VIII semester

B.Arch
KLS Gogte In stitute of
Techno log y
Belgaum

CONTENTS
Abstract ...................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgement ..................................................................................... iii
List of Illustrations .................................................................................... iv
Literature Study ......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction of topic and Intention of the thesis: ................................................................. 1
1.2 Objectives and scope of the project: ................................................................................... 2
1.3 Dictionary meaning and elaboration on key words:.............................................................. 2
1.4 Elaboration on aspects of stadium architecture: .................................................................. 3
1.4.1 Sports:........................................................................................................................ 3
1.4.2 The stadium and the city: ............................................................................................ 3
1.4.3 Urban Integration: ...................................................................................................... 4
1.4.4 Typologies: ................................................................................................................. 4
1.4.5 Narratives:.................................................................................................................. 5
1.4.6 Management of Public Space around the Sporting Arena .............................................. 7
1.5 Architectural aspects of stadia: ........................................................................................... 8
1.5.1 Chronological documentation of stadium architecture: ................................................. 8
1.5.2 Contemporary stand on stadium architecture:............................................................ 19
1.6 Opinions of Experts on the phenomenon and architecture dealing with the issue:............... 23

Publication bibliography .......................................................................... 25

i|R e t hi n ki n g A r chi te ct u r e of S t a di u m Typ o lo g y

Abstract

Stadia have the ability to reshape a city. What once was a place built
for viewing an event, is now the most important piece of civic
infrastructure. Historically, the stadium was built as a monument to
society. The Roman Colosseum and Soldier Field were built as
political gifts to the city, which symbolized the importance of
recreation and entertainment in society. They were spaces for the
cities to meet as one, to share their views, and celebrate civic
accomplishment. The modern stadium is still a space for civic
celebration, but why is it important for a city to have this space?
What is the role of the modern stadium today?
The modern stadiums are designed to capitalize financially as much
as possible and also due to increase in automobiles, the newly built
stadiums have moved from downtown to suburbs providing owners
more space for seats, larger parking lots and ultimately more revenue.
These larger disconnected stadiums have led to waning attendance
and an overall lack of use.
The thesis attempts at finding what measures would bring back the
sports arenas much closer to the common public and aims at creating
an event space for a better symbiosis of private and public sectors and
this project will establish a new prototype for stadium design in
which the stadium becomes an integral part of the city. The project
will examine how a new stadium can become a continuation of street
activity thereby uniting the urban fabric of the city. The stadium will
be a facility that serves the sporting culture as well as the city.

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Acknowledgement
I learned that I could not do anything in one graduation project and
experienced that frequent contact with my supervisors was fruitful
without doubt. Therefore I would like to give my special thanks to
Ar.Ritesh Darmayat sir for helping me with structuring my research
and for guiding me in all kind of ways. Many thanks to our HOD, Ar.
Pratap D.Patil, for his fair effort in giving reviews and suggestions to
each of the students in our batch.
I would like to thank my twin brother, Hareesh Gangolli for sharing
his thoughts on my thesis and making me believe in myself.
I can never forget my parents and my family for their great support
during my hard times.
Finally, I want to thank all my friends who never let me down and
who were so patient during the last year.

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List of Illustrations
Figure 1 Closed Vs Open Types ..........................................................................................4
Figure 2 Community and the stadium......................................................................................5
Figure 3 Going to the match LS Lowry, 1928 .........................................................................6
Figure 4 Stadium at Olympia ..................................................................................................8
Figure 8 Panathenaic stadium (2004 Olympic Games of Athens)...........................................9
Figure 5 Plan of 331 BC Panathenaic Stadium........................................................................9
Figure 6 Panathenaic stadium (1896 Olympic Games) ...........................................................9
Figure 7 Panathenaic stadium before renovation .....................................................................9
Figure 9 The great amphitheatre in Verona ..........................................................................10
Figure 10 Colosseum (The Flavian Amphitheatre) ...............................................................11
Figure 12 Circus Maximus in 80 AD.....................................................................................12
Figure 11 View of Circus Maximus.......................................................................................12
Figure 14 Remnants of Hippodrome of Constantinople (Bezantine Empire)........................13
Figure 13 Chariot Racing in Roman Hippodromes ...............................................................13
Figure 16 Time line of stadium development ........................................................................14
Figure 15 Piazza del Campo ..................................................................................................14
Figure 17 Large amount of crowd in First Generation stadia ................................................15
Figure 18 Telstra Dome in Melbourne...................................................................................17
Figure 19 The Chinese National Stadium in Beijing The Bird's Nest Stadium..................18
Figure 20 View of Oriole Park at Camden Yards ..................................................................20
Figure 21 character of the street between the ballpark and the warehouse............................20
Figure 22 extension of the stadium to the street ....................................................................20

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Literature Study
1.1 Introduction of topic and Intention of the thesis:
Stadium, in its purest form, is a structure that holds tiered seating arrangements built for
mass viewing of sports, competitions and public events. It is a major component of social
interaction in cultures all around the world, in both developed and developing nations. The
cathedral of sport has always been a place capable of bringing a community together; dating
back from spectacular colosseum to mega structures we build today. It is a place where
people come together to celebrate sport, see a show, congregate for self expression or some
other similar social event.
Currently many stadiums, which are civic structures, tear unsustainable holes in cities
and isolate themselves from their surroundings. It is not enough for stadiums to just co-exist
with the urban environment and become integrated into the skyline. They must infuse
activity, vitalize the surrounding area, restore urban density, and create connections to the
community. Traditional stadium design typically revolves solely around an iconic image
conveyed by these civic monuments. However, they often ignore the social potential
embedded within. How does a stadium become more than just a stadium? This thesis will
address issues of community, embodying how a new stadium can provide a nucleus for
urban regeneration within the city.
Stadiums are traditionally designed with regards to the aerial view from a blimp;
however, this is not how stadiums are experienced. Therefore, this thesis will examine how
stadiums are experienced at the human scale. This notion challenges traditional stadium
configurations. A paradigm shift for stadium design is necessary to change the way we view
their role within the urban context.
Cities invest heavily in stadiums in terms of funding and support; therefore, it is
imperative that stadiums invest in cities in terms of physical contributions and social
benefits.
Stadiums need to be designed to achieve public gain and can become more and
more public participatory. There is a large disconnect between a privately focused design
and a publicly focused design. Therefore there has to be a major shift in the way the
stadiums are viewed, designed and financed, allowing them to become more flexible.
Especially when integrated in mixed-use developments, they can play a key role in urban
regeneration and the trend of stadiums returning to inner city areas is one that we might
expect to see more of in the future. A stadium could become more of a public amenity to
the city instead of helping a very few to profit and only being used sparely for a limited
number of things.
The thesis attempts at finding what measures would bring back the sports arenas
much closer to the common public and aims at creating an event space for a better
symbiosis of private and public sectors and this project will establish a new prototype for
stadium design in which the stadium becomes an integral part of the city. The project will
examine how a new stadium can become a continuation of street activity thereby uniting the
urban fabric of the city. The stadium will be a facility that serves the sporting culture as well
as the city.

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1.2 Objectives and scope of the project:

To promote and enhance prospects of sports.
To discuss what are the stands of experts and common people over the topic at
present.
To appreciate main areas of debate around the topic and also try to contribute to that
debate.
To provide for all citizens a variety of enjoyable leisure opportunities those are
accessible safe, physically attractive and uncrowned.
To access the requirement of sports complex in the light of regional potentials and
aspirations of the people.
To think of all possible ways to make the stadium, an integral part of the city life and
meet the expectations of present generation.
There is real scope for the study as the contemporary sport arenas are looking at the
different possibilities to achieve social and economical gain. There is a lot of discussion
going on around the world on this topic and in developing countries like India it is still
possible to integrate stadiums within urban fabric, enriching the aspiration of the people
towards sports.
1.3 Dictionary meaning and elaboration on key words:
Sport: Sport is termed as all forms of physical activity that contribute to physical fitness,
mental well-being and social interaction. These include play; recreation; casual, organized
or competitive sport; and indigenous sports or games. (Sport Recreation and Play 2004)
Stadium: Enclosure that provides a broad space for sports events and tiers
of seats for a large number of spectators. The name derives from a Greek unit of
measurement, the stade, (about 607 ft or 185 m) the length of the foot race in the ancient
Olympics. Shapes of the stadium have varied depending on use: some are regular with
curved corners; others are elliptical or U-shaped.
Typology: The doctrine or study of types or of the correspondence between
them and the realities which they typify;
Polis: A polis consisted of an urban centre, often fortified and with a sacred centre built on a
natural acropolis or harbor, which controlled a surrounding territory (chora) of land.
Hippodromes: (in ancient Greece or Rome) a stadium for chariot or horse races.
Circus : (in ancient Rome) a rounded or oval arena lined with tiers of seats, used for
equestrian and other sports and games.
Naumachia shows : an ancient Roman spectacle representing a naval battle. : A place for
naumachiae.

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1.4 Elaboration on aspects of stadium architecture:

1.4.1 Sports:
One of the benefits of sports is that it brings youth together. Sports help people solve
their differences and problems. Young people can change their attitude by playing sport.
-Salah Hussein Wasughe, 2004
Sport is one of the few things we have created in our society that is not predictable, it is
never the same. It can be unique. Sport supplies the stories that make life worth living for
many people.''
-Rod Sheard, 2005
To understand why stadia have become central to the lives of so many people, it is
necessary to examine the role of sport in society. Sport today has moved to central stage,
effectively ousting every other form of mass entertainment. Donald Katz argues that ''Sport
has arguably' surpassed popular music as the captivating medium most essential to being
perceived as young and alive ... ''. Sport goes straight to the hearts of people -be they
spectators in the stadium or television viewers -arousing passionate and partisan behavior.
Sport has been described as ''war without killing'', and the language of n1artial conflict is
employed -there are 'offence squads' and 'defense squads' in American football, we 'shoot' at
goal, we celebrate 'victory' and the 'defeat' of vanquished opponents. (Sheard et al. 2005)
Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire. It has the power to
unite people in a way that little else does. Sport can awaken hope where there was
previously only despair.
-Nelson Mandela, 2006
With so many diverse opportunities throughout society, sports represent one of the last
institutions that everyone can identify within a community. Stadiums are the physical
manifestation of this institution, the modern day cathedrals and town halls. They are one of
the most important types a city can have.
Modern sport has been described as (i) a ritual sacrifice of human energy; (ii)
providing a common cultural currency between peoples; (iii) a means of compensating for
deficiencies in life; (iv) a mechanism for the affirmation of identity and difference; (v)
business rather than sport; (vi) a social product; (vii) a contested arena shaped by struggles
both on and off the field of play and (viii) being a euphemism for Western or capitalist
sport. (Jarvie 2005)
1.4.2 The stadium and the city:
The stadium has always been the most iconic building in the city. From the Colosseum
in Rome, to Soldier Field in Chicago, the stadium is the urban space where cities gather to
express their civic pride. Stadia are the icon of the community that surrounds them.
Wrigleyville in Chicago would be nonexistent if it were not for Wrigley Field. No other
building typology has the same effect that stadia have on a city. The stadium as a building
typology cannot be understood without understanding the society in which it resides.
stadiums are the icon of the city. They represent the culture and views of the society;
The stadium is the urban center for the celebration of the ritual that is the event. It is
the place where the people gather to rejoice as one when the team wins, and mourn when
the team loses. The stadium is the most urban structure in the city today. But the stadium is
more than a place for sport. It is a tool for revitalizing the city. It is a center of economic
growth. In many new stadiums, transportation centers are also introduced alongside. This
proves that the stadium grows the city center. (Dureiko 2014)
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1.4.3 Urban Integration:

Today, unlike any other building, the stadium stages the organized congregation of
tens of thousands of people, in a collective demonstration of a contemporary social order.
And yet, in a growing trend, stadia exist in an increasingly compromised relationship with
the contemporary city and its citizens. Once a significant facet of classical civic life, this
typology has become hermetic, standing as disconnected obstacles in urban areas,
frequently unoccupied and often relocated to the urban fringes. With sporting and large
cultural events now almost entirely controlled by private investors, sponsors and the media,
stadia architecture is often more concerned with the defense of a privatized territory, rather
than the support of a public space that engages and identifies with the city. (Paxton 2014)
In countries like India, which always celebrate sports as a religion, there is a need to
make stadiums as the integral part of the city. There can be more activities that can happen
around the stadiums which can connect them to the city and bring up the aspiration and
proud of the city.
It is clear that alongside the seats, tiers, steps, club shops, ticket offices and turnstiles of the
stadium, a range of everyday, ritualistic spaces form part of an overall spatial narrative that
characterizes the experience of viewing a sporting occasion. This project will explore how
specific ritualistic behaviors, occurring at the precise intervals of the stadium games fixture
list, may affect the urban processes happening simultaneously at the premises.
1.4.4 Typologies:
Closed configuration:
Isolation within the urban context Traditional stadium design typically emphasizes iconic
imagery conveyed by these defined civic monuments. However, they often ignore the
dynamic social potential embedded within. These stadiums, which are civic structures, tear
unsustainable holes in cities and isolate themselves from their surroundings. Inherent within
their configuration, these stadiums are intrinsically inward focused. It is a narrow- minded
approach which only addresses the stadium from an internal organization system. These
stadiums work from the standpoint of a contained entity of which they are expressive;
however, they fail with regards to contextual connections. Broader social and economic
issues are ignored. These stadiums are wrapped in circulation concourses that turn their back
to the community. Thus, this traditional "closed" stadium configuration becomes an isolated
amenity void of activity the majority of time. Traditional stadiums have few ties to their
surroundings. Their isolation portrays the idea that they can be inserted anywhere. By
applying design notions universally it is impossible to establish a sense of place. Many
current stadiums have been design with under this typology. (Birkey 2005)

Figure 1 Closed Vs Open Types

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Open configuration:
(Integration within the urban context)
This is the desired configuration in order
for urban stadiums to become fully
integrated and realize the social potential
embedded within. This is the emerging
paradigm that is explored throughout the
thesis.
The stadium becomes a
continuation of street activity thereby
uniting the urban fabric of the city. It
serves the sporting culture as well as the
city. It is not enough for the stadium to
just co-exist with the urban environment
it inhabits and make design gestures that
visually incorporate the stadium into the
skyline. It must infuse activity, vitalize
the surrounding area, restore urban
density, and create connections to the
community. Thus, the new "open"
prototype opens up to the community.
Contributions to the community are an
equal priority to that of the functional
aspects of stadium operations. (Birkey
2005)

Figure 2 Community and the stadium

1.4.5 Narratives:
The following pages describe a series of architectural narratives that reveal intersections
between the urban condition and the stadium or sporting logic; masses, ritual, typology and
hybridization. These themes will develop ideological, theoretical and tectonic strands to the
project.

a) Masses:
In the staging of an event, stadia must act as architectural devices to somehow manage the
filling up and emptying of the arena - a choreography of the masses. A stadium can be
considered as being made up of two masses, that of the solid mass of the static structure and
that of the flowing, temporal mass of the spectators, thus, the filling up of the stadium,
completes the construction. During the filling and emptying phases, it is important to
distinguish between the crowd inside and outside the stadium. These contrasting conditions
may be defined as 'open' and 'closed' crowds. Outside, the open crowd is without limits, it
grows, while inside, the closed crowd is now formalized within limits, its density and
numbers controlled by the architecture. Spatial and architectural techniques such as the
positioning and orientation of seats, the paths of circulation and the frequency and
dimensions of entrances may be used to organize the movement of the crowd, with specific
psychological and behavioral implications. The traditional arrangement of seats, informed
by the optimal relation of spectator and actor, imposes a kind of reverse panopticon
condition. Canetti explains,
"The seats are arranged in tiers around the arena, so that everyone can see what is
happening below. The consequence of this is that the crowd is seated opposite itself. Every
spectator has a thousand in front of him, a thousand heads. As long as he is there, all the
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others are there too; whatever excites him, excites them; and he sees it. They are seated
some distance away from him, so that differing details which make up individuals of them
are blurred; they all look alike and they all behave in a similar manner and he notices in
them only the things which he himself is full of their visible excitement increases his own.
There is no break in the crowd which sits like this, exhibiting itself to itself. It forms a closed
ring from which nothing can escape. (. . .) this crowd is doubly closed, to the world outside
and in
This project will engage with the psychological and behavioral nature of both the crowd
and the individual, in relation to the filling and emptying of the stadium, and concepts of its
inside and outside. (Paxton 2014)
This project will engage with the psychological and behavioral nature of both the crowd and
the individual, in relation to the filling and emptying of the stadium, and concepts of its
inside and outside.
b) Ritual:
The presence of the stadium and the influence of the sporting event extend far beyond the
perimeter of the pitch or gates at the turnstile. It is through spectator behavior, the rituals
and performances that comprise 'going to the match: encompassing the everyday spaces that
both surround football stadia and make up journeys to and from them, that a wider, more
diffuse area of the city is caught up in the regular staging of major sporting events in a
specific location.
Architectural significance may be found in the spatial organization of some particular set of
sequences and the paths between the spaces. It must be noted that a series of rituals occur
before and after the event, and are therefore conditioned in relation to its outcome a team's
triumph or defeat.
For home fans, these ritualistic spaces
and the habitual activities that occur
within them contribute to a strong sense
of belonging to a place -a feeling that
Bale describes as a topophilia:
" Occupation of the same spot over the
years, the historical catalogue of
dramatic events on the pitch, the smell
of hot drinks and the waft of cigarette
smoke, the jokes and the chants, and the
whole rich panoply of successive shared
events that become sedimented in the
inhabitation of the stadium and the
passage towards it". (Paxton 2014)
Figure 3 Going to the match LS Lowry, 1928

Equally, the away supporters' 'topophobic' experience may be unfamiliar and somewhat of a
novelty, producing a completely different set of behavioral implications on the local urban
environment. It is clear that alongside the seats, tiers, steps, concourses, club shop, ticket
office and turnstile of the stadium, a range of everyday, ritualistic spaces form part of an
overall spatial narrative that characterizes the experience of viewing a sporting event.
This project will explore how these specific ritualistic behaviors, occurring at the precise
intervals of the stadium game fixture list, may affect and be informed by complimentary or
contradictory urban processes happening simultaneously.
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c) Hybridization:
Besides sporting events and concerts, a stadium could also serve as a public playhouse,
movie theater, or venue for farmers markets and seasonal fairs. Compared to conference
halls, auditoriums, and other structures that host large numbers of people, the open roof of a
stadium creates a stronger feeling of "belonging" in a city, especially when other buildings
are visible from within the space.
1.4.6 Management of Public Space around the Sporting Arena
The public space adjacent to the stadium has two distinctly different phases of
management. The first and most obvious is the management during an event, primarily in
the run up to the event and directly after its conclusion. The second phase, and for the
purposes of this thesis, the more fundamental phase exists outside of event times when the
space is for the most part vacant.
During this time the public space performs entirely differently to match day. It is more
similar to the public space that is seen elsewhere in the urban landscape such as around
high-rise buildings. The difference however is that in this case the building is relatively
unoccupied. The management of this public space is something that concerns not just
architecture but also geography, culture, politics and criminology.
Increasingly in today's world the role of urban space in our lives is significant. Where,
in decades gone by these spaces have been neglected now their relevance to society is being
acknowledged. Even more recent is the shift in opinion regarding the public space around
the stadium. Now more consideration is being given to these spaces. In the past these
buildings were fenced or walled off and gates were only opened on match day. Now,
contemporary stadium designs allow access right up to, if not partly into, the building itself.
The stadium in many urban settings acts as a heart to the area. At intervals it will draw
masses of people to it and its surroundings. Yet equally as fast as they arrived, the stadium
will dispel them back to the extremities of the city. In order to achieve greater public space
the intervals between each occurrence of this must be shortened. A regular heartbeat to the
stadium will supply active use of the public space around it. (Williams 2012-13)
Matthew Carmona, a Professor of Planning and Urban Design at the Bartlett School
of Planning, points out that,
There is a particular type of formal, high profile public space that through a wide
variety of development and policy processes, have become increasingly privatized and
therefore more or less exclusionary."
This is applicable to the public space in the stadiums adjacency and is a response that
the architect, through design, must avoid the public experiencing. (Williams 2012-13)

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1.5 Architectural as pects of stadia:

1.5.1 Chronological documentation of stadium architecture:
The stadium may be considered as an architectural translation of cultures of gathering
and viewing public events, their timely evolution subject to a complex mix of political,
sociological, technological and ideological shifts.
The origins

It could be no-one but Heracles (Hercules in the Roman world), the mythological hero
of strength and of exertion, to set the length over which the athletes had to compete against
each other in the only competition of the first Olympic Games. Legend has it that sixhundred feet of the hero, one after the other, determined in 776 BC the length of the track of
the running event, a length just exceeding 192 m after which the competition itself and the
facility welcoming it were named: "Stadion". (Spampinato)
Greeks:
The ancestral prototypes for modern sports facilities of all kinds are the stadia and
hippodromes of ancient Greece. Here Olympic and other sporting contests were staged, starting
in the eighth century BC.
Greek stadia (foot racecourses):
The stadium at Olympia
There was a sports field situated adjacent
to an enclosed training gymnasium and along
the edge of the field a colonnade with stone
stepping to accommodate the spectators. As the
track became more popular two stands were
constructed, facing each other on opposite sides
of the activity area. The fully developed stadium
consisted of a track 192m long and 32m wide
with rising tiers of seats on massive sloping
earth banks along a rudimentary athletics track
shaped as an elongated "U". The first stadium
therefore originated at Olympia in the VIII
Century BC ultimately accommodating up to
45,000 spectators. The stadium had two Figure 41 Stadium at Olympia
entrances, the Pompic and the Secret, the latter
used only by the judges. Elongated-U-shaped stone stand ran along the three sides of the track,
two rectilinear and one bended, on the other side opening onto the surrounding landscape.
Such stadia were built in all cities where games were played. Some, following the pattern
of Greek theatres, were cut out of a hillside so that banks of seats with good sightlines could be
formed naturally, while others were constructed on flat ground. In the latter case the
performance area was sometimes slightly excavated to allow for the formation of shallow
seating tiers along the sides.
Stadia built on the flat existed at Ephesus, Delphi and Athens. The one at Delphi was
almost 183m long by 28m wide, had a shallow bank of seats along one side and around the
curved end, and the judges seats were at the midpoint of the long side very much as in a
modern facility.As sport became more popular, stadia were built in many Greek towns alongside
with hippodromes. These had similar characteristics and dimensions but they were used for
horse and chariot racing. These sports facilities soon started to play key roles within the "polis".
There are still vestiges in Delphi, Ephesus and most of all in Athens, where in 331 BC
Panathenaic stadium was built. It was then reconstructed in AD 160 and reconstructed again in
1896 for the first modern Olympic games and was recently renovated for the Olympic Games of
Athens 2004. In this form it can still be seen, accommodating up to 50 000 people in 46 rows.
(Spampinato)
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Figure 5 Plan of 331 BC Panathenaic Stadium

Figure 6 Panathenaic stadium (1896 Olympic Games)

Figure 7 Panathenaic stadium before renovation

Figure 8 Panathenaic stadium (2004 Olympic Games of Athens)

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Hippodromes
These courses for horse and chariot races were roughly 198m to 228m long and 37m wide
and were laid out, once again, in a U-shape. Like Greek theatres, hippodromes were usually
made on the slope of a hill to give rising tiers of seating, and from them developed the later
Roman circuses, although these were more elongated and much narrower. (Spampinato)
From Greece to Roma
From an architectural viewpoint, with its partially open structure and its plan, shaped as an
elongated "U", the stadium, which is built sometimes by excavating tiers along a slope and other
times by building them at a certain height on a level ground, is the meeting point between the
two great typological models of the Greek and Roman world, which are also public facilities but
used for performances: theatre and amphitheatre.
The amphitheatre was built during the Roman age starting from the first century BC in
contrast to the Greek model, from which it differed due to its most urban nature. Tiers were built
on an elevated level often with superimposed rows. The elliptical layout fully encompassed the
amphitheatre and spectators could focus only on the arena, the central area for the cruel
gladiators' fights or for naumachia. Besides, unlike those in the theatre stands were often
screened by a curtain screen made up of cloths actuated by ropes. Arles amphitheatre, Verona
Arena (30 AD) and of course Flavian Amphitheatre, the Colosseum (80 AD), are the most
important and best preserved examples. (Spampinato)

Roman times:
Amphitheatres
The militaristic Romans were more interested in public displays of mortal combat than in
races and athletic events, and to accommodate this spectacle they developed a new amphitheatrical form: an elliptical arena surrounded on all sides by high-rising tiers of seats enabling
the maximum number of spectators to have a clear view of the terrible events staged before
them. The term arena is derived from the Latin word for sand or sandy land, referring to the
layer of sand that was spread on the activity area to absorb spilled blood.
The overall form was, in effect, two Greek theatres joined together to form a complete
ellipse. But the size of the later Roman amphitheatres ruled out any reliance on natural ground
slopes to provide the necessary seating profile, therefore the Romans began to construct
artificial slopes around the central arena first in timber (these have not survived)and, starting
in the first century AD, in stone and concrete. Magnificent examples of the latter may still be
seen in Arles and Nimes (stone) and in Rome, Verona and Pula (stone and a form of concrete).
The great amphitheatre in Verona,
built in about 100 AD, is world
famous as a venue for opera
performances.
Originally
it
measured 152m by 123m overall,
but very little remains of the outer
aisle and it currently seats about
22 000 people. The arena
measures
73m
by
44m.
(Spampinato)

Figure 9 The great amphitheatre in Verona

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The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, better known as the Colosseum from the eighth
century onwards, is the greatest exemplar of this building type and has seldom been surpassed to
this day as a rational fusion of engineering, theatre and art. Construction began in AD 70 and
finished 12 years later. The structure formed a giant ellipse of 189m by 155m and rose to a
height of four storeys, accommodating 48 000 people a stadium capacity that would not be
exceeded until the twentieth century. Spectators had good sightlines to the arena below, the
latter being an ellipse of roughly 88m by 55m bounded by a 4.6m high wall. There were 80
arched openings to each of the lower three storeys (with engaged columns and encircling
entablatures applied to the outer wall surface as ornamentation), the openings at ground level
giving entrance to the tiers of seats.

Figure 10 Colosseum (The Flavian Amphitheatre)

The internal ambulatories and access passages formed by the structural arcades were so
well-planned that the entire amphitheatre could, it is thought, have been evacuated in a matter of
minutes.
The arena was used for gladiatorial contests and other entertainments and could be flooded
with water for naval and aquatic displays, thus anticipating modern mass entertainments.
Beneath the arena was a warren of chambers and passageways to accommodate performers,
gladiators and animals. The amphitheatre could be roofed by stretching can-vas awnings across
the open top. All these diverse functions have been smoothly assimilated into a great drum that
stands magnificently in the townscape functional in layout, rational in appearance, yet rich and
expressive in its surface modeling.
In parallel with the transition from theatre to amphitheatre, the tradition of sports facilities
moved from Greece to the Roman world with the birth of circus, the typological evolution of the
prototypes of stadium and of hippodrome, between the II and the I century BC. (Spampinato)

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Circuses:
The circus concerned equestrian sports and drew the elongate "U" shape from the previous
models but it differed from them as its fourth side was closed by buildings. Seats rose in tiers
along the straight sides of the U and round the curved end, the lower seats being in stone and
reserved for members of the upper classes, the upper seats made of wood. The sometimes
monumental buildings on the fourth side included the horses' starting stalls marking the
boundary of a further side of the track. The course was continuous and races on more laps could
therefore take place. The starting and return courses were separated by a spina a low wall
decorated with carvings and statues. Two pillars at its ends indicated the "metae", the turning
posts for the horses.
Circuses were usually built around the walls and adjacent to the imperial palace, in order
to ensure direct access for the emperor and his court. Due to their positions, these large open
spaces were sometimes used for some more public activities as well, thus turning into an
integral part of the city life.
A notable early example was the Circus
Maximus in Rome (sixth century), followed in 46 BC
by a successor of the same name. This was possibly the
largest stadium ever built. It was about 660m long and
210m wide and offered all-seating accommodation for
spectators in three tiers parallel to the track, could
welcome about 200,000 spectators. The stands covered
three levels, behind which there was an external faade
with three superimposed rows. The lowest row was
provided with large arcades used by the spectators Figure 11 View of Circus Maximus
reaching the facility and streaming out of it. The arcades
also featured workshops opening onto the outside. Thanks to its location, near the Tiber, it could
be filled with the river waters and as a consequence Circus Maximus could be also used for
naumachia shows. (Spampinato)

Figure 12 Circus Maximus in 80 AD

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The Hippodrome was considered the most

important building of the Byzantine
Empire, and Chariot racing was the most
important event in the life of ordinary the
Byzantine citizen. Chariot racing was
arguably the most popular sport, as it was
the sport that took place the most often at
the Hippodrome, however one could argue
that this did not necessarily make it the
most popular.
There is no denying however that it was Figure 13 Chariot Racing in Roman Hippodromes
one of the most important sports of the
Byzantine Empire. (Tavish, Upshall Danielle)

Figure 14 Remnants of Hippodrome of Constantinople (Bezantine Empire)

The Pessimus Hippodrome which was unique at the time in consisting of a Greek theatre and a
Roman hippodrome linked at the centre of the hippodrome via the theatre stage. Two events
could be staged separately in theatre and hippodrome, or the latter could be used in combination
for a single grand event. This building was an obvious ancestor of the modern multi-purpose
stadium complex.
One of the best preserved circuses is the Circus of Maxentius in Roma is also a famous
example. It was built in the IV century AD together with the other large buildings of the new
capital of the Roman Empire. However by the time it was built circuses were no more serving
their original purpose, that is hosting equestrian events, but they were rather used for other
public activities. (Spampinato)
Fifteen centuries of suspension
During the IV century AD, the importance of sports practice was considerably reassessed
all over the ancient world, which unavoidably affected the development of sports facilities.
After Christian cult was legitimized by Constantine Edict, the Council of Arles held in
314 imposed a ban on the circus charioteers, actually banning the pagan practice of chariot
racing and thus speeding up the conversion of circuses into non-sports public facilities.
Similarly in 394, when Greece had been under the Roman rule for a long time, an edict
promulgated by the emperor Theodosius who accepted the request made by Milan bishop
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Ambrose led to the abolition of the Olympic Games, which were regarded as a pagan rite
contrary to religious rites.
Therefore shifted to new building typologies such as churches and cathedrals, castles,
fortifications, towers and municipal palaces which became peculiar elements of Medieval towns
and of their development. Sports activities were seldom and limited. The ancient Greek and
Roman sports buildings were progressively abandoned. Many of them were converted into
markets or houses, others were fully pulled down to reuse building materials.
Sports practice was given
a new boost during the
Renaissance when running
events and equestrian events
were reintroduced. However
they did not take place in
specific facilities, but usually in
areas serving other purposes, in
large open spaces or in the
squares, which were often
provided with wooden tiers and
small temporary roofs for the
most important spectators.
Piazza del Campo in
Siena and its Palio horse race
Figure 15 Piazza del Campo
are the most important case that
is still popular nowadays, while in Firenze in P iazza Santa Croce the forerunners of modern
football used to play in teams made up of 27 members each without any rule, but the one to
throw the ball into the goal of the opposite team.
Sports were properly defined a few centuries later, in the second half of the Nineteenth
Century, which also saw the setting up of the first clubs and sports federations. The enthusiasm
for the new sports, football and rugby in particular, quickly grew in Great Britain, where in the
cities in which population had dramatically grown due to the urbanization process resulting from
the Industrial Revolution people soon felt the need to build new facilities that could welcome a
high number of fans.
In the same years the revival of the Olympic Games, proposed in 1894 by the French
baron P ierre de Coubertin, sanctioned the final importance of sport in the modern age and
symbolically marked the start of a new age of stadia.

Figure 16 Time line of stadium development

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The modern age:

So far the technological evolution is almost one century and a half long. On the basis
of the peculiar aspects that have marked the different stages, partly drawing on the
theoretical analysis made by Rod Sheard, five "generations" of stadia can be identified.
These are generations marking the steps of a faster and faster development with many
stadia, fully renovated or rebuilt over time, that have gone through more stages of this
evolutionary process.
"The 'Five Generations' theory evolved from practical observations of the way that the
development of stadia has changed over the years. It is important that the forces which have
driven the development of stadia over the last two decades are understood, along with an
appreciation of how stadia can now contribute to the growth of sustainable communities.''
The precedents for modern stadia can be found in ancient Greece and Rome. The Greek
form was dictated by the site, and stadia either occupied the floor of a valley with the
spectators using the natural slopes for seating, or they were built on the shoulder of a hill
with the upper slopes forming the seating. Essentially they were embedded in the
topography, and the spectators had a panoramic vista over the landscape. This model was
used at Delphi, Epidaurus and Olympus.
The Roman form was the antithesis of this, and amphitheatres, such as the Colosseum
in Rome (80AD), dominated the landscape. The Roman stadium was oval in shape and was
encompassed by substantial facades. The attention of the spectator was focused inwards on
the intense and frequently violent action, and there was no opportunity for the
contemplation of nature. Whereas the Greek stadium was essentially rural, the Roman
version was an urban form. These two models became powerful determinants of stadium
morphology in the late 19th Century, when sports were codified and the designers sought
precedents. The Greek model was suited to a more leisurely contemplation of sporting
events which lasted for several hours or even days, and was therefore adapted for early
cricket grounds and racecourses. The Roman model was eminently more suited to the
'cauldrons' of soccer, rugby and American football where the length of play is relatively
short and the action is very aggressive. Early baseball parks and Australian Rules football
grounds were a hybrid of both types. (Sheard et al. 2005)
1. First Gene ration Stadia
"The history of the modern stadium dates back to the codification of sport in the second
half of the 19th Century. The First Generation of stadia placed the emphasis on
accommodating large numbers of spectators, with minimal concern for the quality of the
facilities or the comfort of those spectators.''
First- generation stadia were like huge
hotchpotches whose purpose was
basically to host a large amount of
spectators in an age when there was no
television and sports events could be
watched just live.
Particularly in the first years, they were
facilities with no architectural value,
uncomfortable and the provision of
facilities was basic. Tiers were made of
concrete or just with the arrangement of
embankments standing and often
crammed into the stands, with the
exception of some small seating stand, Figure 17 Large amount of crowd in First Generation stadia
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sometimes also provided with a small roof for the most important spectators. Their
extension was usually disorderly and non-homogeneous, in order to satisfy the increasing
demand for seating areas by the spectators.
This model was introduced in Great Britain as football facility with the typical
rectilinear stands running parallel to the sides of the pitch and was soon adapted to the
model of the Olympic stadium with continuous tiers running along the perimeter of the
athletics track. The White City stadium, now pulled down, was the first example during the
Games of London 1908.
Alongside with the passion for football, these models were exported from Great Britain
to the rest of Europe and to South America. They often featured the Marathon Tower, which
made them easily identifiable in the city environment. This first generation of stadia took
different forms until the end of the Fifties, when they had to be confronted with a sudden
reduction in the number of spectators. (Sheard et al. 2005)
2. Second Gene ration Stadia: The Influence of Television
"Television, which had been developed in the 1930s, began broadcasting sports events in
the late 1950s. Almost immediately there was a sharp decline in the numbers attending
live sporting events. The Second Generation of stadia was the response, placing greater
emphasis on the comfort of spectators and improving support facilities in the venue.
However, these stadia were still largely concrete bowls and a great many of the world's
sporting venues remain as Second Generation stadia''.
The 1960s were the television age. Almost everyone could afford a television set, and
sport from all over the world could be enjoyed in your own home. Everything seemed
possible. The 'global village' was established and conceptually the world began to shrink.
Mark McCormack remarked that, ... an unholy alliance was developing. Sport was
helping to make television and television was helping to make sport.
To solve this problem the new stadia started to be equipped with more facilities for
spectators in order to improve their comfort. The new stadia built in the three following
decades or many of the already existing ones that were renovated provided themselves with
viewing sectors with seats, with roofed stands and with a higher number of toilet facilities,
also including food and beverage outlets in the stand area. The stadia were also equipped so
as to welcome television broadcasting systems as best as possible and to develop their
potentials. The interior of many facilities was renovated, thus stressing their nature of
"introverted" stadia, which were comfortable inside yet anonymous outside, which was a
common element of that age. They were also provided with artificial lighting installations
thus ensuring night broadcast. What was still a problem in the stadia was inside safety.
(Sheard et al. 2005)
3. Third Ge neration Stadia: The Family Stadium
The Third Generation of stadia emerged in the early 1990s, developing more userfriendly facilities to lure the entire family. Sport was the focus, but not the only attraction,
and the principal source of revenue for the sporting clubs change, shifting from turnstile
receipts towards merchandising and television.
The Eighties ended with a series of catastrophic events in the UK stadia: fire of wooden
stands, the escalation of the violent phenomenon of hooligans and the disaster at Sheffield
Hillsborough Stadium, caused in April 1989 by an overcrowded stand. These events killed
hundreds of people and induced us to consider spectators' safety. The result was
summarized in the pages of Taylor Report, a survey carried out on behalf of the
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Government, which in 1990 introduced the new safety measures to be adopted in the UK
stadia. The main recommendation was that all stadia had to become all- seater facilities.
Taylor Report became greatly popular not just in the UK and started a deep upgrading
process concerning many European stadia.
As a consequence, these facilities which were made more accessible, safe and
comfortable drew more diversified and heterogeneous spectators. Therefore the stadia were
not upgraded just to be in accordance with the new standards, but the process gave us the
opportunity to introduce business activities in stadia, which were soon also sponsored.
Merchandising, museums, guided tours, boxes and restaurants become popular in stadia
together with recreational and leisure areas, which ensued from a new way to manage the
facility, regarded as a public area used not for the mere sports event and open seven days a
week. (Sheard et al. 2005)
4. Fourth Gene ration Stadia: The flexible stadium
The solution was successful. "Commercial" stadia had excellent yield and to exploit the
potentials offered by these large audience containers at best, non-static, technologically
sophisticated facilities capable of meeting many-sided requirements were chosen.
"It became clear that stadia could make money if the design, funding and
management were integrated. Stadia should not be regarded as a drain on a city's
finances. A new era was emerging, of which the new Telstra Dome in Melbourne is a
classic example. This is truly a Fourth Generation stadium, with an opening roof, moving
seating tiers and a below-pitch car park. This is a blueprint for the city of the future.''
Mobile roofs, stands and playing
fields are the basic elements of this
generation of new multipurpose and
flexible facilities capable of being quickly
converted
to offer the optimum
configuration and the maximum comfort
whatever the event to take place, whether
sports or non-sporting, may be. The
stadium is now open to marketing and to
communication: boxes, conference rooms
and hospitality areas are now part of the
language of new facilities, which in their
turn have been converted into lounges for
Figure 18 Telstra Dome in Melbourne
sponsors and companies and designed so
as to enhance television broadcasting and
to positively reach the high lighting and acoustic standards required by digital television.
stadia have come of age. They have grown into buildings that can be used as catalysts
for the planned and strategic growth of 21st Century cities. Stadia have become powerful
symbols of our culture, our aspirations and, sometimes, of our failures. We need to learn
how to use them wisely, and how to get the most out of their potential.''
-Rod Sheard, 2005
In this way, stadia draw many users all the year round and turn into new urban
centralities, sometimes capable of acting as catalysts for the processes aimed at their
neighborhoods redevelopment. (Sheard et al. 2005)
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5. 5th Generation Stadia: Urban Regeneration (The urban icon)

Each generation of stadia has 'raised the bar', adding a new level of sophistication and
improved facilities. Now, at the beginning of the 21st Century, a new potential has
emerged; the ability of stadia to shape new cities and to regenerate decaying areas of old
cities. The stadium typology can provide all the elements required to achieve a critical mass
capable of sustaining city life: a critical mass containing the residential, commercial, retail,
leisure and transport components which encourage cities to thrive. Inner city stadium
construction during the last decade has revitalized the cities of Baltimore, Denver,
Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Cardiff, Melbourne, Brisbane, Lisbon and San Francisco.
The crucial determinants for stadium design in the 21st Century will be the potential
for urban regeneration, and the role of the 'iconic' stadium in the marketing and
positioning of a global city. The Fifth Generation stadium is a less tangible piece of
architecture than the previous four generations; it will be identified and categorized by its
global presence and by its regional regenerative potential. (Sheard et al. 2005)
Increasingly, new stadium
proposals are conceived as part of
bids to stage mega-events, such as
Olympic Games, World Cups and
International Fairs. As significant
structures in these ventures,
stadiums are required to serve as
symbolic landmarks, presenting an
image of the city to a global
audience. Similarly, the idea of an
iconic stadium is implemented in
city politics as a tool to clearly
communicate planning goals, gain
Figure 19 The Chinese National Stadium in Beijing The Bird's Nest
consensus and drive large scale
Stadium
urban renewal projects.
It may be argued, then, that the most significant function of the contemporary stadium
is to act as a symbol, to transcend its immediate locality and communicate more widely on a
civic and often global scale. (Paxton 2014)

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1.5.2 Contemporary stand on stadium architecture:

A stadium, more than any other building type in history, has the ability to shape a
town or city. A stadium is able to put a community on the map, establishing an identity and
providing a focal point in the landscape.
The stadium is a complex planning tool. If it is used wisely, it can help a city grow,
especially on barren sites. A great deal of regeneration in cities takes place in an understated
unglamorous way, with people quietly moving into refurbished buildings. This is the type of
city regeneration for which a sporting venue can act as a catalyst.
This regeneration will occur increasingly, due to the 'emotional' acceptance of an area
when it is used for sport. People see the area in a very different light. There is an
'atmosphere' created around a sporting event, which generates powerful and intense
emotions. The emotional experience of attending and participating in a major sporting event
is exhilarating. It is not just the event, there is an 'afterglow' and this illuminates the whole
area.
Today, major sporting facilities are a mainstay of urban regeneration and their
potential has been recognized. However, a stadium alone will not transform a blighted area;
it must be part of an overall plan to attract commercial, retail and recreational activities;
and, most importantly, people. The stadium must integrate with a neighborhood, a district or
a city. Fifth Generation stadia are not 'stand-alone' buildings; they should be seen as
dynamic cells implanted into the urban fabric of a city, stimulating growth and inspiring
regeneration. A cha11enge to stadium designers is to improve urban design in the vicinity of
stadia, and to implement the new generation of stadia which must function as living parts of
their cities. (Sheard et al. 2005)
Support facilities will increasingly provide amenities for all the family to enjoy as well
as other entertainment areas for those not committed to the game.
They will eventually include every type of function from business centers to bowling
alleys, similar to the range of facilities often found in international airports or shopping
malls. Attractions will be designed to encourage spectators to arrive early and stay on
afterwards perhaps even sleeping overnight in the Stadium Hotel.
Tomorrows stadia will be places of entertainment for the family where sport is the
focus but not the complete picture. It will be possible for five members of a family to arrive
and leave together, but to experience in the intervening period five different activities.
While the parents see the live game, their children experience the live game in the
virtual reality studio where images from the in pitch cameras provide close immediate
action. (John et al. 2007)

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Oriole Park at Camde n Yards

Baltimore, Maryland, 1992
Oriole Park at Camden Yards incorporates all the modern conveniences -for fans and
ballplayers - without sacrificing history, tradition or aesthetics. It brings the game closer to
the fans, giving the crowd a more intimate look at the game. It restored uniqueness and
single-purpose as attainable and desirable goals. It has become the most influential majorleague ballpark since Yankee Stadium."
-The Detroit News, April 12, 1999.
The design of Oriole
Park took its cues from
the
historic
B&O
Railway Station and a
warehouse
running
along
the
eastern
boundary of the site,
parallel with the former
rail tracks. The stadium
has a three-storey brick
podium with a lighter
steel
structure
set
above.
The
colors
are
Figure 20 View of Oriole Park at Camden Yards
pale buff bricks (like
the old railway buildings) and dark green ironwork, not unlike the color and structure of the
cranes operating along Baltimores water- front. The field is set seven meters below the
external ground level to improve the relationship of the stadium to adjacent buildings.
Oriole Park proved to be extraordinarily popular with baseball fans, and rival ballpark
owners were inevitably attracted to the concept. (Sheard et al. 2005)

Figure 21 character of the street between the ballpark

and the warehouse.

Figure 22 extension of the stadium to the street

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Estadio Nacional de Brasilia:

The Estadio Nacional de Brasilia is located in the heart of Brasilia, the capital of Brazil The
stadium was completed in 2013 and seats about 72,000 making it the second largest stadium
in South America.

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The Estadio Nacional de Brasilia is located in the heart of Brasilia, the capital of Brazil.
The stadium was completed in 2013 and seats about 72,000 making it the second largest
stadium in South America. It is also the second most expensive stadium in the world, after
Wembley Stadium in London, rounding up to about $475 million. The stadium is pursuing
to be the world's highest rated LEED Platinum certified stadium and the first net-zero
energy stadiums as well.
Though Brasilia is known for its urban sprawl, the stadium
is within a two- mile radius of most hotels it is in the city
center, and very easy to reach by public transportation. The
esplanade that runs around the stadium acts as a circulation
ring that is supported by slender reinforced concrete pillars.
It fits in well with the context of Brasilia, while creating a
welcoming feeling to the stadium. Brasilia is very warm,
but also dry. The architects designed a breathable facade
consisting of a field of columns that provide natural
ventilation to flow into the arena bowl and concourse,
reducing the amount of air conditioning needed to cool the
building. There are a total of 288 columns ranging from 1.2
to 1.5 meters in diameter, 46 meters tall.
The facade is what is most interesting to me and relevant
for this thesis. The openness the columns bring to the
stadium has potential to push the design ideas even further
in a different setting. It is a very permeable facade It leads
me to some design questions: What if these columns held
up the tiers of seating as well as the roof? What if there
were layers of activity along this arcade of columns?
1.6 Opinions of Experts on the phenomenon and architecture dealing with the issue:
The Stadium and the City:
"Stadia are entertainment buildings, a building type largely ignored by city planners over the
last 25 years. That is understandable: the earlier versions were dull to look at usually- low
budget and d low art solutions. That hall changed as in the 21st Century they are now high
budget and high art public b uildings. They contribute intrinsically to urban areas and can
totally transform community. They create precincts where people gather to enjoy
themselves, and representation of that enjoyment' is a new concept architecture."
-Rod Sheard, (THE STADIUM, Architecture for the New Global Culture)
Philosophy of stadium design:
A clear and unhindered view of the action is paramount and therefore that should be
the primary focus when it comes to stadium design. This, coupled with a teeming yet
comfortable and clear layout, is what fans and owners alike really want.
I want optimal density and vision for the fans. I have particular demands on the way I
want to lead the public from the different fans to VIP guests. The most important thing in
differentiating stadia is the location and the differing identity of their corresponding cities
My grandson who is a passionate football player and also a trainer in the youth team
teaches me a lot. Through him I have learned to see new things and with him I developed a
different perception of the game in a stadium. What goes on there has fascinated me. I like
going there with young people. (gmp 2013)
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-Prof Marg
How would you describe the upcoming stadium generation?
Basically, we want to create places where people often meet. A stadium that can only
reached in good traffic connections that are situated in front of the city gates on a green
meadow and every visitor has to rely on public transportation or the car; in this case it will
be difficult to accomplish this aspiration. Our stadiums should be accepted for diverse
events of city culture and society life. This will increase the acceptance of society and the
stadium can become a self-evident and lively part of a city. With our stadiums we want to
create places that become popular meeting places for people of a city and region. (gmp
2013)
-Hubert Nienhoff, gmp partner
When it comes to arena design, how do you arrive at a final concept?
When thinking about a new facility, the design should be informed by several factors
including the potential event calendar, context, climate and culture. The team needs a deep
understanding of how the building operates in relation to the site. A projects deliverability
also is based on having a realistic view of what types of events, and how many, the facility
will attract, as well as the projects budget aspirations.
Considering these different parameters, amongst others, will start to create
opportunities for solutions and begin to define the character of a building on the way to
arriving at the final concept. In my experience, a shared, strong concept always makes a
project more deliverable and enjoyable. (HOK)
- John Rhodes, a director of Sports in HOKs London office
What changes have you witnessed in arena design over the last decade?
In recent years across Europe, in particular we have seen a clear shift away from
single-purpose functional venues toward spaces that cater to a much more diverse event
calendar, focused on live entertainment rather than purely sport. In addition to enhanced
flexibility, this shift means that relationships between the audience and the performer are
more important than ever and require much more design consideration than basic viewing
analysis.
Consumers are demanding a higher quality and more authentic experience of the
event. With the multimedia revolution, were seeing significantly higher experiential
competition in the marketplace. This means that the experience of going to an event needs
to exceed the convenience factor of watching online at home. A more considered venue is a
key tool in this competition. Venue designers need a better understanding of how people
want to use spaces and engage in an event. (HOK)
- John Rhodes, a director of Sports in HOKs London office
What do you think will be the next big thing in arena design in the next decade?
Arenas are increasingly becoming more integrated within the centre of cities. As a
result, there is a need for them to become more multipurpose. This puts pressure on the
capital cost of a project, as the venue has to deliver an elevated architectural presence and
deal with more complex technical issues such as access and acoustic leakage. Though this
may add complexities to the design process, there is a real value to this as arenas can act as
catalysts for regeneration and become key community anchors for urban areas.
Over the next decade, arenas will start to combine with other community components
like education, science and technology, hotels, and parks. To facilitate this, clients will want
a team with specialties in all of these areas. (HOK)
- John Rhodes, a director of Sports in HOKs London office
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Publication bibliography
Sport Recreation and Play (2004). Available online at
http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/5571_SPORT_EN.pdf, checked on 3/22/2015.
Birkey, Ryan (2005): THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOWL. Stadium as an ACTIVE
URBAN AMENITY. Bachelor of architecture. Ball State University.
Dureiko, Matthew J. (2014): Stadium Urbanism. Stadia, SPort and the Image of the
American City. Kent State University CAED.
gmp (2013): COLISEUM-Sports venues of the world. CATHEDRALS OF SPORTS.
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