Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2012) 1e9

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope

analysis of human and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan
Alejandra L. Diaz a, b, *, Tamsin C. OConnell c, Lisa A. Maher d, Jay T. Stock d
a

Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3ER, UK

Department of Anthropology, University of British Columbia, 6303 NW Marine Drive, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
c
McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3ER, UK
d
Department of Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Street, Cambridge CB2 1QH, UK
b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 29 March 2011
Received in revised form
25 February 2012
Accepted 29 February 2012

This paper investigates evidence for subsistence and settlement activities in the Levantine Middle Epipalaeolithic through the application of stable isotope analysis to human and non-human remains from
the site of Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan. In general, bone from the site suffers a high degree of
diagenesis and collagen could not be extracted for analysis here. Carbon and oxygen isotopic values from
human tooth enamel samples were variable, but within expected values for the Middle Epipalaeolithic,
whereas animal carbon and oxygen isotopic values varied widely, most likely due to hydrological and
climatological factors. Carbon and isotopic values for the human samples indicated a predominantly C3
plant dietary input, while animal samples appeared to have varying amounts of C4 inputs into their diet.
This is the rst isotopic analysis conducted on material from the Middle Epipalaeolithic of the southern
Levant and, as such, even results constrained by temporal and climatological variants within the region
contribute to the overall knowledge of settlement and subsistence strategies during this cultural period.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Carbon
Oxygen
Isotopes
Middle Epipalaeolithic
Geometric Kebaran
Levant
Jordan
Palaeodiet

1. Introduction
The Epipalaeolithic period (ca. 23,000e11,500 cal BP) of the
southern Levant represents a spatially and temporally variable
array of cultural groups, some of whom are considered to be
precursors to fully agricultural societies in the Neolithic (e.g. BarYosef, 1998; Belfer-Cohen and Bar-Yosef, 2000; Byrd, 2005).
During this period there is evidence for semi-permanent settlement, stone architecture, a ourishing of art and personal ornamentation, storage, intensied plant use, cemeteries, and evidence
for long-distance trade and exchange (e.g. Goring-Morris et al.,
2009). However, in comparison with the subsequent Neolithic
period, generally poor organic preservation at Epipalaeolithic sites
results in a comparatively coarse understanding of on-site activities, diet, mobility, and subsistence behaviours. The 2005 excavations at Uyun al-Hammam revealed several human graves
containing the remains of at least nine individuals (Maher, 2007a),
* Corresponding author. Department of Anthropology, University of British
Columbia, 6303 NW Marine Drive, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada.
Tel.: 1 604 319 7831.
E-mail address: adiaz@interchange.ubc.ca (A.L. Diaz).

representing the largest group of burials attributed to any single

Geometric Kebaran site in the region to date. This study represents
a rst for stable isotope analysis of Geometric Kebaran human and
faunal remains.
This paper explores Middle Epipalaeolithic human mobility and
subsistence through stable isotope analysis of human and faunal
remains from the site of Uyun al-Hammam allowing for bettergrounded hypotheses regarding the applicability of resourcebased shifts from high- to low-mobility during the Epipalaeolithic. Previous research has focused on the effects of
regional climate change on patterns of mobility and the origins of
sedentary villages (Bar-Yosef, 1987; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen,
1989, 1992; Bar-Yosef and Kislev, 1989; Belfer-Cohen and BarYosef, 2000; Byrd, 2005; Grosman and Belfer-Cohen, 2002;
Henry, 1986, 1992; Wright and Thorpe, 2003). The onset of the
Blling-Allerd at 14,600 cal BP, when temperatures and moisture
availability both increased (Alley et al., 2003; Severinghaus and
Brook, 1999; Weaver et al., 2003) may have changed the availability of a suite of reliable and predictable food resources allowing
for changes in settlement and subsistence strategies associated
with settling down into large base camps or small villages. Similarly, climate changes relating to the preceding Last Glacial

0305-4403/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034

Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034

A.L. Diaz et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2012) 1e9

Maximum and subsequent Younger Dryas and Preboreal periods

may have inuenced patterns of group mobility and economic
strategy. However, the correlation of these environmental changes
with any particular cultural phase or settlement pattern within the
Epipalaeolithic is more tenuous (Maher et al., 2011a). Here, we test
whether Middle Epipalaeolithic mobility ts these current models.
2. Background
Uyun al-Hammam lies at an elevation of 200 m asl on an ancient
river terrace adjacent to a substantial freshwater spring in Wadi
Ziqlab, northern Jordan (Fig.1). Excavations at the site between 2000
and 2008 demonstrate repeated use of the site for habitation and,
subsequently, as a burial ground (Maher, 2007a; Maher et al.,
2011b). A typo-technological analysis of the chipped stone material reveals a classic Geometric Kebaran assemblage with a focus on
the production of bladelets fashioned into standardised trapeze/
rectangles. Portable groundstone tools, including pestles, grinding
slabs, mortars, hand stones, and ner vessels, are present at the site;
however, most are fragmentary. While geometric microliths make
up the greatest proportion of the lithic tool assemblage at Uyun alHammam, it appears that many types of tools were made and used
on-site, which is consistent with assemblages expected from longterm residential camps rather than ephemeral, specialized
hunting camps (Binford, 1980; Maher, 2005). The presence of
groundstone tools in the assemblage is notable for signifying the
preparation and utilization of plant material (Maher, 2005). Like
contemporary sites (e.g. Goring-Morris et al., 2009), other nds
include small quantities of bone and shell beads, other modied
shell fragments, bone points/awls, and fragmented worked bone
objects. Red ochre is also found on-site; however, it generally occurs
as small chunks in occupation-related deposits, especially middens,
or in larger quantities in burial contexts (Maher et al., 2011b). The
site is estimated to have once covered an area of approximately
1500 m2 and test trenches indicate a depth of at least 1.3 m for
Epipalaeolithic-bearing deposits.

Complete human burials were uncovered during large-scale

excavations at Uyun al-Hammam in 2005 and 2008 (Maher,
2007b; Maher et al., 2011a). The material analyzed for this study
comes from the 2005 season when the Wadi Ziqlab Project excavated a total of seven graves, containing single and multiple
interments of at least nine individuals in primary and secondary
contexts. Some of the burials represent the reuse of an earlier grave
and int implements, groundstone, red ochre, and partial animal
skeletons were found associated with several of the skeletons
(Maher et al., 2011a). These burials more than double the number of
known human remains from the Middle Epipalaeolithic in the Near
East. More importantly, these discoveries highlight a deeper chronology for some of the unique mortuary practices characterizing
the more famous Natuan cemeteries.
The site is situated at the boundary between oak-pistachio forest
to the east and the more steppic vegetation to the west. The upper
basin of Wadi Ziqlab where the site is found falls within the
Mediterranean climatic zone, where mean annual rainfall reaches
over 400 mm. West of Wadi Ziqlab and towards the Central Jordan
Valley, the lower basin shifts into Irano-Turanian Steppe at around
100 m asl, which is accompanied by more arid conditions and mean
annual precipitation averaging 300e400 mm. The Mediterranean
climatic zone is presently most inuential in Wadi Ziqlab, though
the propinquity of three climatic zones (Mediterranean, IranoTuranian, hydrophytic) has probably allowed vegetation patterns
to uctuate signicantly in the past through changes in temperature, precipitation, and, most importantly, human disturbance (re
and land clearance), including throughout the Epipalaeolithic
period. The site is also less than 3 km east of Lake Lisans reconstructed palaeoshoreline which was at a maximum during occupation of the site (Bartov et al., 2002), providing ready access to
aquatic food and non-food resources to the occupants of the site.
Uyun al-Hammam is named after a large permanent spring
across the wadi from the site that, before capped to supply water to
a local village, fed the main drainage of Wadi Ziqlab. Prior to
capping it exhibited a ow rate of 5.3 m3 per hour, making it one of
the largest perennial water sources in the area (Al-Shriedeh, 1992).
For most of the year, Wadi Ziqlab is a dry river bed, except in the
western portion of the basin, below 200 m asl, where several
karstic springs provide year-round water. The marl and limestone
strata of the Ajlun and Balqa Groups, and their subsequent faulting,
provide ideal conditions for the formation of aquifers and springs
(Burdon, 1959). Today the water from these springs is diverted for
irrigation and consumption in nearby villages and towns. No doubt
these springs were more substantial in the past and important
factors in prehistoric settlement location (Banning et al., 1996).
2.1. Faunal remains

Fig. 1. Location of Uyun al-Hammam.

The site is very rich in faunal remains and so far analysis has only
focused on specic contexts, including middens and graves.
Therefore, the data presented here is based on preliminary reports
(Humphrey, 2003; Maher et al., 2001) and detailed analysis is
currently in progress. Species identication and taphonomic
observations are hindered somewhat by the extremely fragmentary
and carbonate-encrusted nature of the material (see also
Humphrey, 2003). Despite taphonomic and preservation issues, the
proportions and types of identied material are consistent with
Geometric Kebaran assemblages documented elsewhere (Bar-Oz
and Dayan, 2002, 2003; Bar-Oz et al., 1999; Munro and Bar-Oz,
2007; Munro, 2003; Stutz et al., 2009; Tchernov, 1998). A preliminary analysis of identiable species indicates a relatively wide
species breadth, but with some focus on medium and large
mammals (Humphrey, 2003). In particular, Gazella sp., Cervidae sp.,
hartebeest (Alcephalus), and Avies sp. are abundant. This wide

Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034

A.L. Diaz et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2012) 1e9

species breadth has been substantiated by an analysis of the faunal

material from the graves (Maher et al., 2011b), where gazelle, red
and fallow deer, wild cattle, wild boar, onager, hare, fox, wolf, and
tortoise are all represented.
2.2. Human remains
By far the most signicant nding of the 2005 eld season was
the excavation of several human burials (Graves IeVII; Table 1)
(Maher, 2007a). Some of the individuals may have been interred
during occupation of the site (or rather, probably during a brief
period in between occupations), while others likely post-date
occupation. All of the individuals are adults, and both males and
females are represented. Some of the burials contain graves goods,
including red ochre, modied and unmodied animal remains, and
chipped- and groundstone tools; however, there does not appear to
be any correlation between the presence of grave goods and the sex
of the individual interred in the grave. A detailed analysis of each
grave and its contents is currently underway.
Preliminary assessment of the skeletons morphological
features, stratigraphic contexts, and artefact associations indicates
that they all date to the Geometric Kebaran period. In addition, ve
radiocarbon dates suggest occupation of the site between
17,250e16,350 cal BP and 15,000e14,200 cal BP (Maher et al.,
2011b). One of these is a direct date on a pelvic fragment from an
individual in Grave I.
3. Stable isotope analysis of organic material
Apatite, the inorganic component of bone and teeth, comprises
98% of tooth enamel and has been shown to reect the carbon
isotope composition of an individuals long-term diet (Ambrose,
1993; Lee-Thorp et al., 1989; Lee-Thorp and van der Merwe,
1987). Once tooth enamel mineralization is complete, it does not
change signicantly throughout the duration of a person or
animals life. Diet and mobility of an individual can thus be investigated by comparing isotopic values in tooth enamel to environmental values. The isotopes used in this study to indicate diet and
movement are d13C and d18O.
3.1. Carbon isotope analysis (d13C)
Stable isotope analyses involving carbon have generally been
used to study the relationship between the consumer and its diet
in terrestrial environments, foraging behaviour (browsing versus
grazing), the incorporation of maize and other C4 plants in
prehistoric diets (van der Merwe and Vogel, 1978) and in environments with C3 plants, the contribution of isotopicallyenriched marine versus terrestrial protein (Chisholm et al.,
1983). C3 plants in the Levant include grains such as wild
emmer wheat, barley, nuts, fruits, berries, annual grasses and
legumes while C4 plants include sorghum, some shrubs and
Table 1
Human burials excavated at Uyun al-Hammam.
Site

Grave

Homo #

Age

Sex

WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148

I
I
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Adult
Adult
Subadult
Adol. or gracile adult
Adult
Adult
Adol. or gracile adult
Adult
Adult

F
M
Indet.
Indet.
Indet.
M
Indet.
Indet.
F

tropical grasses.d13C values represent the relative depletion of

a body tissue in 13C to the standard PDB (Pee Dee Belemnite),
which contains more 13C than nearly all dietary resources and
most human tissues (Chisholm, 1989; Katzenberg, 1992; Ambrose,
1993). Plant and animal values are thus displayed in negative
gures, with C3 plant eating herbivores and their consumers
averaging in around 12& and lower and C4 plant eating herbivores and their consumers averaging values nearer to 0& for
apatite (Lee-Thorp et al., 2003).
3.2. Oxygen isotope analysis (d18O)
Similar to isotopes used for palaeodietary reconstruction,
tracing the origin or migration of populations using oxygen
isotopes is possible because these isotopic signatures in body
tissues result from local food webs (DeNiro and Epstein, 1981;
Hobson, 1999). For example, d18O values reect geographically
distinct signatures of climatic conditions, such as precipitation and
environmental water and soil content. The general pattern exhibits
decreasing d18O as one moves to higher latitudes and in a northwesterly direction (e.g. Cormie et al., 1994; Palmqvist et al., 2003;
Dupras and Schwarcz, 2001). Mammals receive oxygen through
ingested water, both from plants consumed and drinking water,
which is then precipitated in bioapatite in equilibrium with the
bodys water oxygen pool (Balasse et al., 2002). Thus, d18O values
preserved in the carbonate components of bone and teeth reect
the isotopic signatures of the region in which they mineralized
(Kohn et al., 1998).
4. Diet and mobility in the Middle Epipalaeolithic
4.1. Mobility in the Middle Epipalaeolithic
Middle Epipalaeolithic settlement patterns are generally characterized by both small, ephemeral campsites indicative of high
levels of mobility and larger base camps, presumably occupied for
longer periods of unknown duration. Small sites generally range
from 25 to 400 m2 in size and, along with comparatively modest
material culture records, are thought to represent seasonal camps
occupied for a limited duration, or specialized activity camps of
short-term use (Bar-Yosef, 1981; Byrd, 2005; Henry, 1995). Larger
sites, often occurring at lower elevations, have more variable site
sizes ranging from 250 m2 to over 1500 m2, deeper cultural
deposits, and contain higher artefact densities with more generalized and diverse tool kits (Henry, 1989; Kaufman, 1992; Maher,
2007b).
Uyun al-Hammam, as a large site with deep and dense occupational deposits, falls into the latter of these site types (Maher
et al., 2001; Maher, 2007b). Kharaneh IV (Muheisen, 1988; Maher,
in press), Neve David (Kaufman, 1986, 1987, 1989) and Hefzibah
(Kaufman, 1986; Marks and Friedel, 1977; Munro and Bar-Oz, 2005;
Ronen et al., 1975) have also revealed large, more generalized
occupations representative of prolonged or repeated occupation.
Here we consider Middle Epipalaeolithic sites within the Mediterranean zone as a mix of small, ephemeral camps occurring at both
lowland and highland elevations and larger, more intensively
occupied settlements occurring invariably in lowland, Mediterranean environments; however, the logistics of mobility remain
unknown and are likely variable depending on local environmental
parameters.
It is notable that residential and logistical mobility are not
mutually exclusive and rather, are alternatives that can be utilized
by groups dependent on their environmental setting (Binford,
1980). The employment of a settlement strategy involving both
residential and logistical mobility would have enabled

Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034

A.L. Diaz et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2012) 1e9

Epipalaeolithic groups to exploit seasonal resources along elevational gradients and within the mosaic of environmental niches in
their landscape, (Bar-Yosef and Meadow, 1995; Bar-Yosef and
Belfer-Cohen, 1992; Bettinger, 1999; Byrd, 2005; Henry, 1989,
2002; Kaufman, 1992).
4.2. Zooarchaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for diet in
the Middle Epipalaeolithic
Geometric Kebaran faunal assemblages within the Mediterranean zone represent a broad spectrum of exploited resources, with
medium-sized ungulates, namely, gazelle and fallow deer,
comprising the bulk of the assemblage (Bar-Oz, 2004; Bar-Oz et al.,
1999; Maher et al., 2001; Munro and Bar-Oz, 2007), while smallbodied prey such as tortoises, birds, hare and partridge are also
present (Bar-Oz et al., 1999; Bar-Oz and Dayan, 2003). No less than
13 mammalian species are represented at Uyun al-Hammam and
15 mammalian species are represented at Neve David (Bar-Oz et al.,
1999), demonstrating diversity in faunal resources utilized. In
addition, several genera of gastropods and bivalves from the
Mediterranean Sea have been recovered from Neve David (Bar-Oz
et al., 1999) and from Uyun al-Hammam, but Bar-Oz et al. (1999)
note that, at least for Neve David, the frequent conversion of
shells into ornaments suggest they were not intended for
consumption. The faunal remains recovered from Epipalaeolithic
sites represent fauna that would have been locally available in the
vicinity of the sites and that would have occupied diverse habitats,
ranging from open country (gazelle, wild cattle, hartebeest) to
woodland (red deer, fallow deer, roe deer) (Bar-Oz and Dayan,
2003; Bar-Oz et al., 1999 Maher et al., 2001).
While there is relative paucity of archaeobotanical evidence in
the southern Levantine archaeological record, models of Middle
Epipalaeolithic subsistence strategies involve assessments of
overall reliance on and utilization of vegetal resources (with plant
use intensication being a feature of Late Epipalaeolithic groups).
The largest plant assemblage attributed to the Early Epipalaeolithic
is from Ohalo II and contains over 90,000 remains derived from 142
taxa (Nadel and Hershkovitz, 1991; Weiss et al., 2004). Dated to
23,000 cal BP, Ohalo II provides evidence of both a broad spectrum
strategy in plant collection and signicant plant use more than
10,000 years earlier than the origins of agriculture (Kislev et al.,
1992; Weiss et al., 2004). Primary plant foods include C3 wild
emmer wheat and barley, and an extremely large quantity of smallgrained grasses, such as brome (Nadel and Hershkovitz, 1991;
Weiss et al., 2004). These grasses appear alongside smaller quantities of oak acorns, almonds, pistachios, wild olives, mustard and
fruits and berries, including raspberry, wild g, and wild grape
(Nadel and Hershkovitz, 1991; Weiss et al., 2004).
Though Ohalo II precedes Uyun al-Hammam, it demonstrates
a substantial knowledge of the locally-derived vegetal resources
and the incorporation of a broad spectrum of plant foods into these
early subsistence strategies. Without sites such as Ohalo II, Middle
Epipalaeolithic evidence of plant exploitation is generally inferred
from the presence of groundstone tools (Ronen et al., 1975;
Kaufman, 1986). At most sites, groundstone implements consist of
primarily of deep mortars, bowl and pestles, and occur infrequently within the lithic assemblages. The context of groundstone
burial is notable, however, as they have been recovered in direct
association with human burials at Neve David, Uyun al-Hammam
and Wadi Mataha (Kaufman, 1986; Maher, 2007a; Stock et al.,
2005). Previous archaeological evidence suggest the incorporation and importance of vegetal and locally-derived food resources
in the Epipalaeolithic, despite the fact that people were living as
hunter-gatherers throughout this time period. Thus, the diet of
Geometric Kebaran people is of central importance in

understanding the increased complexity of hunter-gatherer

subsistence regimes as well as dietary changes occurring prior to
the semi-sedentary foragers of the Natuan Tradition. This study
supports previous research with quantitative, local, and veriable
evidence of both subsistence and mobility strategies employed
during the Middle Epipalaeolithic that indicate a reliance on
locally-derived food resources and mobility strategies located
generally to the Mediterranean Zone.
5. Material and methods
5.1. Human samples
Bone samples from eight individuals recovered from Graves
IeVII at Uyun al-Hammam were sampled and tested for collagen
(n 8) and additional samples of teeth were sampled for apatite
(n 6; see Table 2).
5.2. Faunal samples
Faunal specimens recovered from contexts associated with
human interments at Uyun al-Hammam and with at least 3 g of
testable material were sampled and tested for collagen (n 10) and
specimens represented by teeth were sampled for carbonate
(n 5). So, while a wide breadth of species was recovered from
grave contexts, testable bone and tooth material was limited to taxa
meeting the sampling criteria and consequently excluding several
species recovered from the site (see Table 3). Faunal enamel
samples discussed in the report are represented by Bos (WZ85_3T,
WZ88_2T; n 2), Dama (WZ85_1T; n 1), and ovi-caprid
(WZ89_1T, WZ89_5T; n 2) taxa.
5.3. Sample collection and preparation
Bone samples were prepared following methods described in
Privat et al. (2002) with some modications. Nitrogen content of
faunal bone samples was initially measured to determine the level
of collagen preservation and due to the low %N in all samples, only
those with at least 3 g of testable material were chosen for collagen
extraction. Collagen was extracted following a modied Longin
procedure (Longin, 1971). Samples were demineralised in 0.5 M
aqueous HCl at 4  C, changing the acid every 1e4 days until it
appeared that the demineralisation reaction was complete. After
demineralization the samples were rinsed in distilled deionised
water, and gelatinised in pH 3 water for 48 h at 75  C. The

Table 2
Human specimens sampled for isotopic analysis.
Site

Sample

Sampled for
Burial
(GraveHomo #)

WZ-148 WZ1_AT I-1

WZ-148 WZ1_BT I-2
WZ-148 WZ2_4T II-4
WZ-148 WZ3_5T III-5
WZ-148 WZ4_6T IV-6
WZ-148 WZ5_7C V-7
WZ-148 WZ6_8C VI-8
WZ-148 WZ7_9T VII-9

Collagen
apatite
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
apatite
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
apatite

Tooth

d13CC(PDB) d18OC(SMOW)

and C1

11.35

26.59

and P3

11.25

27.11

and Lower
12.2
molar
and Right M2 11.57

28.98

and Left P4

10.95

25.86

e
e
and P3

e
e
11.69

e
e
28.1

27.7

Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034

A.L. Diaz et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2012) 1e9

Table 3
Faunal specimens sampled for isotopic analysis.
Site

Sample

Species

Element

Sampled for

d13CC(PDB)

d18OC(SMOW)

WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148
WZ-148

WZ15_1C
WZ47_2C
WZ91_1C
WZ91_6C
WZ94_1C
WZ94_5C
WZ94_7A
WZ94_8C
WZ95_1A
WZ95_3C
WZ85_1T
WZ85_3T
WZ88_2T
WZ89_1T
WZ89_5T

Dama sp.
Med. ungulate
Equid sp.
Cervidae
Med. ungulate
Med. ungulate
Caprid/Cervid/Canid
Med. ungulate
Dama
Med. ungulate
Dama
Bos
Bos
Ovicaprid
Ovicaprid

Femur
Scapula
Patella
Phalanx
Thoracic vertebra
Rib portion
Long bone fragment
Shaft fragment
Ilium
Humerus
M2/M3
Molar
Molar
Lower incisor
Lower incisor

Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Collagen
Apatite
Apatite
Apatite
Apatite
Apatite

e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
8.75
9.73
8.98
10.01
11.55

e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
37.81
34.06
32.73
33.22
31.82

supernatant liquid containing the collagen was ltered off, frozen,

and then freeze-dried. Samples were analyzed using an automated
elemental analyzer coupled in continuous-ow mode to an
isotope-ratio-monitoring mass spectrometer (Coastech elemental
analyzer coupled to a Finnigan MAT253 mass spectrometer).
Samples were analyzed in triplicate if the amount of material
warranted, or otherwise, in duplicate or single runs. Stable isotope
concentrations were measured relative to an internationally
dened scale, VPDB for carbon, and AIR for nitrogen (Hoefs, 1997).
Isotopic results are reported as d values (d13C and d15N) in parts per
1000 or permil (&) values, where d15NAIR [(15/14Nsample/15/
14
NAIR)  1]  1000. Based on replicate analyses of international
and laboratory standards, measurement errors were less than
0.2& for d13C and d15N.
Tooth samples were prepared following methods modied from
Balasse et al. (2002). Approximately 9 mg of enamel powder were
obtained from each tooth sample. Organic material was removed
from the enamel powder by adding 0.1 ml per milligram of sample
of 2e3% aqueous NaOCl solution at 4  C for 24 h. Samples were then
rinsed in distilled water, vortex mixed and centrifuged at 8000 rpm
for ve minutes before the water was decanted for a total of ve
rinse, vortex, and centrifuge cycles. Any remaining solution was
removed with a micro-pipette and 0.1 ml per milligram of sample
of 0.1 M aqueous acetic acid was added and left for 4 h in order to
remove adsorbed carbonates. The exhausted acetic acid was then
decanted off using a micro-pipette and the sample was again rinsed
in distilled water, vortex mixed, and centrifuged at 8000 rpm for
ve minutes, for a total of ve cycles. Remaining liquid was
removed using a micro-pipette and samples were frozen in
a 20  C freezer overnight before being freeze-dried for approximately two hours to produce the nal apatite material. Freeze dried
samples were weighed to establish weight loss during pretreatment as it is customary to lose 40e50% of sample weight
during pre-treatment.
Samples were transferred to reaction vials and dried in an oven
at 50  C overnight. The vials were sealed with a screw cap holding
a septa and PCTFE washer to make a vacuum seal, and the samples
reacted with 100% orthophosphoric acid at 90  C using a Micromass
Multicarb Sample Preparation System. The carbon dioxide
produced was dried and transferred cryogenically into a VG SIRA
mass spectrometer for analysis in the Godwin Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge. The results are
expressed as d values (d18O) with respect to an internationally
agreed standard (VPDB) calibrated through the NBS19 Standard
(Coplen, 1995; Hoefs, 1997) and reported in permil (&). The
measurement uncertainty is better than 0.08& for 13C/12C and
better than 0.10& for 18O/16O.

6. Results
6.1. Collagen results
None of the bones sampled for collagen yielded enough testable material for isotopic analysis. As such, they will not be discussed in following sections.
6.2. Human enamel results
Tables 2and 4 summarize the d18O and d13C values for human
samples discussed in this paper. Six human enamel samples yielded
a mean d18OSMOW value of 27.39& with a standard deviation of 1.1
and a d18OSMOW range from 25.86 to 28.98&. Prowse et al. (2007)
determined the intra-population variation in d18O values to be
1& from the mean of a given expected local d18O signature
indicating that the studys values, while variable, are likely drawn
from the same population. d13CPDB values range from 10.95
to 12.2& with a mean value of 11.5& and a standard deviation
of 0.4. These values are likely drawn from the same population,
paralleling the d18O values.
6.3. Faunal enamel results
Tables 3and 4 summarize the d18O and d13C values for faunal
samples discussed in this paper.
Five faunal tooth enamel samples were analyzed for the study
(Table 4). The mean d18OSMOW values obtained for Dama, Bos, and
ovi-caprid specimens are 37.81&, 33.40&  0.93, and
32.52&  0.99, respectively. Bos specimens range from 32.73 to
34.06& and ovi-caprids range from 31.82 to 33.22&. The mean for
all species represented in analyzed Uyun al-Hammam assemblage
is 33.92  2.3. The large deviation is an obvious result of the
elevated value of the mean d13CPDB values for Dama, Bos, and ovicaprid specimens are 8.75&, 9.36&  0.5, and 10.8&  1.1,
respectively. Bos specimens range from 8.98 to 9.73& and ovicaprid specimens range from 10.04 to 11.55& (Table 4).
Table 4
Summary table of Uyun al-Hammam human and faunal tooth enamel isotopic
values (d13CPDB, d18OSMOW); all values are reported in parts per mil (&).
Species

d13CPDB

S.D.

d18OSMOW

S.D.

Homo
Dama
Bos
Ovicaprid
All fauna

6
1
2
2
5

11.5
8.75
9.36
10.8
9.81

0.43
e
0.53
1.07
1.11

27.39
37.81
33.4
32.5
33.92

1.11
e
0.94
0.99
2.32

Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034

A.L. Diaz et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2012) 1e9

7. Discussion

40.00

7.1. d18O values

38.00

-2.00
Modern Values - Irbid, Jordan

-3.00

18ODW()

34.00
32.00
30.00
28.00
26.00
HOMO

OVICAPRID

BOS

DAMA

Species
18

Fig. 3. Isotopic results for d OSMOW values of human and faunal specimens organized
by species.

isotopic composition of the source is a major factor in determining

d18O rain water. d18ODW variability could also result from the relative contribution of ingested water from the prolic artesian
aquifers throughout northwest Jordan.
When compared against the human samples, there appear to be
three distinct clusters of d18OC values; the human specimens, the
Bos and ovi-caprid specimens, and the single Dama specimen
(Fig. 3). The extremely enriched isotopic signal from the Dama
sample is notable, considering the relatively constrained variation
of the Bos and ovi-caprid specimens. Rather than the Dama sample
indicating an animal ingesting water from an incredibly hot and/or
arid locality, we argue it more likely demonstrates the evapotranspirative effects of leaf consumption, as deer receive most of
their water from leaves (Levin et al., 2006; Luz et al., 1990; Rowland,
2006). Leaf water can become isotopically-enriched as a result of
evaporation in arid conditions, resulting in d18O enrichment by
10e25& in comparison with stem and local meteoric water
(Cormie et al., 1994; Dongmann et al., 1974).
The hypotheses that can be tested from such a small sample set
are limited, and the hydrological and climatological variants discussed complicate interpretations further. However, the human
distribution appears to correlate generally with the expected
isotopic values estimated for the Middle Epipalaeolithic from speleothem values (Bar-Matthews and Ayalon, 2011; Bar-Matthews
et al., 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000), and the variability within them
correlates with the well-supported notion that Geometric Kebaran
groups were at least seasonally mobile; occupying and exploiting
territories with plausibly different isotopic signatures. With
mineralization ages of the sample teeth range between three to
eight years the isotopic variability demonstrates that as children,
these individuals ingested water with varying isotopic signatures,
possibly indicating movement across variable environs or indicating isotopic variability between water sources occurring within
a relatively conned area in the southern Levant.
7.2. d13C values

-4.00
-5.00
-6.00
-7.00

18OSMOW()

36.00

Middle Epipalaeolithic d18O values for drinking water derived

from speleothems in Soreq Cave, Israel, range from 7.1&
to 6.1&, which correlate with temperature increases (2e3  C) and
a gradual increase in precipitation during this time (Bar-Matthews
and Ayalon, 2011; Bar-Matthews et al., 1997, 1999, 2003). This paper
follows the previous literature in correcting d18O rain water values
by 1& when comparing against the human and faunal data (BarMatthews et al., 1996). Modern annual meteoric d18O values for
northwest Jordan range from 1.7& to 5.9& (IAEA/WMO, 2004),
while the seasonal variation in average d18Omw values is w4.2&.
Fig. 2 shows that human d18ODW values are generally located
around Epipalaeolithic speleothem d18ODW values, but there are
obvious deviations. Given the expected 1& intra-population
variation in d18O values (Prowse et al., 2007), it appears that at
least two individuals are outside of the expected normal distribution. However, the palaeo-isotopic signatures available for the
Epipalaeolithic in the Levant are neither temporally nor
geographically precise enough to attribute a specic d18O value to
a specic locale and time period and the Uyun al-Hammam burials
have associated dates spanning over one hundred years. Therefore,
it is less useful to make determinations of origin and more realistic
to discuss issues of mobility within a highly variable landscape.
The d18O composition of rain water measured along the Rift
Valley in Israel reveal three chemically differing systems with
similarly differing meteoric d18O signatures (Anker et al., 2007). If
similar isotopic trajectories existed during the Epipalaeolithic,
groups moving south or west from Uyun al-Hammam would ingest
water that was isotopically different than locally-ingested water.
The presence of marine shells at the site, as well as the noted
techno-typological and occupational similarities between Uyun alHammam and sites along the Coastal Plain, such as Neve David and
Hefzibah (Maher, 2007b), indicate interaction and potential
movement existed between these two sides of the valley.
The modern and speleothem d18O values also do not consider
altitudinal relationships and the source effect which can contribute
to d18O variation. Differences in altitude have been shown to result
in isotopically-depleted d18O values from w0.25 to 0.30& per
100 m (Bortolami et al., 1979). Elevational differences in occupation
would similarly inuence d18O such that the samples might appear
depleted relative to the normal distribution (Bortolami et al., 1979).
WZ4_6Ts apparently depleted d18O value (8.50&) would correspond to an elevation increase of approximately 1000 m. The
source effect, initially noted by Frumkin et al. (1999), shows that the

15 - 12 kya - Soreq Cave

-8.00
-9.00
WZ2_4T WZ7_9T WZ3_5T WZ1_AT WZ1_BT WZ4_6T

Sample
Fig. 2. Isotopic results for human d18ODW values organized by sample. d18OWATER values
estimated from speleothems indicated by dotted lines (data from Bar-Matthews et al.,
1997, 1999) and modern d18OWATER values indicated by dashed lines (IAEA/WMO,
2004).

The lower-limit input for ruminants representing a diet of pure

C3 vegetation in enamel is equivalent to a d13C value of 13& or
less (Cerling and Harris, 1999), while human end points determining C3 diets have been placed closer to 9& (Lee-Thorp and van
der Merwe, 1987). The faunal samples display a higher degree of
variation than the humans, suggesting that there was some input of
C4 plant material in the diet of these animals. However, in looking
at the individual species, the ovi-caprid samples fall comfortably
within the C3 range, with d13C values of 10.0& and 11.6&, while
the Bos and Dama samples, with values ranging from 9.7
to 8.8& appear to demonstrate the incorporation of C4 plant
isotopic signature into the diet (Fig. 4). Dama and Bos species are

Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034

A.L. Diaz et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2012) 1e9

-7.00

40.00
Increasing C4 diet

-8.00

38.00

18OSMOW()

13CPBP()

-9.00
-10.00
-11.00
-12.00
-13.00
-14.00

Pure C3 13C range

HOMO

36.00
34.00

Homo
Ovicaprid

32.00

Bos

30.00
OVICAPRID

BOS

Dama

DAMA

Species
Fig. 4. d13CPDB values of humans and faunal samples by species. C3 input range after
Lee-Thorp et al. (2003).

both mixed feeders (browsers and grazers), so the consumption of

both types of plants is reasonable. Unfortunately, faunal designations could not be made between Ovid or Capra species, and while
both taxa are mixed feeders, the environmental niches each would
occupy would inuence the relative consumption of C4 to C3 plants.
Fig. 4 shows that individuals buried at Uyun al-Hammam ate
a diet generally comprised of C3 plant values, while varying
amounts of C4 plant material was incorporated into faunal diets.
The human d13C values are consistent with d13C dietary values
generally characteristic of a C3 ecosystem (Lee-Thorp et al., 2003).
The relatively small variation (0.4; n 6) suggests that these values
demonstrate a similar diet for all the humans measured, with
minimal contributions of either C4 plants or animals ingesting C4
plants. As previously discussed, d13C values obtained from tooth
enamel reects the average dietary intake during the time of
mineralization and offers little insight into relative animal protein
versus plant resource consumption. Unfortunately, results from the
bone material tested, which would have provided that information,
were not reliable as bone has been diagenetically altered (Diaz,
2008). The material sampled for this study indicates that C4
ingesting resources, such as the Dama and Bos specimens represented in this study contributed less substantially to the isotopic
signature and thus to the diets of individuals buried at Uyun alHammam than purely C3 resources. However, due to the limited
context of faunal sampling for this study, values from only one
Dama sample were successfully obtained and this single set of
values is not necessarily reective of average Dama isotopic
signatures in the Epipalaeolithic. Similarly, no isotopic values for
Gazella or Cervidae sp. were obtained, limiting our comprehensive
understanding of regional baseline signatures. Essentially, C3 plant
foods and faunal resources, such as, but not limited to, the values
reected by ovi-caprid specimens sampled for this study, likely
formed the primary contribution towards the isotopic signature
and the diet of these individuals. This could reect a greater reliance on locally-derived food resources from the Mediterranean
Zone rather than in the relatively more arid Irano-Turanian steppe.
7.3. Middle Epipalaeolithic diet and mobility
The human samples from Uyun al-Hammam have mainly C3

d13C signatures and regionally variable, but consistent d18O values,

suggesting several interpretations regarding diet and mobility.

Variability in the d18O values of the faunal remains is paralleled to
a degree by the variable contributions of C4 plants into their
respective diets. Fig. 5 compares the isotopic results for d18O versus
d13C. The human samples have a tight tting regression line
(r2 0.932), and are very strongly inversely correlated (p 0.966,
0.002). The faunal remains, owing to high variability and a very

28.00
26.00
-13.00 -12.00 -11.00 -10.00

13C

-9.00

-8.00

PDB()

Fig. 5. Isotopic results for human and faunal samples comparing d18Osmow and d13Cpdb
values.

small sample size, are not correlated. Humans are characterized by

relatively depleted d18O and d13C values, though the relationship
results in higher, more enriched d18O values coupled with d13C
values characterizing a C3 environment. One of the ovi-caprid
samples is similarly positioned in terms of d13C values, but has
a relatively enriched d18O signature. The grouping of both Bos
specimens and the other ovi-caprid all have isotopic signatures
indicating consumption of C4 plants comprising the minority of the
diet and relatively enriched d18O values, possibly indicating the
ingestion of water within a hotter, more arid, or elevationally
different climate. Finally, the Dama specimen is extremely enriched
in d18O, indicating the ingestion of similarly enriched water. The
sample also exhibits the highest d13C value, suggesting the C4
contribution to the diet was nearly 25%.
With both values taken together, and in the context of palaeoenvironmental, settlement and subsistence frameworks, it seems
that the human samples represent a group that occupied
isotopically-dissimilar regions, corresponding to elevational or
regional movements within a C3-dominated environment. These
people may have travelled within the Mediterranean zone, and even
to the steppic regions, but their d18O values indicate they were not
living in hot and arid conditions, nor were they exploiting substantial
C4 vegetal resources or C4-ingesting animals. The inverse relationship between the two isotopic values is interesting and we would not
attribute d18O enrichment with higher temperatures but it could
result from a number of events, including elevational difference, the
source effect of evaporation from Lake Lisan and the Mediterranean
Sea and geothermal groundwater variation. The faunal variation in
both isotopic signatures relative to human values indicate that Epipalaeolithic populations, as represented by the individuals at Uyun
al-Hammam, exploited faunal resources differentially, with potentially more locally-derived taxa comprising higher proportions of
their diet. This does not preclude the ingestion of taxa with a stronger
C4 signature, such as the Dama sample, by Epipalaeolithic peoples,
but rather informs us of the relative importance of these resources to
their overall diet. Similarly, the primary reliance of C3 versus C4
vegetal resources is likely in Epipalaeolithic diets, though this cannot
be determined directly by the isotopes utilized in this study.
8. Conclusions
This study results in exciting data corroborating the idea of
increased Middle Epipalaeolithic sedentism in the Mediterranean
zone and exploitation of vegetal resources. However, it also

Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034

A.L. Diaz et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science xxx (2012) 1e9

highlights the limitations of isotopic work in the southern Levant

and areas where future research would aid in our understanding of
settlement and subsistence strategies within the Middle Epipalaeolithic. The failure of the bone collagen samples analyzed in
the study demonstrates the importance in acquiring reliable and
destructible sampling material. Middle Epipalaeolithic human
skeletal remains are extremely rare, and while teeth are viable in
terms of sampling, again, the rarity of them in the archaeological
record in the southern Levant precludes multiple, extensive analyses of individuals. However, further sampling of both botanical
and faunal resources from the same temporal and spatial contexts
as the human burials at Uyun al-Hammam would provide
a stronger baseline to compare the human values against. The
presence of numerous faunal assemblages from Early and Middle
Epipalaeolithic sites throughout the southern Levant is noteworthy
in this regard. Teeth within the assemblages could be analyzed for
seasonality, diet, and mobility, thus creating a more comprehensive
isotopic map of the region. Similarly, the effect of hydrological
effects on isotopic signatures is an area of research that has not
been explored, at least in relation to human isotope values. A
modern comparison of the inuence of various aquifer systems
throughout the Levant would help determine the effect these
would have had on prehistoric populations. Unfortunately there
does not appear to be much scope for isotope studies based on bone
collagen, which limits the potential for investigating the contribution of vegetal resources to Epipalaeolithic diet.
The incredibly variable nature of the southern Levant, culturally,
climatologically, and geographically, in addition to its placement
within prehistory as an origin point for agriculture and social
complexity, makes it a notoriously challenging, but perpetually
appealing area of study. The stable isotope analysis conducted on
individuals discovered at the Geometric Kebaran site of Uyun alHammam in northern Jordan support an interpretation of
restricted mobility within the Mediterranean zone that parallels
interpretations based on more indirect evidence, including lithic
assemblages and site densities. However, these results, and any
archaeological endeavour occurring within the Levant must be
placed within the contexts of the landscapes and cultures these
prehistoric groups occupied.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the excavation crew of D. Foran, K. Gibbs,
S. Kadowaki, and D. Macdonald for their expertise and care in
collecting human and animal bone samples. We also thank the
Director General of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan and our
local Department Representative Needal Hindawi for their support.
The authors also thank the anonymous referees for their advice and
comments which have improved the text. This research was funded
by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
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Please cite this article in press as: Diaz, A.L., et al., Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human
and faunal remains at Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan, Journal of Archaeological Science (2012), doi:10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.034