.

The two types of dialing supported by the subscriber terminals are (a) pulse dialing and (b) tone
dialing or DTMF dialing. In pulse dialing, for each digit, a series of pulses is sent to the switch. In
tone dialing, for each digit, a combination of two sine waves issent.DTMFdialingismorereliable
as compared to pulse dialing. Pulses are likely togetdistortedduetotransmissionimpairments,and

so pulse dialing is not always reliable. On the other hand, tone detection is very reliable,andhence
DTMFdialingisnowextensivelyused.
LocalLoop
The local loop is a dedicated link between a subscriber terminal and the switch. Present local loop
uses twistedpair copper wire as the local loop. In the future, fiber is being planned toprovidehigh
bandwidth services to subscribers. In remote and rural areas, where laying the cable is costly or
infeasible (due to terrains such as hills etc.),radioisused.Thiswirelesslocalloop(WLL)hasmany
advantages: fast installation, low maintenance costs. Moreover, it obviates the need for digging
belowground.HenceWLLdeploymentisalsocatchingup,eveninurbanareas.
Local loop is the dedicated link betweenthesubscriberterminalandtheswitch.Twistedpaircopper
wire is the most widely used medium for local loop. Nowdays, wireless local loop is gaining
popularity.Inthefuture,opticalfiberwillbeusedasthelocallooptosupportveryhighdatarates.
Switch
In earlier days, mechanical and electromechanical switches (strowger and crossbar switches) were
usedextensively.Presentswitchesusedigitaltechnology.Thesedigitalswitcheshavethecapacityto
supportseveralthousandtoafewmilliontelephones.
To cater to large areas, the switching system is organized as a hierarchy. At the lowest level of the
hierarchy, the switches are called end offices or local exchanges. Above that, there will be toll
exchanges (class 4 switches), primary (class 3) switches, secondary (class 2) switches,andregional
(class1)switches.

HierarchicalswitchingsystemofPSTN
In a city, an exchange is designated as a toll exchange and acts as the gateway for alllongdistance
calls. Similarly, a few gateway switches carrycallsfromonenationtoanother.However,thebilling

for subscribers is always done by the parent exchange (the exchange to which the subscriber is
connected).
In PSTN, the switching system is organized as a hierarchical system. The local switches are
connected to toll exchanges. Toll exchanges are connected to primary switches which are in turn
connectedtosecondaryandregionalswitches.
The switch to which a subscriber is connected is called the parent switch.Billingisalwaysdoneby
theparentswitch.
Trunks
Trunks interconnect the switches. Based on traffic considerations as well as administrative
considerations, theinterconnection betweentheswitchesthroughtrunksisdecided.Nowdays,trunks
are mostly digital: speech is converted to PCM format, multiplexed, and transmitted through the
trunks. The trunks can be T1 or E1 links if the switches are of small capacity (eg, 512 ports).
Depending on which switches are connected, the trunks are categorized as intracity trunks and
intercity trunks. The switches are interconnected through trunks. Most of the trunks are digital and
usePCMformatforcarryingthevoicetraffic.E1trunkscarry30voicechannels.
(ii)
BasicOperation:
PSTN switches operate on a linkbylink basis:eachswitchwithinthehierarchyforwardsits
trafficalongthelinkorhoptothenextPSTNswitchbasedonthecallsetupprocess.
(b)
Given:
m=5,E
=2V,f
=400kHz,f
=5kHz
c
c
m
Solution:
(i) NumberofSidebands:
FromBesselTable:
n=8sidebands
(ii)

SidebandAmplitudes:
J0=2(8.18)V=0.36V

J1=2(0.33)=0.66V
J2=2(0.50)=1.00V
J3=2(0.36)=0.72V
J4=2(0.39)=0.78V
J5=2(0.26)=0.52V
J6=2(0.13)=0.26V
J7=2(0.05)=0.10V
J8=2(0.02)=0.04V
(iii)
outputfrequencyspectrum:

(c)Given:

=50kHz

f
m

=8kHz

Solution:
m

=f/f
m
=50/8

..

=6.256

=9

UsingBessel:
B

=2nf
m

=2(9)(8kHz)
B

=144kHz

UsingCarsons:
B

=2(f+f
)
m
=2(50+8)

=116kHz

Question3
(a)Ingeneral,digitalsignalsarestoredaftertheanalogdigital(A/D)conversioninadigital
memory,e.g.themainmemory.Inordertoconvertdigitalsignalsbacktoanalogsignals,
digitalanalog(D/A)convertersareneeded.Thisrelationshipisillustratedinthefigurebelow:

i.
Weconsidertherecovered,analogsignalafterthesamplingandquantization.Whyis
anerrorlessreconstructionoftheanalogsignalnotpossibleevenassumingideallyworking
components?
ii.
Nametwoadvantagesofdigitalsignalsoveranalogsignals.

Answer:
(i)
AnerrorlessreconstructionoftheanalogsignalnotpossiblebecauseofQuantizationnoise&
saturation.
(ii)

Digitalsignalsareeasilystored,technologyandtemperatureindependent.

Question4
(a)

Describehowdatacouldbetransmittedusingacombinationofmodulationtechniques.

(b)
i.
ii.

Anareahas10clustersandeachclusterhas7cells.Determine:
ThenumberofRadioBaseStation(RBS)
Numberofcellinthearea

(c)
CalculatethenumberofErlangsifthereare25usersmakeaphonecallforeachan
averageofthreeminutesinanhour.
Answer:
(a)
Itispossibletouseamplitudemodulation,frequencymodulation,andphase
modulationtechniquesonthesamecircuit.Example,wecouldcombineamplitudemodulation
withfourdefinedamplitudes(capableofsendingtwobits)withfrequencymodulationwith
fourdefinedfrequencies(capableofsendingtwobits)toenableustosendfourbitsonthe
samesymbol.
(b)
(i)

ThenumberofRadioBaseStation(RBS)=NumberofclustersxNumberofcells
=10x7
=70
(iii)
ThenumberofcellsintheareaisequaltothenumberofRBSinthatarea.Hencethe
numberofcellsinthegivenareaisequalto70.
(c)

ThenumberofErlangs=(numberofcallsinhour)(averagecalllength)
3600s
=1.25Erl

Question5
(a)

Considerthefollowinganalogsignalasbelowandanswerthefollowingquestions:

xa(t)=3cos(2000t)+5sin(6000t)+10cos(12000t)
i.

DeterminetheNyquistrateforthissignal

ii.
AssumethatthesignalissampledattherateofF
=5000samplespersecond,findthe
s
discretetimesignalobtainedaftersampling.
iii.

From5(a)(ii),findtheanalogsignalthatwecanreconstructfromthesamples.

(b)
AssumethatthewordFreddyneedstobetransmittedthroughatransmissionline.
UsingtheattachedASCIItableintheappendix,answerthefollowingquestions:
i.
Howmanybitsareneededbythistransmission?

ii.
UsingtheoddparityfortheVRCandevenparityforLRC,computetheVRCandLRC
forthistransmission.


Answer:
(a)

(i) Themax.frequencyinxa(t)isfMAX=6Khz
TheNyquistrateis12Khz
(ii)

x[n]=xa(nT)=xa(n/5000)
=3cos(2n/5)+5sin(6n/5)+10cos(12n/5)
=13cos(2n/5)+5sin(2n3/5)
=13cos(2n/5)5sin(2n2/5)

(iii)

5/2
j
3/2

3/2

3/25/2
j
5

3/25/2
j

55/2
j
3/2

3/25/2
j

(b)

T
5/2
j
13/2

3/2

13/25/2
j
3/2

5/2
j 13/21/T

5/2
j
13/2

13/2

5/2
j
13/2

The character sent for LRC is thus 10101000 or a ). The message sent is f, r, e, d, d, y
and(.
Without VRC checking, LRC checking detects most errors but doesnotdetecterrorswhereaneven
number of characters has anerrorinthesamebitposition.Forexampleifbit2oftheFand rwas
inerrorthenLRCisstillvalid.
This problem is overcome if LRC and VRC are used together. With LRC/VRC the only time an
error goes undetectediswhenaneven numberofbits,inaneventnumberofcharacters,in samebit
position of each character are inerror.Thisisofcoursevery unlikely.On systemswhereonlysingle
bit errors occur then the LRC/VRCmethodcan beusedtodetectandcorrectthesinglebiterror.For
systems where more than one error can occur it is not possible to locate the bits in error and the
receiverthuspromptsthetransmittertoretransmitthemessage.