The Earth System

The Earth is made up of a series of components the hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. These
function as systems that are constantly interacting and adjusting to both internal and external factors. It is the
continuous alterations to these cycles that produce the environmental conditions that we experience. This section
explores the key characteristics and dominant drivers of these Earth system cycles.

The hydrosphere is a defining characteristic of the Earth. It is the only planet in the Solar System with a hydrological
cycle. This includes: oceans; freshwater (rivers, lakes, and groundwater); and the cryosphere(where water exists as
a solid ice or snow such as within ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost/frozen ground. These are also major stores
of freshwater). The hydrosphere and cryosphere are also frequently recognised as two separate spheres. Together,
all of these water sources are vital for almost all forms of life on Earth, and they are the reason that Earth is often
termed the water planet. For more detailed information regarding the extent and distribution of the cryosphere visit
the Snow and Ice Data Center.

The atmosphere is the thick layer of gaseous material which surrounds the Earth. Most of the atmosphere lies within
97 km of the Earths surface, but it has no definite boundary. The atmosphere is divided into four layers,
the Troposphere (0-10 km altitude), the Stratosphere (10-45 km altitude), the Mesosphere (45-80 km altitude), and
the Thermosphere (80-300 km altitude). The atmosphere comprises: 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon,
0.039% carbon dioxide and very small amounts of other gases. These gases are often termed greenhouse gases as
they are delicately balanced to maintain the Earths temperature at a level suitable to sustain life. Without these
gases, and the natural greenhouse effect, the average temperature of the Earth would be approximately -18C (0F)
instead of its current 14C (57F) (see NOAA). Earth is one of the few planets in the solar system which has an
atmosphere. Venus, one of our closest neighbours has an atmosphere made of 96.5% carbon dioxide (CO2) and
3.5% nitrogen (N2), which forms a very toxic atmosphere, allowing it to maintain a sweltering surface temperature of
467C!

The lithosphere is the term given to the rock and minerals which form Earths outer crust and its tectonic plates. This
is an important part of the Earths system as these rocks become eroded and weathered to provide important
minerals to the other Earth systems. Through Earths history, the entire lithosphere has been recycled approximately
six times. At the outermost layer of the lithosphere, the pedosphere (meaning soil sphere) exists at the interface
between lithospheric, atmospheric, biospheric and hydrospheric processes. The combination of these processes
leads to soil formation, which is essential for sustaining life on Earth (the biosphere).

The biosphere refers to all types of life on Earth, including plants, animals, and bacteria. Over the history of the
Earth the biosphere has changed considerably with a great number of species evolving, adapting, and becoming
extinct. The diversity of the biosphere varies greatly across the Earth, as species can be highly vulnerable to even
minor variations in climate. A slight change in air temperature or moisture, for example, can alter the type of
vegetation (flora) which is able to grow in a given location. This may in turn affect the distribution of animals (fauna) as
they move or adapt in tune with vegetation availability.

Ocean-atmosphere: the Earths great conveyor belt

For scientists studying climate change, the ocean (hydrosphere) and atmosphere are important parts of the Earth
system and are very closely related. For this reason, the ocean-atmosphere components are often likened to an
energy conveyor belt. The interactions between the ocean and atmosphere distribute incoming energy from the sun
and drive climate patterns across the globe. This has important impacts upon the distribution of ice within the
cryosphere, species within the biosphere, and spatial variations in weathering of the lithosphere.

A vast, and ever increasing, body of research continues to investigate the nature and complexity of oceanatmosphere interactions (Webster, 1994; Kurtz et al., 2011). These studies have developed detailed monitoring
networks of present-day changes. Perhaps the largest of these networks is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. Many studies also use palaeo records and computer models to assess long-term variability of oceanatmospheric cycles during Earths history (Bush and Philander, 1998; Divine et al., 2010;Rahmstorf, 2002). Together,
using what we understand about past and present events, these approaches are used to help predict future oceanatmosphere dynamics under projected climate scenarios (Collins et al., 2010).