Instructor of Milk Hygiene Dr.

ALI AL-SHAMMARY

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Biochemical changes in milk:

Milk is an ideal medium for the growth of many organisms,
having high water content and abundant nutrients, and being nearly
neutral pH (6.46.8). A plentiful supply of food for energy is available in
the form of milk sugar (lactose), milk fat, citrate, and nitrogenous
compounds (proteins, amino acids, ammonia, urea and other non-protein
nitrogenous compounds). In addition, the Eh (oxidation-reduction
potential) of milk is above 0.3 volts, thus enabling aerobes to grow
readily. Microorganisms present in milk can be classified into two main
groups: pathogenic and spoilage organisms, although some may play a
dual role (e.g. Bacillus cereus). Pathogenic organisms are those capable
of inducing food poisoning, thus posing a threat to public health. By
virtue of their elaborated enzymes (e.g. protease, peptidase, lipase,
esterase, oxidase, polymerase, -galactosidase), spoilage organisms are
capable of hydrolyzing milk components such as protein, fat and lactose
in order to yield compounds suitable for their growth. Such reactions can
lead to spoilage of milk, manifested as off-flavours and odours, and
changes in texture and appearance. Microflora of raw milk, the types of
organisms present in raw milk is influenced by temperatures and time of
storage as well as methods of handling during and after milking.
Although milk produced from the mammary glands of healthy animals is
initially sterile, microorganisms are able to enter the udder through the
teat duct opening. Gram-positive Cocci, Streptococci, Staphylococci and
Micrococci; lactic acid bacteria (LAB), Pseudomonas spp. and yeasts are
most frequently found in milk drawn aseptically from the udder;
Corynebacteria are also common. Where the mammary tissue becomes
infected and inflamed; a condition known as mastitis, large numbers of
microorganisms and somatic cells are usually shed into the milk. Mastitis
is a very common disease in dairy cows, and may be present in a
subclinical form; this can only be diagnosed by examining the milk for
Raised somatic cell counts. Many bacterial species are able to cause
mastitis.

Instructor of Milk Hygiene Dr. ALI AL-SHAMMARY

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TABLE
Some Genera of Bacteria Possibly Associated with Milk
Family
Micrococcaceae

Genus

Morphology

Motility

Gram
Reaction

Oxygen
Requirement

Micrococcus

Coccus

none

+ev

Aerobic

Staphylococcus Clump of cocci

none

+ev

Aerobic

Diplococcus

none

+ev

Aerotolerant

Streptococcus

Chain of cocci

none

+ev

Aerotolerant

Lactobacillus

Rod, chain

none

+ev

Aerotolerant

Bacillus

Rod, spores

none

+ev

Aerobic

Clostridium

Rod, spores

none

+ev

Anaerobic

Escherichia

Rod

(Peritrichous)

-ev

Salmonella

Rod

(Peritrichous)

-ev

Pseudomonas

Rod

(Polar)

-ev

Lactococcus
Lactobacillaceae

Bacillaceae

Enterobacteriaceae

Pseudomonadaceae

Facultative
aerobic
Facultative
aerobic
Aerobic

Influence of storage & transport on milk microbial load:

The improperly cleaned & sanitized equipment used for milk
storage (milk cans & bulk tanks) and transport (cans or insulated
tankers) of raw milk might increase the microbial count depending
on their hygienic conditions.
Some rise in milk microbial load may result from pumping of milk
through milk machines & milk pipelines, which breaks up the
microbial clumps & chains especially those associated with milk
lipid clusters.
The improper cooling & refrigeration of raw milk during storage &
transport leads to an increase in microbial load particularly
Psychrotrophic count, hence they predominant in it, especially
Bacillus spores are detected, but usually dont germinate &
outgrow. Among psychrotrophs generates in stored milk
Pseudomonas spp. mainly Pseudomonas fluorescence.
The thermoduric flora also remains unchanged in stored milk.

Instructor of Milk Hygiene Dr. ALI AL-SHAMMARY

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Significance of microorganisms in milk:

Information on the microbial content of milk can be used to judge its
sanitary quality and the conditions of production.
If permitted to multiply, bacteria in milk can cause spoilage of the
product.
Milk is potentially susceptible to contamination with pathogenic
microorganisms. Precautions must be taken to minimize this
possibility and to destroy pathogens that may gain entrance.
Certain microorganisms produce chemical changes that are desirable
in the production of dairy products such as cheese, yogurt.

Abnormal changes in milk (milk spoilage):

The microbial quality of raw milk is crucial for the production of
quality dairy foods. Spoilage is a term used to describe the deterioration
of a foods' texture, colour, odour or flavour to the point where it is
unappetizing or unsuitable for human consumption. Microbial spoilage of
food often involves the degradation of protein, carbohydrates, and fats by
the microorganisms or their enzymes. In milk, the microorganisms that
are principally involved in spoilage are Psychrotrophic organisms. Most
Psychrotrophs are destroyed by pasteurization temperatures; however,
some like Pseudomonas fluorescens & Pseudomonas fragi can produce
proteolytic and lipolytic extracellular enzymes which are heat stable and
capable of causing spoilage. Some species and strains of
Bacillus, Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Arthrobacter, Lactobacillus,
Microbacterium, Micrococcus and Streptococcus can survive
pasteurization and grow at refrigeration temperatures which can cause
spoilage problems.
Pathogenic Microorganisms in Milk: Hygienic milk
production practices, proper handling and storage of milk and mandatory
pasteurization has decreased the threat of milk borne diseases such as
tuberculosis, brucellosis, and typhoid fever. There have been a number of
foodborne illnesses resulting from the ingestion of raw milk, or dairy
products made with milk that was not properly pasteurized or was poorly
handled causing post-processing contamination. The following bacterial
pathogens are still of concern today in raw milk and other dairy products:

Instructor of Milk Hygiene Dr. ALI AL-SHAMMARY

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Mycobacterium tuberculosis- Tuberculosis in man and cow, source of

this infection is cow . Micrococcus piogens causes sour throat in man.
It is also responsible for mastitis, source of infection is cow.
Brucella abortus causes undulant fever in human and brucellosis in cow.
Bacillus antracis causes anthrax in both human and cow . Salmonella
typhi causes typhoid . Shigella dysentriae causes dysentery in infants .
Corynebacterium diphtheria causes diphtheria . Coxiella burnetti causes
Q- fever . Vibrio comma causes cholera . Salmonella paratyphi &
salmonella typhimurium causes enteric fever . Streptococcus pyogenes
var.scarlatinae causes scarlet fever. Bacillus cereus, Listeria
monocytogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, Escherichia coli O157:H7 &
Campylobacter jejuni causing serious diseases & problems in man &
animals. It should also be noted that moulds, mainly of species of
Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium can grow in milk and dairy
products. If the conditions permit, these moulds may produce Mycotoxins
which can be a health hazard.
1. Abnormal fermentation of milk with production of
abnormal acids by spoilage microbes leading to abnormal milk
odour, taste & texture as souring flavour with gel & clots formation
(non-homogenized mixtures) results from acids & pH development
via two types of LAB: Homofermentatives such as Streptococci,
Lactobacilli & Pediococci spp. that ferments lactose to 95% lactic
acid with some end products like acetic acid & CO2, and
Heterofermentatives as natural beneficial starters such as
Leuconostoc & Lactobacilli giving milk products good flavour of
fermenting end products acetylaldehyde & diacetyl, or pathogenic
heterofermentatives such as Coliforms, Mycobacterium &
Micrococci that ferments lactose to equal ratios of lactic acid,
CO2, ethanol & volatile fatty acids. Sources of fermentative
microbes in raw milk include utensils, coat of Cow, feed (silage),
fecal matter, environment & polluted water supplies.

2. Gas production which means abnormal production of gases in

milk & other dairy products by LAB, especially CO2 & H2 with
acids leading to formation of caseous spongiform clots & gases in
milk causing a case called Foaming (Frothiness) especially occurs

Instructor of Milk Hygiene Dr. ALI AL-SHAMMARY

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in sour cream & high fat milk by yeasts such as Candida spp. &
Torula cremoris, by Coliforms such as Escherichia coli &
Enterobacter aerogenes and by anaerobic spore former
Clostridium butyricum. Sources of gas forming microbes are soil,
manure, feed (silage) & utensils.
3. Ropy fermentation which means abnormal viscous-slimy or
ropiness texture of milk due to production of slimy capsule like
threads inside milk either gummy like polysaccharides or
mucinous-nitrogenous structures either by microbial ropiness
microorganisms such as Psychrophilic Alcaligenes viscolactis &
Enterobacter aerogenes, or by non-microbial ropiness during
cases of mastitis by the action of increased inflammatory cells
(WBCs) & materials (Fibrin). Sources of ropy microbes are soil,
polluted water & feed.
4. Proteolysis hydrolysis of milk proteins by Pseudomonas,
Bacillus, Proteus & Streptococcus liquifaciens.
5. Lipolysis i.e. splitting of milk lipids via Pseudomonas,
Achromobacter lipolyticum, Candida lipolytica & Penicillium
spp.
6. Bitty (broken) cream & milk due to presence of flakes or
small clots in milk & cream either temporary naturally during
heating causing refolding of milk protein structures or dominantly
due to pathogenic lecithinase or phospholipases producing
microbes such as Bacillus cereus especially in pasteurized milk.
The important genera of phospholipases producing microbes
include Pseudomonas, Serratia marcesense, Acinetobacter,
Flavobacterium,
Enterobacter
aerogenes,
Bacillus
&
Clostridium.
7.

Sweet Curdling occurs only in heated milk by themophilic

microbes secreting rennin like enzymes such as Bacillus, Strept.
liquifaciens, Escherichia coli & Proteus spp.